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What is Data?
Data is nothing but facts and statistics stored or free flowing over a network, generally it's raw and unprocessed. For
example: When you visit any website, they might store you IP address, that is data, in return they might add a cookie in
your browser, marking you that you visited the website, that is data, your name, it's data, your age, it's data.
Data becomes information when it is processed, turning it into something meaningful. Like, based on the cookie data
saved on user's browser, if a website can analyse that generally men of age 20-25 visit us more, that is information,
derived from the data collected.
What is a Database?
A Database is a collection of related data organised in a way that data can be easily accessed, managed and updated.
Database can be software based or hardware based, with one sole purpose, storing data.
During early computer days, data was collected and stored on tapes, which were mostly write-only, which means once
data is stored on it, it can never be read again. They were slow and bulky, and soon computer scientists realised that they
needed a better solution to this problem.
Larry Ellison, the co-founder of Oracle was amongst the first few, who realised the need for a software based Database
Management System.
What is DBMS?
A DBMS is a software that allows creation, definition and manipulation of database, allowing users to store, process and
analyse data easily. DBMS provides us with an interface or a tool, to perform various operations like creating database,
storing data in it, updating data, creating tables in the database and a lot more.
DBMS also provides protection and security to the databases. It also maintains data consistency in case of multiple users.
Here are some examples of popular DBMS used these days:
 MySql
 Oracle
 SQL Server
 IBM DB2
 PostgreSQL
 Amazon SimpleDB (cloud based) etc.

Characteristics of Database Management System

A database management system has following characteristics:
1. Data stored into Tables: Data is never directly stored into the database. Data is stored into tables, created inside the
database. DBMS also allows to have relationships between tables which makes the data more meaningful and
connected. You can easily understand what type of data is stored where by looking at all the tables created in a
database.
2. Reduced Redundancy: In the modern world hard drives are very cheap, but earlier when hard drives were too
expensive, unnecessary repetition of data in database was a big problem. But DBMS follows Normalisation which
divides the data in such a way that repetition is minimum.
3. Data Consistency: On Live data, i.e. data that is being continuosly updated and added, maintaining the consistency
of data can become a challenge. But DBMS handles it all by itself.
4. Support Multiple user and Concurrent Access: DBMS allows multiple users to work on it(update, insert, delete
data) at the same time and still manages to maintain the data consistency.
5. Query Language: DBMS provides users with a simple Query language, using which data can be easily fetched,
inserted, deleted and updated in a database.
6. Security: The DBMS also takes care of the security of data, protecting the data from un-authorised access. In a
typical DBMS, we can create user accounts with different access permissions, using which we can easily secure our
data by restricting user access.
7. DBMS supports transactions, which allows us to better handle and manage data integrity in real world applications
where multi-threading is extensively used.

Advantages of DBMS
 Segregation of applicaion program.
 Minimal data duplicacy or data redundancy.
 Easy retrieval of data using the Query Language.
 Reduced development time and maintainance need.
 With Cloud Datacenters, we now have Database Management Systems capable of storing almost infinite data.
 Seamless integration into the application programming languages which makes it very easier to add a database to
almost any application or website.

Disadvantages of DBMS
 It's Complexity
 Except MySQL, which is open source, licensed DBMSs are generally costly.
 They are large in size.

Components of DBMS
The database management system can be divided into five major components, they are:
1. Hardware
2. Software
3. Data
4. Procedures
5. Database Access Language

Let's have a simple diagram to see how they all fit together to form a database management system.

