Unit 1.

THE NATURE OF MATHEMATICS

1. Mathematics in our World

The book of nature is written in the language of mathematics.

Galileo Galilei

Objectives:

In this topic, the learners will able to:

 Identify patterns in nature and regularities in the world.

 Articulate the importance of mathematics in one’s life.
 Argue about the nature of mathematics, what it is, how it is expressed,
represented, and used.
 Express appreciation as a human endeavor.

Introduction

The body of knowledge and practice known as mathematics is derived from the
contributions of thinkers throughout the ages and across the globe. It gives us a way to
understand patterns, to quantify relationships, and to predict the future. Math helps us
understand the world — and we use the world to understand math. The world is
interconnected. Everyday math shows these connections and possibilities.

In this chapter, we will looking at patterns and regularities in the world, and how
mathematics come into play, both in nature and in human endeavors.

1.1. Patterns and Numbers in Nature of the World

Patterns are regular, repeated, or recurring forms or designs. Patterns are everywhere – from the
layout of floor tiles, designs of towers, to the way we tie our shoelaces. Studying patterns can
help in identifying relationships and finding logical connections to form generalizations and make
predictions.

Example 1: - Choose the image that completes the pattern.

Which
of the shapes below continues the sequence?

[1] [2] [3] [4] [5]

 Solution:

The logic: An X shape is dotted with black and white dots. Both sets of dots are independent and follow
a similar pattern. In each frame, a black dot is added counter-clockwise in the angles of the X shape,
until all the angles are occupied. Then a dot is reduced, also counter-clockwise.

The same pattern occurs with the white dots, only in a clockwise manner. Examining the changes
before and after, the “question mark” figure should look the same as in frame (2), only with an
additional black dot (making all four black dots present) and an additional white dot in the upper right
corner, as determined by the pattern.

Example 2: Choose the odd one out.

Solution:

The logic: In each square, two hearts are located on both sides of an arrow. It is insignificant whether
the hearts are located near the head of the arrow or near its tail. In all of the options except for option
2, the white heart is always to the right of the arrow, unrelated to the relative location of the arrow.
Option 2 breaks this pattern. The correct answer is 2.

Numerical series tests are a type of numerical aptitude test which requires to find the missing
number in a sequence. This missing number may be at the beginning or idle but usually at the
end.

Example 3. What number comes next in 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, ____?

Solution:

Looking at the given numbers, the sequence is increasing, with each term being two more than the
previous term: 3 = 1 + 2; 5 = 3 + 2; 7 = 5 + 2; 9= 7 + 2. Therefore, the next term should be 11 = 9 + 2.

Letter of the Alphabet as Numbers

Another type of number series question which appears in these tests involves the substitution of
letters of the alphabet for numbers. For example A=1, B=2 etc. It may seem strange to consider
these as number series questions but they do actually work in exactly the same way once you
have changed them back into numbers.

Example 4. What comes next in A, C, E, G, I, ___?

Solution:

Evaluating the given sequence of letters: A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K.

The correct answer is K.

Patterns are commonly observed in natural objects, such as the six-fold symmetry of snowflakes,
the hexagonal structure and formation of honeycombs, the tiger’s stripes and hyena’s spots, the
number of seeds in a sunflower, the spiral of a snail’s shell, and the number of petals of flowers.
Humans are hard wired to recognize patterns and by studying them, we discovered the
underlying mathematical principles behind nature’s designs.

Sample Figures:

Snowflake Honeycombs

Tiger’s stripe Hyena’s Spots

Snail’s Shell Seeds of Sunflower

Exponential Growth Model

Population growth and bacterial decay can be modeled by the exponential growth or decay
formula : 𝑨 = 𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒕 , where 𝑨 is the size of the population after it grows, 𝑷 is the initial number of
𝑨 𝑨
𝑨 𝐥𝐧( ) 𝐥𝐧( )
people; 𝑷 = , 𝒓 is the rate of growth; 𝒓 = 𝑷
, and 𝒕 is time; 𝒕 = 𝑷
. Recall further that 𝒆 is
𝒆𝒓𝒕 𝒕 𝒓
Euler’s constant with an approximate value of 2.718.

Example 5: The exponential growth model A = 30e0.02t describes the population of a city in the
Philippines in thousands, t years after thousand 1995.

a. What was the population of the city in 1995?

b. What will be the population in 2017?

Solution:

a. Since the exponential growth model describes the population t years after 1995, consider
1995 as t = 0 and then solve for A, the population size.
A = 30e0.02t
A = 30e0.02(0)
A = 30e0 = 30(2.718)0.02t = 30(1)
A = 30
Therefore, the city population in 1995 was 30,000.
b. A is unknown for the year 2017.To find t, we subtract 2017 and 1995 to get t = 22, which then
be substituted in the exponential growth model.
A = 30e0.02t
A = 30e0.02(22)
A = 30e0.44
A = 30 (2.718)0.44 = 30 (1.5526)
A = 46.5791
Therefore, the city population would be about 46, 579 in 2017.
 1.2. The Fibonacci Sequence

Source: https://barefootmarley.tumblr.com/post/42522308917

Sequence is an ordered list of numbers, called terms, which may have repeated values. The
arrangement of these terms is set by a definite rule. The terms of a sequence could be generated
by applying the rule to previous terms of the sequence.

Example 1. Analyze the given sequence for its rule and identify the next three terms.

a. 1, 10, 100, 1000

b. 2, 5, 9, 14, 20

Solution:

a. Considering the given set of numbers, it can be observed that each term is a power of 10: 1 = 100,
10 = 101, 100 = 102, and 1,000 = 103. Following this rule, the next three terms are: 104 = 10,000,
105 = 100,000, and 106 = 1,000,000.
b. Evaluating the given sequence of numbers, it can be noticed that it has a difference between the
first and second term (2 and 5) is 3. The second and third terms (5 and 9) is 4. The third and fourth
terms is (9 and 14) is 5. And the fourth and fifth terms is (14 and 20) is 6. Therefore, the next three
terms are: 20 +7 = 27, 27 + 8 = 35, and 35 + 9 = 44.

