Course Code: 2010253104

Course Name: Principles of Engineering Physics

Semester:1

Unit 1 Part – 1 (Semiconductor)

1.1. Introduction: Conductors, Insulators, and Semiconductors

Conductors  Materials with many free electrons. These electrons can easily
be made to flowthrough the material.
 all metals, semi-metals like carbon-graphite, antimony and
arsenic
Insulators  Materials that have very few free electrons.
 plastic, glass, and wood
Semiconductors  These materials lie between the extremes of good conductors
and good insulators. They are crystalline materials that are
insulators when pure but will conduct whenan impurity is
added and/or in response to light, heat, voltage, etc.
 Examples: elements like silicon (Si), germanium (Ge),
selenium (Se); compounds
 like gallium arsenide (GaAs) and indium antimonide (InSb)

Semiconductor Materials

1. Semiconductors are group of materials having electrical conductivities intermediate

between metal and insulator.
2. The conductivity of these materials can be varied by changes in temperature, optical
excitation and impuritycontent.
3. This variability of electrical properties makes the semiconductor materials natural
choices for electronic deviceinvestigation.
4. Semiconductor materials are found in column IV and neighboring column of periodic
table. The column IVsemiconductor are called elemental semiconductor because they
are composed of single species of atom.
5. The elemental semiconductor Ge was widely used in the early days of semiconductor
development for transistors and diodes. Silicon is now used majority in transistors,
rectifiers and integrated circuits.
In addition to elemental material, compounds of column III and V also can make up
compound semiconductor. Most

Concept of energy bands:

The electrons in an isolated atom occupy discrete energy levels. When atoms are
close to each other these electrons can use the energy levels of their neighbors. When
the atoms are all regularly arranged in the crystal lattice of a solid, the energy levels
become grouped together in a band. This is a continuous range of allowed energies

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rather than a single level. There will also be groups of energies that are not allowed, in
what is known as a band gap.
An atomic orbital of one atom may overlap with an atomic orbital of another atom
forming two molecular orbitals. One, called the bonding molecular orbital, is of low
energy and the other with higher energy is called the anti-bondingmolecular orbital.

When two identical atoms are brought closer together, the quantized energy
levels hybridize and split into two different levels because of the mutual interaction
of the two atoms. More generally, when N atoms are moved closer,until they reach the
equilibrium inter-atomic distance d, the energy levels split into N levels. These N levels
are veryclose to each other if N is large (which is the case in a crystal) so that they
eventually form a continuous energy band. Let's now consider silicon atoms arranged
in a periodic lattice, but with a very large lattice parameter (or inter-atomicdistance),
in order to first consider each atom as isolated. The two levels with the highest energy
are labeled E1 andE2. Now let's shrink the atom lattice: energy levels split and form
two continuous bands known as the conductionband CB and the valence band VB,
Figure 1.1 shows the formation of these bands as a function of the inter-atomic
distance.

Figure.1.1. Formation of energy bands for electrons in a silicon crystal.

In a silicon crystal, two continuous energy bands exist (CB and VB), separated by a
forbidden band, which is not accessible for electrons. This forbidden region is called the
gap and its width Eg is a characteristic of the material. The lowest energy level of the
conduction band is denoted EC and the highest energy level of the valence band is called
EV so that we have the relationship Eg=EC-EV. The conduction and valence bands CB
and VB represent the energies accessible to electrons, or the energies of the states
potentially occupied by electrons: they do not provide any information about the
effective occupation of the energy states by electrons.

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Insulators: The valence band of insulators remains full of electrons. The conduction
band of those materials remains empty. The forbidden energy gap between the
conduction band and the valence band is the widest. The difference is morethan 10ev.
Crossing the forbidden energy gap from valence band to conduction band large amount
of energy is needed.

Conductors: In conductors, as shown in figure 1.2(c) shows the energy band of good
conductor or metal. The valenceband and the conduction band is attached here on
overlap each other. There is no forbidden energy gap here so Eg=0. At absolute zero
temperature large number of electrons remains in the conduction band. The resistance
of conductor is very low; large number charge carriers are available here. So, the
electricity can pass easily through the conductors.

Semiconductors: Semiconductors are those materials whose electrical conductivity is

between conductors and insulators. The forbidden energy gap of a semiconductor is
nearly same as insulator. The energy gap is narrower. The value of Eg =1.1eV for silicon
crystal and Eg =0.7eV for germanium at 0k temperature. It can easily overcome due to
thermal agitation or light. A semiconductor remains partially full valence band and
partially full conduction band at the room temperature. The conduction band remains
full empty of a semiconductor where the valence band remains full of electrons at
absolute zero temperature. So, silicon and germanium are insulators at absolute zero
temperature. On the other hand, with the increasing of temperature the electrical
conductivity of semiconductors increases.