DBMS Components: Hardware

When we say Hardware, we mean computer, hard disks, I/O channels for data, and any other physical component
involved before any data is successfully stored into the memory.
When we run Oracle or MySQL on our personal computer, then our computer's Hard Disk, our Keyboard using which we
type in all the commands, our computer's RAM, ROM all become a part of the DBMS hardware.
DBMS Components: Software
This is the main component, as this is the program which controls everything. The DBMS software is more like a wrapper
around the physical database, which provides us with an easy-to-use interface to store, access and update data.
The DBMS software is capable of understanding the Database Access Language and intrepret it into actual database
commands to execute them on the DB.
DBMS Components: Data
Data is that resource, for which DBMS was designed. The motive behind the creation of DBMS was to store and utilise
data.
In a typical Database, the user saved Data is present and meta data is stored.
Metadata is data about the data. This is information stored by the DBMS to better understand the data stored in it.
For example: When I store my Name in a database, the DBMS will store when the name was stored in the database,
what is the size of the name, is it stored as related data to some other data, or is it independent, all this information is
metadata.
DBMS Components: Procedures
Procedures refer to general instructions to use a database management system. This includes procedures to setup and
install a DBMS, To login and logout of DBMS software, to manage databases, to take backups, generating reports etc.
DBMS Components: Database Access Language
Database Access Language is a simple language designed to write commands to access, insert, update and delete data
stored in any database.
A user can write commands in the Database Access Language and submit it to the DBMS for execution, which is then
translated and executed by the DBMS.
User can create new databases, tables, insert data, fetch stored data, update data and delete the data using the access
language.
Users
 Database Administrators: Database Administrator or DBA is the one who manages the complete database
management system. DBA takes care of the security of the DBMS, it's availability, managing the license keys,
managing user accounts and access etc.
 Application Programmer or Software Developer: This user group is involved in developing and desiging the parts
of DBMS.
 End User: These days all the modern applications, web or mobile, store user data. How do you think they do it? Yes,
applications are programmed in such a way that they collect user data and store the data on DBMS systems running
on their server. End users are the one who store, retrieve, update and delete data.

Understanding DBMS Architecture

A Database Management system is not always directly available for users and applications to access and store data in it.
A Database Management system can be centralised(all the data stored at one location), decentralised(multiple copies
of database at different locations) or hierarchical, depending upon its architecture.
1-tier DBMS architecture also exist, this is when the database is directly available to the user for using it to store data.
Generally such a setup is used for local application development, where programmers communicate directly with the
database for quick response.
Database Architecture is logically of two types:
1. 2-tier DBMS architecture
2. 3-tier DBMS architecture

2-tier DBMS Architecture

2-tier DBMS architecture includes an Application layer between the user and the DBMS, which is responsible to
communicate the user's request to the database management system and then send the response from the DBMS to the
user.
An application interface known as ODBC(Open Database Connectivity) provides an API that allow client side program to
call the DBMS. Most DBMS vendors provide ODBC drivers for their DBMS.

Such an architecture provides the DBMS extra security as it is not exposed to the End User directly. Also, security can be
improved by adding security and authentication checks in the Application layer too.
3-tier DBMS Architecture
3-tier DBMS architecture is the most commonly used architecture for web applications.

It is an extension of the 2-tier architecture. In the 2-tier architecture, we have an application layer which can be accessed
programatically to perform various operations on the DBMS. The application generally understands the Database Access
Language and processes end users requests to the DBMS.
In 3-tier architecture, an additional Presentation or GUI Layer is added, which provides a graphical user interface for the
End user to interact with the DBMS.
For the end user, the GUI layer is the Database System, and the end user has no idea about the application layer and the
DBMS system.
If you have used MySQL, then you must have seen PHPMyAdmin, it is the best example of a 3-tier DBMS architecture.
DBMS Database Models
A Database model defines the logical design and structure of a database and defines how data will be stored, accessed
and updated in a database management system. While the Relational Model is the most widely used database model,
there are other models too:
 Hierarchical Model
 Network Model
 Entity-relationship Model
 Relational Model

Hierarchical Model
This database model organises data into a tree-like-structure, with a single root, to which all the other data is linked. The
heirarchy starts from the Root data, and expands like a tree, adding child nodes to the parent nodes.
In this model, a child node will only have a single parent node.
This model efficiently describes many real-world relationships like index of a book, recipes etc.
In hierarchical model, data is organised into tree-like structure with one one-to-many relationship between two different
types of data, for example, one department can have many courses, many professors and of-course many students.
Network Model
This is an extension of the Hierarchical model. In this model data is organised more like a graph, and are allowed to have
more than one parent node.
In this database model data is more related as more relationships are established in this database model. Also, as the
data is more related, hence accessing the data is also easier and fast. This database model was used to map many-to-
many data relationships.
This was the most widely used database model, before Relational Model was introduced.