Leonardo Fibonacci discovered the sequence which converges on phi.

His real name was Leonardo Pisano Bogollo, and he lived between 1170
and 1250 in Italy. "Fibonacci" was his nickname, which roughly means "Son
of Bonacci".
In the 1202 AD, Fibonacci wrote his book “Liber Abaci” of a simple
numerical sequence that is the foundation for an incredible mathematical
relationship behind ), also known as the Golden Ratio. This sequence
was known as early as the 6th century AD by Indian mathematicians, but
it was Fibonacci who introduced it to the west after his travels throughout
the Mediterranean world and North Africa.
Starting with 0 and 1, each new number in the sequence is simply the sum of the two numbers
before it.

The Fibonacci Sequence can be written as a "Rule"

First, the terms are numbered from 0 onwards like this:
n= 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 ...
xn = 0 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377 ...
So term number 6 is called x6 (which equals 8).

Written as a rule, the expression is: Xn = Xn-1 + Xn-2

where:
xn is term number "n"
xn-1 is the previous term (n-1)
xn-2 is the term before that (n-2)

ExampleSolution:
2. The 8th term is the 7th term
plus the 6th term: Xn = Xn-1 + Xn-2
X10 = X10-1 + X10-2 = = X9 + X8
x8 = x7 + x6X10 = 34 + 21
X10 = 55
Thus, the answer is 55

Example 3. Find the tenth term in the Fibonacci sequence?

Golden Ratio

The relationship of the Fibonacci sequence to the golden ratio is this: The ratio
of each successive pair of numbers in the sequence approximates Phi (1.618.
. .), as 5 divided by 3 is 1.666…, and 8 divided by 5 is 1.60.

The bigger the pair of Fibonacci Numbers, the closer the approximation. Let
us try a few:

A B B/A
2 3 1.5
3 5 1.666666666...
5 8 1.6
8 13 1.625
... ... ...
144 233 1.618055556...
233 377 1.618025751...
Using the Golden Ratio to Calculate Fibonacci Numbers
To calculate any Fibonacci number using the Golden Ratio, we will apply this formula:

where: n = number of terms

𝜑 = 1.618…

Example 4. Find the tenth term of the Fibonacci number?

Solution:
𝜑𝑛− (1−𝜑)𝑛
Xn =
√5
(1.618)10 − (1−1.618)10 122.9660− (−0.618)10
X10 = = = 54.9957 ≈55
√5 √5
Hence, the 10th term is 55

The Fibonacci Spiral and the Golden Ratio

The Fibonacci sequence is often visualized in a graph. Each of the squares illustrates the area of
the next number in the sequence. The Fibonacci spiral is then drawn inside the squares by
connecting the corners of the boxes.

𝑎 𝑏

The
squares
fit
𝑎

𝑎+𝑏 𝑎
= 𝑏 = 1.618034 together perfectly
because the ratio𝑎 between the numbers in the Fibonacci sequence is
very close to the golden ratio, which is approximately 1.618034. The larger the numbers in the
Fibonacci sequence, the closer the ratio is to the golden ratio. The spiral and resulting rectangle
are also known as the Golden Rectangle.

Recommended for further learning, view or cite:

https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=golden+ratio+%3D+mind+blowing%21

https://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=why+is+1.618034+so+important%3F
 1.3. Mathematics for our World

In the previous units, it is evident how mathematics play a vital role in the natural world, precisely in
how the patterns follow logical and mathematical structures. It is, therefore, important that
mathematical concepts and apply in solving societal problems.

Mathematics helps organize patterns and regularities in the world. It help predict the behavior of nature
and phenomena in the world, as well as helps humans exert control over occurrences in the world for
the advancement of civilization.

References:

Aufmann, R. et al. 2018, Mathematics in the Modern World. Rex Nook Store, Inc.

Asiasociety.org. 2020. Understanding the World Through Math.

https://asiasociety.org/education/understanding-world-through-math

Bradstreet, Amy. 2020. Filling my need to hunt and gather...

https://barefootmarley.tumblr.com/post/42522308917

Mathfun.com. 2020. Fibonacci-sequence. https://www.mathsisfun.com/numbers/fibonacci-

sequence.html

Meisner, G. What is the Fibonacci

2013. Sequence (aka Fibonacci Series)?.
https://www.goldennumber.net/fibonacci-series/

Velasquez, R. 2017. What Is The Fibonacci Sequence? And How It Applies To Agile Development.
https://elearningindustry.com/fibonacci-sequence-what-is-and-how-applies-agile-
development
 Unit 2. SPEAKING MATHEMATICALLY

2. Mathematical Language and Symbols

The Universe is a grand book which cannot be read until one first learns to comprehend
the language and become familiar with the characters in which it is composed. It is
written in the language of mathematics…
Galileo Galilei

Objectives:

In this topic, the learners will able to:

 Introduce mathematical wat of thinking that can serve in a wide variety of

situation.
 Understand and apply language of variables that expresses mathematical ideas
clearly, precisely, and unambiguously.
 Introduce the concept of sets, relations, and functions.

2.1. Variables

A variable is sometimes thought of as a mathematical “John Doe” because you can use it as a
placeholder when you want to talk about something but either (1) you imagine that it has one
or more values but you don’t know what they are, or (2) you want whatever you say about it to
be equally true for all elements in a given set, and so you don’t want to be restricted to
considering only a particular, concrete values for it. The advantage of using a variable is that it
allows you to give a temporary name to what you are seeking so that you can perform concrete
computations with it to help discover its possible values.