Insulator Semiconductor Conductor

Figure.1.2. Energy band diagram for insulator, semiconductor and conductors

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Concept of Holes
When an electron leaves its position in the crystal lattice, there is a space left
behind that is positively charged. This lack of an electron is called a positive hole.
This hole may be filled by an electron from a neighboring atom, which will in turn
leave a hole there. Although it is technically the electron that moves, the effect is the
same as if it was the hole that moved through the crystal lattice. The hole can then
be thought of as a positive charge carrier.

Intrinsic Semiconductor:
A semiconductor material in its purest form is known as an intrinsic semiconductor.
An intrinsic semiconductor behaves as an insulator at 0 K but acts as a conductor at 300
K (room temperature). At room temperatures due to the thermal generation of electron-
hole pairs, free electrons & holes are generated in equal numbers, these mobile charges
help in the conduction of current in an intrinsic semiconductor. Since electron-hole pairs
that are responsible for conduction of current in an intrinsic semiconductor are internal
to the semiconductor crystal, the material is known as an intrinsic semiconductor.

Doping:
At low temperatures, intrinsic semiconductors are insulators since the number of
electrons and holes is diminished.At absolute zero, an intrinsic semiconductor would
have no electrons in the conduction band. However, the most important semiconductors
are of the extrinsic type, where some impurity (another element) has been intentionally
added in the solid to increase the conductivity. The conduction in a semiconductor can
be changed via doping. Dopingis the introduction of foreign atoms such as B or As in Si.

Extrinsic Semiconductor:
An extrinsic semiconductor is obtained by doping an intrinsic Semiconductor with
trivalent or pentavalent impurity atoms. Depending upon the valency of the impurity
atoms added we obtain either p- type or n-type extrinsic semiconductor. The
concentration of dopant ranges from 1013 /cm3 to 1017/cm3. Since the number of pure
atoms is usually about 1023/cm3, it is clear that the dopant concentrations are about 1
ppm to 0.1 ppb.

N-Type semiconductor:
Doping can produce two types of semiconductors depending upon the element
added. If the element used for doping has at least one more valence electron than the
host semiconductor i.e. pentavalent, then an n-type (negative type) semiconductor is
created. Silicon is a group IV element on the periodic chart and has four electrons in its
outermost shell. When silicon is doped with arsenic (As), a group V element, the arsenic
atoms replace silicon atoms at a small number of points on the crystal lattice. Since
arsenic has 5 electrons in its outer shell, it adds a loosely-bound “extra” electron to the
crystal. This extra electron (often called a “donor” electron) is easily excited into the
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conduction band as a freely roaming current carrier. Doping with donors: ND (donor
concentration) gives an n-type semiconductor.Thus the density of free electrons nn is
larger than the density of free holes pn in an n-type material.

Figure.1.2. N-Type semiconductor

P-Type semiconductor:
If the semiconductor is doped with an element having at least one less electron than
the host material i.e. trivalent,then a p-type (positive type) semiconductor is formed. If
Silicon is doped with an element from group III of the periodic table, such as gallium
(Ga), the impurity has only three electrons in its outermost shell so there is a deficiency
of one electron at every point where a gallium atom replaces a silicon atom. This is called
an “acceptor site” since thegallium would very much like to have a fourth electron to
complete its bonds. The gallium often “steals” an electron from a neighboring silicon
atom leaving a “hole” or empty state in the valence band of the silicon. This “hole” is free
to roam around in the valence band and effectively acts as a positive charge carrier.
Doping with acceptors: NA (acceptor concentration) gives a p-type material. The density
of free holes pp is larger than the density of free electrons np

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Figure.1.3. P-Type semiconductor

1.2. Charge carriers in semiconductor

For the intrinsic material, since electrons and holes are always created in pairs,n = p =ni
where ni is the symbol for” intrinsic carrier concentration.” (Same density of free
electrons and holes in an intrinsic semiconductor).
N-Type Semiconductor:
As the activation energy is low, at room temperature almost all of the donor atoms
included in the crystal will give an electron to the conduction band. So if ND is the donor
concentration, for an n-type material at equilibrium: n0 ≈ ND [ 1 /cm3 ]