Entity-relationship Model
In this database model, relationships are created by dividing object of interest into entity and its characteristics into
attributes.
Different entities are related using relationships.
E-R Models are defined to represent the relationships into pictorial form to make it easier for different stakeholders to
understand.
This model is good to design a database, which can then be turned into tables in relational model(explained below).
Let's take an example, If we have to design a School Database, then Student will be an entity with attributes name, age,
address etc. As Address is generally complex, it can be another entity with attributes street name, pincode, city etc, and
there will be a relationship between them.
Relationships can also be of different types. To learn about E-R Diagrams in details, click on the link.

Relational Model
In this model, data is organised in two-dimensional tables and the relationship is maintained by storing a common field.
This model was introduced by E.F Codd in 1970, and since then it has been the most widely used database model, infact,
we can say the only database model used around the world.
The basic structure of data in the relational model is tables. All the information related to a particular type is stored in rows
of that table.
Hence, tables are also known as relations in relational model.
In the coming tutorials we will learn how to design tables, normalize them to reduce data redundancy and how to use
Structured Query language to access data from tables.
Basic Concepts of ER Model in DBMS
As we described in the tutorial Database models, Entity-relationship model is a model used for design and representation
of relationships between data.
The main data objects are termed as Entities, with their details defined as attributes, some of these attributes are
important and are used to identity the entity, and different entities are related using relationships.
In short, to understand about the ER Model, we must understand about:
 Entity and Entity Set
 What are Attributes? And Types of Attributes.
 Keys
 Relationships

Let's take an example to explain everything. For a School Management Software, we will have to
store Student information, Teacher information, Classes, Subjects taught in each class etc.
ER Model: Entity and Entity Set
Considering the above example, Student is an entity, Teacher is an entity, similarly, Class, Subject etc are also entities.
An Entity is generally a real-world object which has characteristics and holds relationships in a DBMS.
If a Student is an Entity, then the complete dataset of all the students will be the Entity Set
ER Model: Attributes
If a Student is an Entity, then student's roll no., student's name, student's age, student's gender etc will be its attributes.
An attribute can be of many types, here are different types of attributes defined in ER database model:
1. Simple attribute: The attributes with values that are atomic and cannot be broken down further are simple attributes.
For example, student's age.
2. Composite attribute: A composite attribute is made up of more than one simple attribute. For example,
student's address will contain, house no., street name, pincode etc.
3. Derived attribute: These are the attributes which are not present in the whole database management system, but
are derived using other attributes. For example, average age of students in a class.
4. Single-valued attribute: As the name suggests, they have a single value.
5. Multi-valued attribute: And, they can have multiple values.

ER Model: Keys
If the attribute roll no. can uniquely identify a student entity, amongst all the students, then the attribute roll no. will be
said to be a key.
Following are the types of Keys:
1. Super Key
2. Candidate Key
3. Primary Key

ER Model: Relationships
When an Entity is related to another Entity, they are said to have a relationship. For example, A Class Entity is related
to Student entity, becasue students study in classes, hence this is a relationship.
Depending upon the number of entities involved, a degree is assigned to relationships.
For example, if 2 entities are involved, it is said to be Binary relationship, if 3 entities are involved, it is said to
be Ternary relationship, and so on.
Working with ER Diagrams
ER Diagram is a visual representation of data that describes how data is related to each other. In ER Model, we
disintegrate data into entities, attributes and setup relationships between entities, all this can be represented visually using
the ER diagram.
For example, in the below diagram, anyone can see and understand what the diagram wants to convey: Developer
develops a website, whereas a Visitor visits a website.

Components of ER Diagram
Entitiy, Attributes, Relationships etc form the components of ER Diagram and there are defined symbols and shapes to
represent each one of them.
Let's see how we can represent these in our ER Diagram.
Entity
Simple rectangular box represents an Entity.

Relationships between Entities - Weak and Strong

Rhombus is used to setup relationships between two or more entities.
Attributes for any Entity

Ellipse is used to represent attributes of any entity. It is connected to the entity.

Weak Entity

A weak Entity is represented using double rectangular boxes. It is generally connected to another entity.

Key Attribute for any Entity

To represent a Key attribute, the attribute name inside the Ellipse is underlined.

Derived Attribute for any Entity

Derived attributes are those which are derived based on other attributes, for example, age can be derived from date of
birth.
To represent a derived attribute, another dotted ellipse is created inside the main ellipse.