Example:
(In sentence) Is there a number with following property: doubling it and adding 3 gives the
same result as squaring it?
(Replacing variables) Is there a number x with the property that 2x + 3 = x 2 ?

Example 1:
a. Are there numbers with the property that the sum of their squares equals the square of their
sum?
Solution: Are there numbers a and b with the property that a2 + b2 = (a + b)2?
Or: Are there numbers a and b that a2 + b2 = (a + b)2?
Or: Do there exist any numbers a and b such that a2 + b2 = (a + b)2?
b. Given any real number, its square is nonnegative.
Solution: Given any real number r, r2 is non negative.
Or: For any real number r, r2 ≥ 0.
Or: For all real number r, r2 ≥ 0.

SOME IMPORTANT KINDS OF MATHEMATICAL STATEMENTS

A. Universal Statement says that a certain property is true for all elements in a set. A well-
written universal statement should include one of the universal quantifiers: all, every, and
each.
Example: All positive numbers are greater than zero.
B. Conditional statement says that if one thing is true then some other thing also has to be true.
The conditional statements contain versions of the words “if-then.”.
Example 1: If 378 is divisible by 18, then 378 is divisible by 6.
Example 2: If you get good grades then you will get into a good college.
C. Existential statement says that there is at least one thing for which the property is true. The
following are the existential quantifiers: "for some", "there exists", "there is a", or "for at least
one".
Example 1: There is a prime number that is even.

Some examples of existential statements are –

a. There exists a natural number n, such that n x n = 36
b. There exists an integer z, such that z2=25
c. There is at least one number n, belonging to a set of Natural numbers, such that
axn=a

We can express such statement in a more concise and legible way –

a. ∃ n ∈ ℕ, ∋ n.n = 36
b. ∃ n ∈ ℤ, ∋ z2 = 25
c. ∃ n ∈ ℕ, ∋ a.n = a

A quick reference of the symbols used and their meanings follows -

∃ - there exists
∈ - belongs to
∋ - such that
ℕ - The set of natural numbers 1 to infinity
ℤ - The set of integers { -infinity .... -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, .... infinity}
∀ - For all values of

Universal Conditional Statement is a statement that is both universal and conditional. One of
the most important facts about universal conditional statements is that they can be written in
ways that make them appear to be purely universal or purely conditional.

Example: For all animals 𝑎, if 𝑎 is dog, then 𝑎 is a mammal.

Rewriting a Universal Conditional Statement

For example, the previous statement can be written in a way that makes its conditional nature
explicit but its universal nature implicit:

If 𝑎 is a dog, then 𝑎 is a mammal.

Or: If an animal is a dog, then the animal is a mammal.

Example 1: Fill in the blanks to rewrite the following statement:

A. For all real numbers x, if x is nonzero then x2 is positive.
a. If a real number is nonzero, then its square _________.
b. For all nonzero real numbers x, _________.
c. If x _____, then______.
d. The square of any nonzero real number is _______.
e. All nonzero real numbers have________.

Solution:
a. is positive
b. x2 is positive
c. is a nonzero real number; x2 is positive
d. positive
e. positive squares (or: squares that are positive)

Universal Existential Statement is a statement that is universal because its first part says that a
certain property is true for all objects of a given type, and it is existential because its second part
asserts the existence of something.
Example: Every real number has an additive inverse.

In this statement the property “has an additive inverse” applies universally to all real numbers.
“Has an additive inverse” asserts the existence of something – an additive inverse – for each real
number. However, the nature of the additive inverse depends on the real number; different real
numbers have different additive inverses. Knowing that an additive inverse is a real number, you
can rewrite this statement in several ways, some less formal and some more formal:

Example in Rewriting a Universal Existential Statement

A. All real numbers have additive inverses.

Or: For all real numbers , there is an additive inverse of 𝑟 .

Or: For all real numbers 𝑟, there a real numbers 𝑠 such that 𝑠 is additive inverse for 𝑟.

Introducing names for the variables simplifies references in further discussion. For instance, after
the third version of the statement you might go on to write: When 𝑟 is positive, s is negative, when
𝑟 is negative, 𝑠 is positive, and when 𝑟 is zero, 𝑠 is also zero.

One of the most important reasons for using variables in mathematics is that it gives you the
ability to refer to quantities unambiguously throughout a lengthy mathematical argument, while
not restricting you to consider only specific values for them.

B. Fill in the blanks to rewrite the following statement:

1. Every pot has a lid.
a. All pots have lids.
b. For all pots 𝑉, there is a lid for 𝑉
c. For all pots 𝑉, there is a lid 𝑃 such that 𝑃 is a lid for V.

2. All bottles have cap.

a. Every bottle have cap.
b. For all bottles 𝑀, there is a cap for 𝑁.
c. For all bottles M, there is a cap 𝑁 such that 𝑁 is a cap for 𝑀.

Existential Universal Statement is a statement that is existential because its first part asserts that a
certain object exists and it’s universal because its second part says that the object satisfies a
certain property for all things of a certain kind.

For example:
There is a positive integer that is less than or equal to every positive integer.

This statement is true because the number one is a positive integer, and it satisfies the property
of being less than or equal to every positive integer. To rewrite the statement in several ways,
some less formal and some more formal as follows:

Example in Rewriting an Existential Universal Statement

Some positive integer is less than or equal to every positive integer.
𝑂𝑟: There is a positive integer 𝑚m that is less than or equal to every positive integer.
𝑂𝑟: There is a positive integer 𝑚 such that every positive integer is greater than or equal to m.
𝑂𝑟: There is a positive integer 𝑚 with the property that for all positive integers 𝑛, 𝑚 ≤ 𝑛.