P-Type Semiconductor:
The activation energy is low, at room temperature almost all of the acceptor atoms
included in the crystal will accept an electron from the valence band. So if NA is the
acceptor concentration, for a p-type material at equilibrium: p0 ≈ NA [ 1/ cm3 ]

PN junction Diode:
If a junction between P-type and N-type semiconductor material is created within a
single crystal, in such a way that the crystalline structure is preserved across the
junction, the result is a junction diode. Electrons from the N- region migrate across the
junction into the P-region, filling holes as they go. This creates a net charge build-up
around the junction positive in the N-region and negative in the P-region leading to an
internal electric field as shown. Since the diode is a two-terminal device, the application
of a voltage across its terminals leaves three possibilities:
 No bias (VD = 0 V),
 Forward bias (VD>0 V),
 Reverse bias (VD< 0 V).

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Figure.1.8. Formation of depletion region

Formation of Depletion Region:
At the instant of the PN junction formation free electrons near the junction diffuse
across the junction into the P regionand combine with holes. Filling a hole makes a
negative ion and leaves behind a positive ion on the N side. These twolayers of positive
and negative charges form the depletion region, as the region near the junction is
depleted of charge carriers. As electrons diffuse across the junction a point is reached
where the negative charge repels any further diffusion of electrons. The depletion region
now acts as a barrier.

Barrier Potential
The electric field formed in the depletion region acts as a barrier. External energy
must be applied to get the electrons to move across the barrier of the electric field. The
potential difference required to move the electrons through the electric field is called
the barrier potential. Barrier potential of a PN junction depends on the type of
semiconductor material, amount of doping and temperature. This is approximately 0.7V
for silicon and 0.3V for germanium. Once the holes are filled, the junction region
becomes devoid of charge carriers and thus acts as an insulator, preventing further
current flow.

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Energy Diagrams of PN Junction.

The valence band and conduction band in N-Type material are slightly lower than
that of P-Type material.

Figure.1.9. Energy diagram of PN junction

As diffusion occur the depletion region forms and the energy level of the N region
conduction band drops, causing alignment of the top of the N region conduction band
and the bottom of the P region conduction band. At this point the energy bands are at
equilibrium as shown in figure 1.9. There is an energy gradient across the depletion
region thatN region electron must climb to get to the P region.
VI Characteristics of PN Diode
When the P-type material is at a more positive voltage than the N-type material, the
diode is said to be ‘forward- biased’; this corresponds to V > 0 in Fig.1.9 When the P-type
material is more negative than the N-type material, the diode is said to be ‘reverse-
biased’; this corresponds to V < 0 in Fig.1.15.

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Breakdown Mechanism:
1) Zener effect: when VZ < 5 V
 As electric field increases, covalent bonds begin to break:
new hole-electron pairs arecreated
 Electrons are swept into n side and holes into p side
 At V=VZ very large number of carriers are generated and large
reverse current appears
 We can control over the value of reverse current
 Voltage is capped at V=VZ
2) Avalanche effect: when Vz > 7 V
 Ionizing collision: under electric field minority charge
carriers (electrons in p side andholes in n side) collide with
atoms and break covalent bonds
 Resulting carriers have high energy to cause more carriers
to be liberated in furtherionizing collision
 Process keeps repeating as avalanche
 We can control over the value of reverse current
 Voltage is capped at V=VZ

Zener Diode:
The Zener diode is also a P-N junction diode (silicon), the difference being that it has
a sharp and well-defined breakdown under reverse biased condition. This breakdown
voltage Vz is known as the Zener breakdown voltage. The Zener voltage can be
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precisely set by controlling doping level of P and N materials of the Zener during the
manufacturing process.
Under forward bias condition, the Zener diode behaves like a normal Silicon rectifier
diode. The Zener diode is operated only beyond reverse breakdown region. When the
junction breaks down, current flows through it. This heavy current may be due to Zener
breakdown or Avalanche break down phenomenon or both.
In the breakdown region, the voltage drop across the Zener diode is constant
irrespective of current through it. This property of Zener diode makes it useful as a
voltage-regulating device.

