Summary: General Mathematics

1. Arithmetic:

 Basics: The core of arithmetic involves working with numbers and the four basic

operations: addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. These operations

are used to perform calculations and solve simple problems.

 Fractions: Represent parts of a whole and are expressed as one number over

another (e.g., ½). Operations with fractions include adding, subtracting,

multiplying, and dividing. To add or subtract fractions, you need a common

denominator. To multiply or divide, you work directly with the numerators and

denominators.

 Decimals: Represent fractions with denominators that are powers of 10. For

example, 0.75 is the decimal equivalent of ¾. Operations with decimals are

similar to those with whole numbers, but you must align the decimal points

correctly.

2. Algebra:

 Expressions: Combinations of numbers, variables (like x or y), and operations

(like + or -). For example, 3x + 5 is an algebraic expression.

 Equations: Mathematical statements that show the equality of two expressions.

For instance, 2x + 3 = 7 is an equation. Solving equations involves finding the

value of the variable that makes the equation true.

  Polynomials: Algebraic expressions with multiple terms, such as 2x2+3x−52x^2

+ 3x - 52x2+3x−5. Polynomials are categorized by the number of terms

(monomials, binomials, trinomials) and their degree (highest power of the

variable). Operations with polynomials include addition, subtraction,

multiplication, and factoring.

 Linear Equations: Equations that graph as straight lines. They have the form

ax+b=cax + b = cax+b=c, where aaa, bbb, and ccc are constants. The slope of

the line represents the rate of change, and the y-intercept is where the line

crosses the y-axis.

3. Geometry:

 Basic Shapes: Includes understanding properties and characteristics of shapes

like triangles, squares, rectangles, and circles. Each shape has specific

attributes, such as angles, sides, and symmetry.

 Area: The measure of the space inside a shape. For example, the area of a

rectangle is calculated as width × height. The area of a circle is π times the

square of the radius (A=πr2A = πr^2A=πr2).

 Perimeter: The distance around a shape. For example, the perimeter of a

rectangle is the sum of all its sides: 2×(width+height)2 \times (width +

height)2×(width+height). For a circle, the perimeter is known as the

circumference (C=2πrC = 2πrC=2πr).

  Volume: The amount of space inside a 3-dimensional shape. For example, the

volume of a cube is side³, and the volume of a cylinder is π times the square of

the radius times the height (V=πr2hV = πr^2hV=πr2h).

4. Trigonometry:

 Angles: Measured in degrees or radians, angles are fundamental to

trigonometry. Right-angled triangles are used to explore relationships between

angles and side lengths.

 Trigonometric Functions: Include sine (sin), cosine (cos), and tangent (tan).

These functions relate the angles of a right triangle to the lengths of its sides. For

example, sin⁡(θ)=oppositehypotenuse\sin(\theta) = \frac{\text{opposite}}{\

text{hypotenuse}}sin(θ)=hypotenuseopposite.

 Applications: Used to solve problems involving triangles and modeling periodic

phenomena, such as waves.

5. Calculus:

 Limits: Concept used to understand the behavior of functions as they approach

a particular point. Limits help in defining derivatives and integrals.

 Derivatives: Measure how a function changes as its input changes. The

derivative of a function gives the slope of the function at any point, which is

crucial for analyzing rates of change.

  Integrals: Used to calculate areas under curves and to find accumulated

quantities. The integral of a function represents the total accumulation of a

quantity, which can be visualized as the area under the function's graph.

6. Statistics and Probability:

 Descriptive Statistics: Involves summarizing and describing the features of a

data set using measures like mean (average), median (middle value), mode

(most frequent value), and standard deviation (spread of data).

 Probability: The study of how likely events are to occur. Basic concepts include

experiments (actions with uncertain outcomes), outcomes (possible results of an

experiment), and events (specific outcomes or sets of outcomes). Probability is

expressed as a number between 0 and 1, where 0 means an event will not

happen and 1 means it will certainly happen.

7. Number Theory:

 Prime Numbers: Natural numbers greater than 1 that have no positive divisors

other than 1 and themselves. Examples include 2, 3, 5, and 7. Primes are

fundamental in number theory and cryptography.

 Factors and Multiples: Factors are numbers that divide another number exactly

without leaving a remainder. Multiples are numbers obtained by multiplying a

number by integers. For example, factors of 12 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, and 12, while

multiples of 3 include 3, 6, 9, 12, etc.

8. Mathematical Logic:
  Statements and Truth Values: Mathematical logic involves statements that can

be either true or false. Analyzing these statements helps in understanding logical

arguments and proofs.

 Proofs: Logical arguments used to show the truth of mathematical statements.

Proof techniques include direct proofs (demonstrating a statement directly),

proofs by contradiction (assuming the opposite to show a statement must be

true), and proofs by induction (proving a base case and showing that if a

statement is true for one case, it is true for the next).

Key Concepts:

 Problem-Solving: Involves applying mathematical methods and concepts to

solve various types of problems, from simple calculations to complex theoretical

issues.

 Functions: Relationships between sets of numbers where each input (domain)

has a unique output (range). Functions can be linear (forming straight lines),

quadratic (parabolas), exponential, etc.

 Graphs: Visual representations of mathematical equations and functions. Graphs

help to visualize relationships between variables and can be used to solve

equations and understand trends.