Problem/Solution:
A. Fill in the blanks to rewrite the following statement in three different ways:
There is a person in my class who is at least as old as every person in my class.
 a. Some person in my class is at least as old as every person in my class.
b. There is a person 𝑝, in my class such that 𝑝 is at least as old as every person in my
class.
c. There is a person 𝑝 in my class with the property that for every person q in my class,
𝑝 is at least as old as 𝑞.

2.2. The Language of Sets (SET THEORY)

Definition. A set is a (unordered) collection of (unique) objects. These objects are sometimes
called elements or members of the set (Cantor's naive definition). This means that {1, 2, 3} is a set
but {1, 1, 3} is not (a multi-set) because 1 appears twice in the second collection. A multi-set is a
set where you specify the number of occurrences of each element: {m 1 · a1, m2 · a2, . . . , mr · ar}
is a set where m1 occurs a1 times, m2 occurs a2 times, etc.

Some standard notations to represent sets:

N : the set of natural numbers= {0, 1, 2, 3, · · · }
W: the set of whole numbers
Z or I: the set of integers = {· · · , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, · · · }
Z + : the set of positive integers
Z - : the set of negative integers
Q: the set of rational numbers
R: the set of real numbers
C: the set of complex numbers

Some notations:

Other frequently used symbols are:

Representation of Sets

A. Roster method (Tabular form)

In this method a set is represented by listing all its elements, separating these by commas
and enclosing these in curly bracket. If V be the set of vowels of English alphabet, it can be
written in Roster form as: V = {a, e, i, o, u}.

Note: To write a set in Roster form elements are not to be repeated i.e. all elements are taken
as distinct. For example if A be the set of letters used in the word mathematics, then A = {m, a, t,
h, e, i, c, s}

Example: Set A is the set of positive integers less than 7.

A={1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, is in the Roster form.
B. Set-builder form
 An alternative way to define a set, called set builder notation, is by stating a property
(predicate) P(x) verified by exactly its elements, for instance A = {x ∈ Z | 1 ≤ x ≤ 5} = “set of integers
x such that 1 ≤ x ≤ 5”—i.e.: A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. In general: A = {x ∈ U | p(x)}, where U is the universe
of discourse in which the predicate P(x) must be interpreted, or A = {x | P(x)} if the universe of
discourse for P(x) is implicitly understood. In set theory the term universal set is often used in place
of “universe of discourse” for a given predicate.
Note: Symbol '│' read as 'such that'

Example: Set A is the set of positive integers less than 7.

A={𝑥 ∈ 𝑍 + │1 ≤ 𝑥 < 7}

Definition of Terms

A. Universal Set. In set theory the term universal set is often used in place of “universe of
discourse” for a given predicate or the set of all possible objects. The universal set is
commonly written 𝒰. A set which is a universal set for one problem may not be a universal
set for another problem.

B. Principle of Extension. Two sets are equal if and only if they have the same elements, i.e.:
𝐴 = 𝐵 ≡ ∀𝑥 (𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ↔ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵
For example: {2, 3, 5, 7} = {3, 2, 7, 5} since a set is unordered.
Also, {2, 3, 5, 7} = {2, 2, 3, 3, 5, 7} since a set contains unique elements.
However, {2, 3, 5, 7} ≠ {2, 3}.

C. Subset. A is said to be a subset of B and we write A ⊆ B if and only if every element of A is also
an element of B. We say that A is a subset of set B, or A is contained in B, and we represent it
“A ⊆ B”, if all elements of A are in B, e.g., if A = {a, b, c} and B = {a, b, c, d, e} then A ⊆ B.

For example: If A = {a, b, c} then A has eight different subsets:

∅ {a} {b} {c} {a, b} {a, c} {b, c} {a, b, c}

Theorem. For any set S,

1. ∅ ⊆ S and S ⊆ S

Some Basic Facts:

A is a proper subset of B, represented “A ⊂ B”, if A⊆ B but A ≠B, i.e., there is some element in B
which is not in A.
Example: A = {1,2,3} B = {1,2,3,4,5}
Is: A ⊂ B ? Yes.

D. Empty Set. A set with no elements is called empty set (or null set, or void set), and is
represented by 𝜙 or { }.

E. Power Set. The collection of all subsets of a set A is called the power set of A, and is
represented 𝒫(A).
For instance, if A = {1, 2, 3}, then
For example, Let A = {a, b, c} then the power set is
P(S) = {∅, {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {a, c}, {b, c}, {a, b, c}}
 Note that the empty set and the set itself are always elements of the power set.

F. Cardinality of a set is its size. For a finite set, the cardinality of a set is the number of members
it contains. In symbolic notation the size of a set S is written |S|.
Example: V={1 2 3 4 5} | V | = 5
A={1,2,3,4, …, 20} |A| =20
|∅|=0

G. Finite and Infinite Set. A set is said to be finite if its elements can be counted and it is said to
be infinite if it is not possible to count up to its last element.

Let A and B be two sets where

A = {x │ x is a natural number}
B = {x │ x is a student of your school}

As it is clear that the number of elements in set A is not finite (infinite) while number of elements
in set B is finite. A is said to be an infinite set and B is said to be is finite set.

H. Singleton Set. A set which has only one element is known as singleton.

Consider the following set:

A = {x │x is an even prime number}

As there is only one even prime number namely 2, so set A will have only one element. Such a
set is said to be singleton. Here A = {2}.

I. Disjoint Sets. Two sets are called disjoint if their intersection is empty or A and B are disjoint if
and only if A ∩B = ∅.

Example: A= {1,2,3,6} B= {4,7,8} Are these disjoint? Yes, since A ∩B = ∅.