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The circuit diagram to plot the VI characteristics of a Zener diode is shown. Zener diode
is a special diode with increased amounts of doping. This is to compensate for the
damage that occurs in the case of a pn junction diode whenthe reverse bias exceeds the
breakdown voltage and thereby current increases at a rapid rate.
Applying a positive potential to the anode and a negative potential to the cathode of the
Zener diode establishes a forward bias condition. The forward characteristic of the
Zener diode is same as that of a pn junction diode i.e. as the applied potential increases
the current increases exponentially. Applying a negative potential to the anode and
positivepotential to the cathode reverse biases the Zener diode.
As the reverse bias increases, the current increases rapidly in a direction
opposite to that of the positive voltageregion. Thus, under reverse bias condition
breakdown occurs. It occurs because there is a strong electric filed in the region of the
junction that can disrupt the bonding forces within the atom and generate carriers. The
breakdown voltage depends upon the amount of doping. For a heavily doped diode
depletion layer will be thin and breakdown occurs at low reverse voltage and the
breakdown voltage is sharp. Whereas a lightly doped diode has a higher breakdown
voltage.
The maximum reverse bias potential that can be applied before entering the zener
region is called the Peak Inverse Voltage referred to as PIV rating or the Peak Reverse
Voltage Rating (PRV rating).

Identification of diode:

A diode is marked with a bar which indicates the cathode terminal of a diode which is as

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shown in the figure below:

2.1. Voltage Regulation:

Voltage regulation is “the ratio of voltage drops from no load to the full load to the
no load voltage”. There are two ways to express the voltage regulation. One is
voltage regulation up and another isvoltage regulation down.
Consider formula for voltage regulation:

Here Vnl is the no load voltage and Vfl is the full load voltage.

Series voltage regulator

The series voltage regulator operates by using a variable element in series with the
load. By changingthe resistance of the series element, the voltage dropped across it can
be varied to ensure that the voltage across the load remains constant.

Figure.2.19. Series Regulator

The advantage of the series voltage regulator is that the amount of current drawn
is effectively thatused by the load, although some will be consumed by any circuitry
associated with the regulator. Unlike the shunt regulator, the series regulator does
not draw the full current even when the load does not require any current. As a result,
the series regulator is considerably more efficient.

2.6.1. Shunt voltage regulator

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The load is operated with a resistor in series with the voltage source and the shunt
regulator then in parallel with the load. In order to keep the voltage across the load
constant, a level of current must be drawn through the series resistor to maintain the
required voltage across the load. The load will take some and the remaining current is
drawn by the shunt voltage regulator.

Figure.2.20. Shunt Regulator

The circuit is designed so that at maximum load current the shunt regulator draws
virtually no current and at minimum load current, the shunt voltage regulator passes
the full current.
As a result, it can be seen that shunt regulators are inefficient because maximum
current is drawn from the source regardless of the load current, i.e. even when there is
no load current.

Zener diode shunt regulator

The resistor, RS is connected in series with the Zener diode to limit the current flow
through the diode with the voltage source, VS being connected across the combination.
The stabilized output voltage Vout is taken from across the Zener diode. The Zener
diode is connected with its cathode terminal connected to the positive rail of the DC
supply so it is reverse biased and will be operating in its breakdown condition. Resistor
RS is selected so to limit the maximum current flowing in the circuit.

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Working:

With no load connected to the circuit, the load current will be zero, ( IL = 0 ), and all
the circuit current passes through the zener diode which in turn dissipates its
maximum power. Also a small value of the series resistor RS will result in a greater
diode current when the load resistance RL is connected and large as this will increase
the power dissipation requirement of the diode so care must be taken when selecting
the appropriate value of series resistance so that the Zener maximum power rating is
not exceeded under this no-load or high-impedance condition.
The load is connected in parallel with the Zener diode, so the voltage across RL is
always the same as the Zener voltage, ( VR = VZ ). There is a minimum zener current
for which the stabilization of the voltage is effective and the zener current must stay
above this value operating under load within the power its breakdown region at all
times. The upper limit of current is of course dependent uponrating of the device. The
supply voltage VS must be greater than VZ.

Comparison of Series and Shunt regulators

Shunt voltages regulator Series voltages regulator

 Shunt voltage regulator has good  Series voltage regulator has not so good
voltage regulation even at high load voltage regulation at high load currents.
currents.
 In the shunt voltage regulator, the  In the series voltage regulator, the output DC
output DC voltage is constant. voltages is not constant.

 Shunt voltage regulator is connected  Series voltages regulator is connected in

in shunt with the load. series with the load.

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 Shunt voltages regulator has good  It has good efficiency for Higher load current
efficiency for low load current.

 It is appropriate for light loads.  It is appropriate for heavy loads.

 Shunt voltage regulator has poor  Series voltages regulator has better voltage
voltage is constant regulation.
 The control element has to bear the  The control element has to carry the load
load voltage across it. So, it is a high current. So, it is a high current low voltage
voltage low current device. device.