Multivalued Attribute for any Entity

Double Ellipse, one inside another, represents the attribute which can have multiple values.

Composite Attribute for any Entity

A composite attribute is the attribute, which also has attributes.

ER Diagram: Entity
An Entity can be any object, place, person or class. In ER Diagram, an entity is represented using rectangles. Consider
an example of an Organisation- Employee, Manager, Department, Product and many more can be taken as entities in an
Organisation.

The yellow rhombus in between represents a relationship.

ER Diagram: Weak Entity
Weak entity is an entity that depends on another entity. Weak entity doesn't have anay key attribute of its own. Double
rectangle is used to represent a weak entity.

ER Diagram: Attribute
An Attribute describes a property or characterstic of an entity. For example, Name, Age, Address etc can be attributes
of a Student. An attribute is represented using eclipse.

ER Diagram: Key Attribute

Key attribute represents the main characterstic of an Entity. It is used to represent a Primary key. Ellipse with the text
underlined, represents Key Attribute.
ER Diagram: Composite Attribute
An attribute can also have their own attributes. These attributes are known as Composite attributes.

ER Diagram: Relationship
A Relationship describes relation between entities. Relationship is represented using diamonds or rhombus.

There are three types of relationship that exist between Entities.

1. Binary Relationship
2. Recursive Relationship
3. Ternary Relationship

ER Diagram: Binary Relationship

Binary Relationship means relation between two Entities. This is further divided into three types.
One to One Relationship
This type of relationship is rarely seen in real world.

The above example describes that one student can enroll only for one course and a course will also have only one
Student. This is not what you will usually see in real-world relationships.

One to Many Relationship

The below example showcases this relationship, which means that 1 student can opt for many courses, but a course can
only have 1 student. Sounds weird! This is how it is.

Many to One Relationship

It reflects business rule that many entities can be associated with just one entity. For example, Student enrolls for only
one Course but a Course can have many Students.

Many to Many Relationship

The above diagram represents that one student can enroll for more than one courses. And a course can have more than
1 student enrolled in it.
ER Diagram: Recursive Relationship
When an Entity is related with itself it is known as Recursive Relationship.

ER Diagram: Ternary Relationship

Relationship of degree three is called Ternary relationship.
A Ternary relationship involves three entities. In such relationships we always consider two entities together and then look
upon the third.

For example, in the diagram above, we have three related entities, Company, Product and Sector. To understand the
relationship better or to define rules around the model, we should relate two entities and then derive the third one.
A Company produces many Products/ each product is produced by exactly one company.
A Company operates in only one Sector / each sector has many companies operating in it.
Considering the above two rules or relationships, we see that although the complete relationship involves three entities,
but we are looking at two entities at a time.
The Enhanced ER Model
As the complexity of data increased in the late 1980s, it became more and more difficult to use the traditional ER Model
for database modelling. Hence some improvements or enhancements were made to the existing ER Model to make it able
to handle the complex applications better.
Hence, as part of the Enhanced ER Model, along with other improvements, three new concepts were added to the
existing ER Model, they were:
1. Generalization
2. Specialization
3. Aggregration

Let's understand what they are, and why were they added to the existing ER Model.
Generalization
Generalization is a bottom-up approach in which two lower level entities combine to form a higher level entity. In
generalization, the higher level entity can also combine with other lower level entities to make further higher level entity.
It's more like Superclass and Subclass system, but the only difference is the approach, which is bottom-up. Hence,
entities are combined to form a more generalised entity, in other words, sub-classes are combined to form a super-class.

For example, Saving and Current account types entities can be generalised and an entity with name Account can be
created, which covers both.
Specialization
Specialization is opposite to Generalization. It is a top-down approach in which one higher level entity can be broken
down into two lower level entity. In specialization, a higher level entity may not have any lower-level entity sets, it's
possible.

Aggregration
Aggregration is a process when relation between two entities is treated as a single entity.
In the diagram above, the relationship between Center and Course together, is acting as an Entity, which is in
relationship with another entity Visitor. Now in real world, if a Visitor or a Student visits a Coaching Center, he/she will
never enquire about the center only or just about the course, rather he/she will ask enquire about both.