Venn Diagrams
Venn diagrams are graphic representations of sets as enclosed areas in the plane. Diagrams
make mathematics easier because they help us to see the whole situation at a glance. The
English mathematician John Venn (1834–1923) began using diagrams to represent sets. His
diagrams are now called Venn diagrams.
For example if U= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, A = {2, 4} and B = {1, 3}, then these sets can be represented
as

Word Problems

1. A travel agent surveyed 100 people to find out how many of them had visited the cities of
Melbourne and Brisbane. Thirty-one people had visited Melbourne, 26 people had been to
Brisbane, and 12 people had visited both cities. Draw a Venn diagram to find the number of
people who had visited:
a. Melbourne or Brisbane
b. Brisbane but not Melbourne
c. only one of the two cities
d. neither city.

Solution:
Let 𝑀 be the set of people who had visited Melbourne, and let 𝐵 be the set of people who had
visited Brisbane. Let the universal set 𝐸 be the set of people surveyed.

The information given can be rewritten as:

|𝑀| = 31 |𝐵| = 26 |𝑀 ∩ 𝐵| = 12 and |𝐸 | = 100

Hence number in 𝑀 only = 31 – 12 = 19
And number in 𝐵 only = 26 – 12 = 14

a. Number visiting Melbourne or Brisbane = 19 +14 + 12 = 45

b. Number visiting Brisbane only = 14
c. Number visiting only one city = 19 + 14 = 33
d. Number visiting neither city = 100 – 45 = 55

2. Twenty-four people go on holidays. If 15 go swimming, 12 go fishing, and 6 do neither, how

many go swimming and fishing? Draw a Venn diagram and fill in the number of people in all
four regions.

Solution:
Since only 18 people are involved in swimming or fishing and 15 + 12 = 27, there are 9 people
who go swimming and fishing.

Set Operations

A. Intersection: The common elements of two sets:

𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = {𝑥 | (𝑥 ∈ 𝐴) ∧ (𝑥 ∈ 𝐵)}.
If A ∩ B = ∅, the sets are said to be disjoint.

Example: A = {1,2,3,6} B = { 2, 4, 6, 9}
A ∩B = { 2, 6 }

B. Union: The set of elements that belong to either of two sets:

𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {𝑥 | (𝑥 ∈ 𝐴) ∨ (𝑥 ∈ 𝐵)} .

Suppose
S = {1, 2, 3}, T = {1, 3, 5}, and U = {2, 3, 4, 5}.
S ∪ T = {1, 2, 3, 5}, S ∪ U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, and T ∪ U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

C. Complement: The set of elements (in the universal set) that do not belong to a given set.
It can be represented as 𝐴̅ , A’ or Ac:
 Let the universal set be U= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, then the complement of S = {1, 2, 3} is Sc = {4, 5}
while the compliment of T = {1, 3, 5} is Tc = {2, 4}.

D. Difference or Relative Complement: The set of elements that belong to a set but not to
another or the difference of sets A and B, denoted by A \ B (or A − B) is the set containing
those elements that are in A but not in B.

Consider the sets

A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and B= {2, 4, 6}.

A-B= {1, 3, 5} B -A = {6}

E. Symmetric Difference: Given two sets, their symmetric difference is the set of elements
that belong to either one or the other set but not both. The symmetric difference is written
A∆B or ⨁𝐵 . In curly brace notation:
𝐴 ∆ 𝐵 = 𝐴⨁𝐵 {(𝐴 − 𝐵) ∪ (𝐵 − 𝐴}

Example 1: If 𝐴 = {1,2,3} and 𝐵 = {3,4,5} ,

then 𝐴 △ 𝐵 = {1,2,4,5}.

Operators Precedence Rules

a. Other things being equal, operations are performed left-to-right.
b. Operations between parentheses are done first, starting with the innermost of nested
parenthesis.
c. All complementation are computed next.
d. All intersections are done next.
e. All unions are performed next.
f. Tests of set membership and computations, equality or inequality are performed last.

Properties of Sets
The set operations verify the following properties:

1. Associative Laws:
𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∪ 𝐶
𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∩ 𝐶

2. Commutative Laws:
𝐴 ∪𝐵 = 𝐵∪ 𝐴
 𝐴 ∩𝐵 = 𝐵 ∩ 𝐴

3. Distributive Laws:
𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∩ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐶)
𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∪ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐶)

4. Identity Laws:
𝐴 ∪ ∅ = 𝐴
𝐴 ∩ 𝒰 = 𝐴

5. Complement Laws:
𝐴 ∪ 𝐴̅ = 𝒰
𝐴 ∩ 𝐴̅ = ∅

6. Idempotent Laws:
𝐴 ∪𝐴 = 𝐴
𝐴 ∩ 𝐴 = 𝐴

7. Bound Laws:
𝐴 ∪𝒰 = 𝒰
𝐴∩∅=∅

8. Absorption Laws:
𝐴 ∪ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ) = 𝐴

𝐴 ∩ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 ) = 𝐴

9. Involution Law: 𝐴̿ = 𝐴

10. 0/1 Laws:

̅=𝒰
∅

𝒰̅ = ∅
11. De Morgan’s Laws:
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = 𝐴̅ ∩ 𝐵̅
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = 𝐴̅ ∪ 𝐵̅

Ordered Pair

Given elements a and b, the symbol (a, b) denotes the ordered pair consisting of a and b
together with specification that a is the first element of the pair and b is the second element.
Two ordered (a, b) and (c, d) are equal if, and only if, a=c and b=d. Symbolically:

(a, b) = (c, d) if a=c and b=d

Example:
a. Is (1,2)= (2,1)? No
5 1
b. Is (3, 10) = (√9, 2) ? Yes
c. What is the first element of (1,1)? Both 1

Cartesian Product

Given sets A and B, the Cartesian product of A and B, denoted A x B and read “A cross B” is the
set of all ordered pairs (𝑎, 𝑏), where 𝑎 is in A and 𝑏 is in B. Symbolically:
A x B = {(a, b) │a ∈ 𝐴 and b ∈ 𝐵}.