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Unit 1 Part – 2 (LASER)

INTRODUCTION

• Laser is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation

• Theoretical explanation for laser oscillation was given by A L Schawlow and C H
Townes in 1958
• The first laser, ruby laser was demonstrated by T H Maiman, in 1960
• It has different properties from ordinary light beam.

PROPERTIES OF LASER

• Directionality - For a typical laser beam, the angular spread is 1mm per 1m, but
for an ordinary source of light, the angular spread is 1m per 1m
• Intensity - Intensity of the laser beam is very high and so it damages the eye of
the observer
• Monochromaticity - laser beam is strictly monochromatic (single frequency)
than other conventional monochromatic source. The bandwidth ( = 0) of the
laser beam is narrow
Ex: line width emitted by ruby laser is 5 x 10-4 Å
• Coherence - Degree of coherence is very high, coherence of laser emission results
in extremely high power (5 x 1012 W cm-2 ). The light from a laser is said to be
coherent, which means the wavelengths of the laser light are in phase in space and
time.

Principle of Laser

When atom is exposed to radiation having a stream of photons, each with energy hν, three
distinct processes can take place.
i) Absorption
ii) Spontaneous emission
iii) Stimulated emission

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Absorption

• An atom or molecule in the ground state E1 can absorbs a photon of energy h and
go to the higher energy state E2
• B12 is the probability of absorption per unit time
• Higher energy state is an unstable state - atoms will make a transition back to the
lower energy state with the emission of a photon

Spontaneous Emission

• Atoms or molecules in the higher energy state E2, eventually return to the ground
state by emitting their excess energy spontaneously.
• This process is independent of external radiation.
• The rate of the spontaneous emission is directly proportional to the population of
the energy level E2

Stimulated Emission

• A photon having energy E, equal to the difference in energy levels E2 and E1,
stimulate an atom in higher state to make a transition to the lower state with the
creation of a second photon
• Under conditions of thermal equilibrium, the population of energy levels obey
Boltzmann’s distribution function

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Einstein Coefficient Relation Derivation:

In steady-state (at thermal equilibrium), the two emission rates (spontaneous and stimulated)
must balance the rate of absorption.
Thus R1=R2+R3

Using equations (1,2, and 3), we get

N1B12E=N2A21+N2B21E

Or N1B12E –N2B21E=N2A21

Or (N1B12-N2B21) E =N2A21

Or E= N2A21/N1B12-N2B21

= N2A21/N2B21[N1B12/N2B21 -1] [by taking out common N2B21from the denominator]

Or E=A21/B21 {1/N1/N2(B12/B21-1)) (4)

Einstein proved thermodynamically, that the probability of stimulated absorption is equal to

the probability of stimulated emission. thus

B12=B21

Then equation(4) becomes

E=A21/B21(1/N1/N2-1) (5)

From Boltzman’s distribution law, the ratio of populations of two levels at temperature T is
expressed as
N1/N2=e(E2–E1
)/KT

N1/N2=ehv/KT

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Where K is the Boltzman’s constant and h is Planck’s constant.

Substituting value of N1/N2in equation (5) we get

E= A21/B21(1/ehv/KT-1) (6)

Now according to Planck’s radiation law, the energy density of the black body radiation of
frequency v at temperature T is given as

E = 8πhv3/c3(1/ehv/KT) (7)

By comparing equations (6 and 7),we get

A21/B21=8πhv3/c3

This is the relation between Einstein’s coefficients in Laser.

Important Definitions

Population Inversion
• In a system containing a large number of atoms, dominant process will depend on the
virtual number of atoms in the upper and lower states.
• N1 < N2 will result in stimulated emission dominating over the absorption.
• N1 > N2 there will be more absorption than stimulated emission
Population inversion- For stimulated emission to dominate, increase the population of the upper
energy level and greater than the lower energy level.

Methods of Achieving Population Inversion

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i) Optical pumping
• External optical source like xenon flash lamp is employed to produce a high
population in the higher energy level of the laser medium
• This method of excitation is used in solid state lasers of which the ruby laser is a
prototype
ii) Direct electron excitation
• The direct electron excitation in a gaseous discharge - To produce the desired
inversion
• Used in some of the gaseous ion lasers, such as an argon laser.
• In this type, the laser medium itself carries the discharge current under suitable
conditions of pressure and temperature.
• In this method, the electrons directly excite the active atoms to achieve higher
population in higher energy levels compared to a lower
iii) Inelastic Atom–Atom Collisions
• Electric discharge method is employed to cause collision and excitation of the
atom.
• In this method, a combination of two types of gases is used, say A and B, both
having the same excited state A* and B* that coincide or nearly coincide.
• In the first step, during electric discharge, A gets excited to A* (metastable) due to
collision with electrons.
A+e A* + e1
A* + B A+B
This type of transition is used in the He–Ne laser.