Example:
S = {1,2} and T = {a, b, c}
• S x T = {(1, a), (1, b), (1, c), (2, a), (2, b), (2, c)}
• T x S = {(a, 1), (a, 2), (b, 1), (b, 2), (c, 1), (c, 2)}

Cardinality of the Cartesian product

|S x T| = |S| * |T|.

Example:
A= {John, Peter, Mike} B = {Jane, Ann, Laura}
A x B= {(John, Jane), (John, Ann) , (John, Laura), (Peter, Jane), (Peter, Ann) , (Peter, Laura) ,
(Mike, Jane) , (Mike, Ann) , (Mike, Laura)}
|A x B| = 9

Unit 3. PROBLEM SOLVING AND REASONING

3. Problem Solving
 Never be afraid of solving a math problem! Because it’s easier to get a solution here than
in the life problems!
Kruthika Chidambaranathan

Objectives:

In this topic, the learners will able to:

 Use different types of reasoning to justify statements and arguments made about
mathematics and mathematical concepts.
 Write clearly and use logical proofs appropriately.
 Organize one’s method and approaches for proving and solving problems.

3.1. INDUCTIVE AND DEDUCTIVE REASONING

A. Inductive reasoning- the process of reaching a general conclusion by examining specific

examples. The conclusion formed by using inductive reasoning is a conjecture, since it
may or may not be correct.

Example 1. Use Inductive Reasoning to Predict a Number

a. 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, ?
b. 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, ?

Solution:
1. Each successive number is 3 larger than the preceding number. Thus we predict that the
next number in the list is 3 larger than 15, which is 18.
2. The first two number differ by 2. The second and the third numbers differ by 3. It appears
that the difference between any two numbers is always 1 more than the preceding
difference. Since 10 and 15 differ by 5, we predict that the next number in the list will be
larger than 15, which is 21.

Example 2. Use Inductive Reasoning to Make a Conjecture

Consider the following procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 8, add 6 to the
product, divide the sum by 2, and subtract 3.
Complete the above procedure for several different numbers. Use inductive reasoning
to make a conjecture about the relationship between the size of the resulting number
and the size of the original number.

Solution:
Suppose we pick 5 as our original number. Then the procedure would produce the
following results:
Original number : 5
Multiply by 8 : 8 x 5 = 40
Add 6 : 40 + 6 = 46
Divide by 2 : 46 / 2 = 23
Subtract 3 : 23 – 3 = 20
We started with 5 and followed the procedure to produce 20. Starting with 6 as our original
number produces a final result of 24. Starting with 10 produces a final result of 40. Starting with
100 produces a final result of 400. In each cases the resulting number is four times the original
number. We conjecture that following the given procedure produces a number that is four times
the original number.
Example 3. Draw a circle then count the number of regions formed by the line segment that
connect the dots on the circle. Tally the results using table, and tell us what have you observed
from number of dots 1-5 and after continue until 7 then make conclusion.

B. Deductive reasoning- the process of reaching a conclusion by applying general

assumptions, procedures, or principles.

Example 4. Use Deductive Reasoning to Establish a Conjecture

Use deductive reasoning to show that the following procedure produces a number that is four
times the original number:
Procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 8, add 6 to the product, divide the sum by 2,
and subtract 3.

Example 5. Determine Types of Reasoning.

Determine whether each of the following arguments is an example of inductive reasoning or
deductive reasoning.
 a. During the past 10 years, a tree has produced plums every other year. Last year the tree
did not produce plums, so this year the tree will produce plums.
b. All home improvements cost more than the estimate. The contractor estimated that my
home improvement will cost $35,000. Thus my home improvement will cost more than
$35,000.
Solution:
1. This argument reaches a conclusion based on specific examples, so it is an example of
inductive reasoning.
2. Because the conclusion is a specific case of a general assumption, this argument is an
example of deductive reasoning.

COUNTEREXAMPLES

A statement is true statement provided that it is true in all cases. If you can find one case for
which a statement is not true, called a counterexample, then the statement is false statement.

Example 6. Find a Counterexample

Verify that each of the following statements is a false statement by finding a counterexample.
For all numbers x:
a. |𝑥 |>0
b. 𝑥 2 > 𝑥
c. √𝑥 2 = 𝑥

LOGIC PUZZLES

 A logic puzzle is a puzzle deriving from the mathematics field of deduction.

Example 1. Miss Anne has eleven kids in her class. She has a bowl containing eleven apples. Now
Miss Anne want to divide the eleven apples to the kids, in such a way that a apple should remain
in her bowl. How can Miss Anne do it?

Answer: Ten kids will get each one apple. The eleventh kid will get the apple with the bowl.

Example 2. Two fathers took their sons to a fruit stall. Each man and son bought an apple, but
when they returned home, they had only 3 apples. They did not eat, lost, or thrown. How could
this be possible?

Answer: There were only three people. Son, his father and his grandfather.

Example 3.
 Answer:
From the detectives code 0415 7140 7718
Each 4 digits may represent one name
Here 7718 mirror image represent BILL.

Example 4. Each of four neighbours, Sean, Maria, Sarah and Brian, has a different occupation
(editor, banker, chef, or dentist). From the following clues, determine the occupation of each
neighbour.
1. Maria gets home from work after the banker but before the dentist.
2. Sarah, who is the last to get home from work, is not the editor.
3. The dentist and Sarah leave for work at the same time.
4. The banker lives next door to Brian.
KENKEN® PUZZLES

KENKEN® is an arithmetic-based logic puzzles that was invented by the Japanese mathematics
teacher Tetsuya Miyamoto in 2004. The noun “ken” has “knowledge” and “awareness” as
synonyms. Hence, KenKen translates as knowledge squared, or awareness squared. KenKen
puzzles now appear in many popular newspaper, including the New York Times and the Boston
Globe. KenKen puzzles are similar to Sudoku puzzles, but they also require you to perform
arithmetic to solve the puzzle.