Types of Lasers
Solid state lasers
b) Gas lasers
c) Liquid lasers
d) Dye and chemical lasers, and
e) Semiconductor lasers

Ruby Laser

Ruby Laser is a solid state pulsed, three level lasers. It consists of a cylindrical shaped
ruby crystal rod of length varying from 2 to 20cms and diameter varying 0.1 to 2cms. This
end faces of the rod are highly flat and parallel. One of the faces is highly silvered and the
other face is partially silvered so that it transmits 10 to 25% of incident light and reflects
the rest so as to make the rod-resonant cavity. Basically, ruby crystal is aluminium oxide
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[Al2O3] doped with 0.05 to 0.5% of chromium atom. These chromium atoms serve as
activators. Due to presence of 0.05% of chromium, the ruby crystal appears in pink
colour. The ruby crystal is placed along the axis of a helical xenon or krypton flash lamp
of high intensity.

Pump source or energy source in ruby laser

The pump source is the element of a ruby laser system that provides energy to the laser
medium. In a ruby laser, population inversion is required to achieve laser emission.
Population inversion is the process of achieving the greater population of higher energy
state than the lower energy state. In order to achieve population inversion, we need to
supply energy to the laser medium (ruby).

In a ruby laser, we use flashtube as the energy source or pump source. The flashtube
supplies energy to the laser medium (ruby). When lower energy state electrons in the
laser medium gain sufficient energy from the flashtube, they jump into the higher energy
state or excited state.

Optical resonator

The ends of the cylindrical ruby rod are flat and parallel. The cylindrical ruby rod is placed
between two mirrors. The optical coating is applied to both the mirrors. The process of
depositing thin layers of metals on glass substrates to make mirror surfaces is called
silvering. Each mirror is coated or silvered differently. At one end of the rod, the mirror
is fully silvered whereas, at another end, the mirror is partially silvered. The fully silvered
mirror will completely reflect the light whereas the partially silvered mirror will reflect
most part of the light but allows a small portion of light through it to produce output laser
light.

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Working of ruby laser

The ruby laser is a three level solid-state laser. In a ruby laser, optical pumping technique
is used to supply energy to the laser medium. Optical pumping is a technique in which
light is used as energy source to raise electrons from lower energy level to the higher
energy level. Consider a ruby laser medium consisting of three energy levels E1, E2,
E3 with N number of electrons.We assume that the energy levels will be E 1 < E2 < E3. The
energy level E1 is known as ground state or lower energy state, the energy level E 2 is
known as metastable state, and the energy level E3 is known as pump state.

Let us assume that initially most of the electrons are in the lower energy state (E 1) and
only a tiny number of electrons are in the excited states (E2 and E3).

When light energy is supplied to the laser medium (ruby), the electrons in the lower
energy state or ground state (E1) gains enough energy and jumps into the pump state (E3).

The lifetime of pump state E3 is very small (10-8 sec) so the electrons in the pump state
do not stay for long period. After a short period, they fall into the metastable state E 2 by
releasing radiation less energy. The lifetime of metastable state E 2 is 10-3 sec which is
much greater than the lifetime of pump state E3. Therefore, the electrons reach E2 much
faster than they leave E2. This results in an increase in the number of electrons in the
metastable state E2 and hence population inversion is achieved.

After some period, the electrons in the metastable state E2 falls into the lower energy
state E1 by releasing energy in the form of photons. This is called spontaneous emission
of radiation. When the emitted photon interacts with the electron in the metastable state,
it forcefully makes that electron fall into the ground state E1. As a result, two photons are
emitted. This is called stimulated emission of radiation. When these emitted photons

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again interacted with the metastable state electrons, then 4 photons are produced.
Because of this continuous interaction with the electrons, millions of photons are
produced.

In an active medium (ruby), a process called spontaneous emission produces light. The
light produced within the laser medium will bounce back and forth between the two
mirrors. This stimulates other electrons to fall into the ground state by releasing light
energy. This is called stimulated emission. Likewise, millions of electrons are stimulated
to emit light. Thus, the light gain is achieved. The amplified light escapes through the
partially reflecting mirror to produce laser light.

Helium-Neon laser

Helium-Neon laser definition

Helium-Neon laser is a type of gas laser in which a mixture of helium and neon gas is used
as a gain medium. Helium-Neon laser is also known as He-Ne laser.

What is helium-neon laser?

At room temperature, a ruby laser will only emit short bursts of laser light, each laser
pulse occurring after a flash of the pumping light. It would be better to have a laser that
emits light continuously. Such a laser is called a continuous wave (CW) laser. The helium-
neon laser was the first continuous wave (CW) laser ever constructed. It was built in 1961
by Ali Javan, Bennett, and Herriott at Bell Telephone Laboratories. In He-Ne lasers, the
optical pumping method is not used instead an electrical pumping method is used. The
excitation of electrons in the He-Ne gas active medium is achieved by passing an electric
current through the gas. The helium-neon laser operates at a wavelength of 632.8
nanometers (nm), in the red portion of the visible spectrum.

Helium-neon laser construction

The helium-neon laser consists of three essential components:
 Pump source (high voltage power supply)
 Gain medium (laser glass tube or discharge glass tube)
 Resonating cavity

High voltage power supply or pump source

In order to produce the laser beam, it is essential to achieve population inversion.
Population inversion is the process of achieving more electrons in the higher energy state
as compared to the lower energy state.

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In general, the lower energy state has more electrons than the higher energy state.
However, after achieving population inversion, more electrons will remain in the higher
energy state than the lower energy state.

In order to achieve population inversion, we need to supply energy to the gain medium
or active medium. Different types of energy sources are used to supply energy to the gain
medium. In Ruby lasers and Nd:YAG lasers, the light energy sources such as flashtubes or
laser diodes are used as the pump source. However, in helium-neon lasers, light energy
is not used as the pump source. In helium-neon lasers, a high voltage DC power supply is
used as the pump source. A high voltage DC supplies electric current through the gas
mixture of helium and neon.

Gain medium (discharge glass tube or glass envelope)

The gain medium of a helium-neon laser is made up of the mixture of helium and neon
gas contained in a glass tube at low pressure. The partial pressure of helium is 1 mbar
whereas that of neon is 0.1 mbar. The gas mixture is mostly comprised of helium gas.
Therefore, in order to achieve population inversion, we need to excite primarily the lower
energy state electrons of the helium atoms.

In He-Ne laser, neon atoms are the active centers and have energy levels suitable for laser
transitions while helium atoms help in exciting neon atoms. Electrodes (anode and
cathode) are provided in the glass tube to send the electric current through the gas
mixture. These electrodes are connected to a DC power supply.

Resonating cavity

The glass tube (containing a mixture of helium and neon gas) is placed between two
parallel mirrors. These two mirrors are silvered or optically coated. Each mirror is
silvered differently. The left side mirror is partially silvered and is known as output
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coupler whereas the right side mirror is fully silvered and is known as the high reflector
or fully reflecting mirror.

The fully silvered mirror will completely reflect the light whereas the partially silvered
mirror will reflect most part of the light but allows some part of the light to produce the
laser beam.

Working of helium-neon laser

In order to achieve population inversion, we need to supply energy to the gain medium.
In helium-neon lasers, we use high voltage DC as the pump source. A high voltage DC
produces energetic electrons that travel through the gas mixture. The gas mixture in
helium-neon laser is mostly comprised of helium atoms. Therefore, helium atoms observe
most of the energy supplied by the high voltage DC.

When the power is switched on, a high voltage of about 10 kV is applied across the gas
mixture. This power is enough to excite the electrons in the gas mixture. The electrons
produced in the process of discharge are accelerated between the electrodes (cathode
and anode) through the gas mixture.

In the process of flowing through the gas, the energetic electrons transfer some of their
energy to the helium atoms in the gas. As a result, the lower energy state electrons of the
helium atoms gain enough energy and jumps into the excited states or metastable states.
Let us assume that these metastable states are F3 and F5.

The metastable state electrons of the helium atoms cannot return to ground state by
spontaneous emission. However, they can return to ground state by transferring their
energy to the lower energy state electrons of the neon atoms.
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The energy levels of some of the excited states of the neon atoms are identical to the
energy levels of metastable states of the helium atoms. Let us assume that these identical
energy states are F3 = E3 and F5 = E5. E3 and E5 are excited states or metastable states of
neon atoms.