Rules for Solving a KenKen Puzzle

1. For a 3 by 3 puzzle, fill in each box (square) of the grid with one of the numbers 1, 2 or 3.
2. For a 4 by 4 puzzle, fill in each square of the grid with one of the numbers 1, 2, 3 or 4.
3. For a 𝑛 by 𝑛 puzzle, fill in each square of the grid with one of the numbers 1, 2, 3, …, 𝑛.
4. Grids range in size from a 3 by 3 up to a 9 by 9.
5. Do not repeat a number in any row or column.
6. The numbers in each heavily outlined set of squares, called cages, must combine (in
some order) to produce the target number in the top left corner of the cage using the
mathematical operation indicated.
7. Cages with just one square should be filled in with the target number.
8. A number can be repeated within a cage as long as it is not in the same row or column.

Basic Puzzle Solution Strategies

1. Fill in any one-box cages first. No thinking required on this one, as the number in the box
is the one you write in [source: McCarthy].
2. Next, look for any cages where there's only one solution. A "3+" cage can only mean
numbers one and two. Although you don't know which number goes where, your choices
are limited [source: McCarthy].
3. Find cages with unique answers (which are easier to solve) by looking for target numbers
that are quite high or low, given the number of cubes in the cage. For example, if you
have a 6-by-6 puzzle with a two-cube cage that requires the large sum of 11, all you can
use is a five and six. Similarly, if your 6-by-6 puzzle has a three-cube cage that needs a
product of 10, the only possibility is one, two and five [source: Stephey].
4. Remember, every number in your puzzle must be placed in every row and column. If
you're stumped arithmetically, use Sudoku logic (which is explained here)
[source: Shortz].
5. Try a 3-by-3 puzzle first; those are the easier ones [source: Shankland].
6. Successful players tend to focus on cages with prime numbers, which have a limited
number of possible solutions [source: Lewis].

Here is a sample KenKen puzzle and its solution.

 Unit 4. MATHEMATICS AS A TOOL

4. Data Management

Data is a precious thing and will last longer than the system themselves.
Tim Berbers - Lee

Objectives:

In this topic, the learners will able to:

 Use a variety of statistical tools to process and manage numerical data.

 Use methods of linear regression and correlations to predict the value of a
variable given certain conditions
 Advocate the use of statistical data in making important decisions.

4.1. Data Gathering and Organizing Data

STATISTICS is a collection of methods for planning experiments, obtaining data, and then
analyzing, interpreting and drawing conclusions based on the data.

Data are measurements or observations that are gathered for an event under study.

Statistics as an academic discipline stresses analysis of data to facilitate the process of decision
making. It is used to analyze the results of surveys, and as a tool in scientific studies, to make
decisions based on controlled experiments.

It has two aspects: theoretical and applied. The theoretical aspect deals with the development,
derivation, and proof of statistical theorems, formulas, rules, and laws. Applied statistics involves
the application of those theorems, rules, and laws to solve real-world problems.

 Types of Statistics:

Descriptive statistics – summarizes or describes the important characteristics of a known set of

data. For example, the National Statistics Office conducts surveys to determine the average
age, income, and other characteristics of the Filipino population.

Inferential statistics – uses sample data to make inferences about a population. It consists of
generalizing from samples to populations, performing hypothesis testing, determining
relationships among variables, and making predictions. This kind of statistics uses the concept of
probability – the chance of an event to happen.

 Terms commonly used:

Population – the complete and entire collection of elements to be studied

Sample – a representative subgroup or subset of a population
Parameter – a numerical measurement describing some characteristics of a population
Statistic - a numerical measurement describing some characteristics of a sample

 Level of Measurement

1. Nominal Level
This is characterized by data that consist of names, labels, or categories only. The data
cannot be arranged in an ordering scheme. There is no criterion as to which values can be
 identified as greater than or less than other values. Example, classifying the students in a
university as male or female, no ranking can be placed on the data.

2. Ordinal Level
This involves data that may be arranged in some order, but differences between data values
either cannot be determined or meaningless. An example is the grading system involving
letters (A, B, C, D, F).

3. Interval Level
This is the same as the ordinal level, with an additional property that we can determine
meaningful amount of differences between the data. Data at this level may lack an inherent
zero starting point. For example, temperature is an interval measurement. There is a
meaningful difference in one degree between each unit such as 80 and 81 degrees. But a
zero degree temperature does not mean that there is no heat.

4. Ratio Level
This is an interval level modified to include the inherent zero starting point. The difference and
ratios of data are meaningful. This is also the highest level of measurement. An example
would be the measure of height, weight, or area. There is a meaning between values, and
a true zero exists.

 Data Collection and Sampling Techniques

Data can be collected in different ways. The most common is through survey – telephone,
mailed-questionnaire, or personal interview. There are also other methods of collecting data:
surveying records or direct observation.

Four Basic Methods of Sampling

1. Random Sampling
This is done by using chance methods or random numbers. For example, number each
subject in the population. Place each number in a bowl, and select as many card numbers
as needed. The subjects whose numbers are selected composes the sample.

2. Systematic Sampling
This is done by numbering each subject of the population and then selecting every kth
number. For example, there are 5000 families in a city. Fifty families are needed as sample for
an experiment. Since 5000 / 50 = 100, then k = 100. This means that every 100 th subject would
be selected. However, the first subject would be selected at random from subjects 1 to 100.
Suppose the subject 88 was selected, then the sample would consist of subjects whose
numbers were 88, 188, 288 and so on until 50 families were obtained.

3. Stratified Sampling
If a population has distinct groups, it is possible to divide the population into these groups.
The group are called strata, it is designed so that members in each strata are more
homogenous, that is, more similar to each other. The results are then grouped together to
form the sample. This technique is particularly useful in population that can be stratified into
groups by gender, race, or geography.