Unlike the solid, a gas can move or flow between the electrodes. Hence, when the excited
electrons of the helium atoms collide with the lower energy state electrons of the neon
atoms, they transfer their energy to the neon atoms. As a result, the lower energy state
electrons of the neon atoms gain enough energy from the helium atoms and jumps into
the higher energy states or metastable states (E3 and E5) whereas the excited electrons
of the helium atoms will fall into the ground state. Thus, helium atoms help neon atoms
in achieving population inversion.

Likewise, millions of ground state electrons of neon atoms are excited to the metastable
states. The metastable states have the longer lifetime. Therefore, a large number of
electrons will remain in the metastable states and hence population inversion is achieved.
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After some period, the metastable states electrons (E3 and E5) of the neon atoms will
spontaneously fall into the next lower energy states (E2 and E4) by releasing photons or
red light. This is called spontaneous emission.

The neon excited electrons continue on to the ground state through radiative and
nonradiative transitions. It is important for the continuous wave (CW) operation.

The light or photons emitted from the neon atoms will moves back and forth between
two mirrors until it stimulates other excited electrons of the neon atoms and causes them
to emit light. Thus, optical gain is achieved. This process of photon emission is called
stimulated emission of radiation.

The light or photons emitted due to stimulated emission will escape through the partially
reflecting mirror or output coupler to produce laser light.

Advantages of helium-neon laser

 Helium-neon laser emits laser light in the visible portion of the spectrum.
 High stability
 Low cost
 Operates without damage at higher temperatures

Disadvantages of helium-neon laser

 Low efficiency
 Low gain
 Helium-neon lasers are limited to low power tasks

Applications of helium-neon lasers

 Helium-neon lasers are used in industries.
 Helium-neon lasers are used in scientific instruments.
 Helium-neon lasers are used in the college laboratories.

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Applications of Lasers

The most significant applications of lasers include:

 Lasers in medicine
 Lasers in communications
 Lasers in industries
 Lasers in science and technology
 Lasers in military

Lasers in Medicine
1. Lasers are used for bloodless surgery.
2. Lasers are used to destroy kidney stones.
3. Lasers are used in cancer diagnosis and therapy.
4. Lasers are used for eye lens curvature corrections.
5. Lasers are used in fiber-optic endoscope to detect ulcers in the intestines.
6. The liver and lung diseases could be treated by using lasers.
7. Lasers are used to study the internal structure of microorganisms and cells.
8. Lasers are used to produce chemical reactions.
9. Lasers are used to create plasma.
10. Lasers are used to remove tumors successfully.
11. Lasers are used to remove the caries or decayed portion of the teeth.
12. Lasers are used in cosmetic treatments such as acne treatment, cellulite and hair
removal.

Lasers in Communications
1. Laser light is used in optical fiber communications to send information over
large distances with low loss.
2. Laser light is used in underwater communication networks.
3. Lasers are used in space communication, radars and satellites.

Lasers in Industries
1. Lasers are used to cut glass and quartz.
2. Lasers are used in electronic industries for trimming the components of
Integrated Circuits (ICs).
3. Lasers are used for heat treatment in the automotive industry.
4. Laser light is used to collect the information about the prefixed prices of various
products in shops and business establishments from the bar code printed on the
product.
5. Ultraviolet lasers are used in the semiconductor industries for photolithography.
Photolithography is the method used for manufacturing printed circuit board
(PCB) and microprocessor by using ultraviolet light.
6. Lasers are used to drill aerosol nozzles and control orifices within the required
precision.

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Lasers in Science and Technology

1. A laser helps in studying the Brownian motion of particles.
2. With the help of a helium-neon laser, it was proved that the velocity of light is
same in all directions.
3. With the help of a laser, it is possible to count the number of atoms in a
substance.
4. Lasers are used in computers to retrieve stored information from a Compact Disc
(CD).
5. Lasers are used to store large amount of information or data in CD-ROM.
6. Lasers are used to measure the pollutant gases and other contaminants of the
atmosphere.
7. Lasers helps in determining the rate of rotation of the earth accurately.
8. Lasers are used in computer printers.
9. Lasers are used for producing three-dimensional pictures in space without the
use of lens.
10. Lasers are used for detecting earthquakes and underwater nuclear blasts.
11. A gallium arsenide diode laser can be used to setup an invisible fence to protect
an area.

Lasers in Military
1. Laser range finders are used to determine the distance to an object.
2. The ring laser gyroscope is used for sensing and measuring very small angle of
rotation of the moving objects.
3. Lasers can be used as a secretive illuminators for reconnaissance during night
with high precision.
4. Lasers are used to dispose the energy of a warhead by damaging the missile.
5. Laser light is used in LIDAR’s to accurately measure the distance to an object.

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