4. Cluster Sampling
This method uses intact groups called clusters. Suppose a medical researcher wants to study
the patients in Bohol. It would be very costly and time-consuming to obtain a random sample
since they would be spread over different parts in Bohol. Rather, a few hospital could be
selected at random and the patients in these hospitals would be studied in a cluster.
 4.2. Measures of Central Tendency or Average

Measures of Central Tendency – it is often helpful to find numerical values that locate, in some
sense, the center of a set of data.

Types of averages:

1. Arithmetic mean – the most commonly used measure of central tendency. The arithmetic
mean of a set of numbers is often referred to as simply the mean. To find the mean for a set
of data, find the sum of the data values and divide by the number of data values.
In statistics it is often necessary to find the sum of a set of numbers. The traditional symbol
used to indicate a summation is the Greek letter sigma, ∑. Thus the notation ∑x, called
summation notation, denotes the sum of all the numbers in a given set. The use of summation
notation enables us to define the mean as follows.

Statisticians often collect data from small portions of a large group in order to determine
information about the group. In such situations the entire group under consideration is known as
the population, and any subset of the population is called a sample. It is traditional to denote
the mean of a sample by x̄ (which is read as "x bar") and to denote the mean of a population
by the Greek letter µ (lowercase mu).

Example: Six friends in a biology class of 20 students received test grades of : 92, 84, 65, 76, 88,
and 90.
∑x 92+84+65+76+88+90 495
Solution: x̄ = = = = 82.5
𝑛 6 6

2. Median - the middle number or the mean of the two middle numbers in a list of numbers that
have been arranged in numerical order from smallest to largest or from largest to smallest.
Any list of numbers that is arranged in numerical order from smallest to largest or from largest
to smallest is a ranked list.

Example: Find the median of the data in the following lists.

a. 4, 8, 1, 14, 9, 21, 12
b. 46, 23, 92, 89, 77, 108

Solution:

a. The list 4, 8, 1, 14, 9, 21, 12 contains 7 numbers. The median of a list with an odd number
of entries is found by ranking the numbers and finding the middle number. Ranking
the numbers from smallest to largest gives 1, 4, 8, 9, 12, 14, 21
The middle number is 9. Thus 9 is the median.
b. The list 46, 23, 92, 89, 77, 108 contains 6 numbers. The median of a list of data with an
even number of entries is found by ranking the numbers and computing the mean of
the two middle numbers. Ranking the numbers from smallest to largest gives 23, 46,
77, 89, 92, 108
 The middle numbers are 77 and 89. The mean of 77 and 89 is 83. Thus 83 is the median
of the data.

3. Mode is the number that occurs most frequently.

Example: Find the mode of the following data: 18, 15, 21, 16, 15, 14, 15, 21
Solution: The number 15 occurs more often than the other numbers. Thus 15 is the mode.

The Weighted Mean

A value called the weighted mean is often used when some data values are more important
than others. For instance, many professors determine a student's course grade from the student's
tests and the final examination. Consider the situation in which a professor counts the final
examination wore as 2 test scores. To find the weighted mean of the student's scores, the
professor first assigns a weight to each score. In this case the professor could assign each of the
test scores a weight of 1 and the final exam score a weight of 2. A student with test scores of 65,
70, and 75 and a final examination score of 90 has a weighted mean of

Data that has not been organized or manipulated in any manner is called raw data. A large
collection of raw data may not provide much pertinent information that can be readily
observed. A frequency distribution, which is a table that lists observed events and the frequency
of occurrence of each observed event, is often used to organize raw data. For instance, consider
the following table, which lists the number of laptop computers owned by families in each of 40
homes in a subdivision.

Raw data:
Frequency Distribution:

Example. Find the mean of the data.

4.3. Measures of Dispersion

The previous section focused on averages or measures of central tendency. The averages
are supposed to be central scores of a given set of data. However, not all features of a
given data set may be reflected by the averages.

 Range

The simplest measure of dispersion to calculate. It is just the difference between the
largest and the smallest value in a given data set. It has a disadvantage of being
influences by extreme values called outliers. Another is that it is based on two values
only. All the other values in the set are being ignored.

 Standard Deviation

The range of a set of data is easy to compute, but it can be deceiving. The range is a
measure that depends only on the two most extreme values, and as such it is very
sensitive. A measure of dispersion that is less to extreme values is the standard deviation.
The standard deviation of a set of numerical data makes use of the individual amount
that each data value deviates from the mean. These deviations, represented by (x — x̄),
are positive when data value x is greater than the x and are negative When x is less than
the mean x. The sum of all the deviations (x — x̄) is 0 for all sets of data. Because the sum
of all the deviations or the data values from the mean is always 0, we cannot use the sum

29
of the deviations as a measure of dispersion for a set of data. Instead, the standard
deviation uses the sum of squares of the deviations.

Example. The following were obtained by sampling a population.

2, 4, 7, 12, 15

Find the standard deviation of the sample.

Solution:
Step I: The mean of the numbers is

Step 2. For each number, calculate the deviation between the number and the mean.

Step 3. Calculate the square of e ach of the deviation in Step 2, and find the sum of these
squared deviations.

30
Step 4. Because we have a sample of n = 5 values, divide the sum 118 by n – 1, which is
4.
118
= 29.5
4

Step 5. The standard deviation of the sample is 𝑠 = √29.5. To the nearest hundredths, the
standard deviation is 𝑠 = 5.43.

 Variance

A statistic known as the variance is also used as a measure of dispersion. The variance for
a given set of data is the square of the standard deviation of the data. The following chart
shows the mathematical notations that are used to denote standard deviations and
variances.

In the previous example, 𝑠 = √29.5. The variance is the square of the standard deviation.
Thus the variance is 𝑠 2 = (√29.5)2 = 29.5.

31
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