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 ENGINEERING
PROBLEM SOLVING
WITH C++
Fourth Edition

Delores M. Etter
Electrical Engineering Department
Southern Methodist University, Dallas, TX

Jeanine A. Ingber
Ingber Consulting

Boston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Hoboken

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Etter, Delores M. (Delores Maria), 1947— author. | Ingber, Jeanine A., author.
Title: Engineering problem solving with C++ / Delores M. Etter, Electrical
Engineering Department Southern Methodist University, Dallas, TX, Jeanine
A. Ingber, Ingber Consulting, Denver.
Description: Fourth edition. | Boston : Pearson, 2017. | Includes index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2015046988| ISBN 9780134444291 | ISBN 0134444299
Subjects: LCSH: C++ (Computer program language) | Engineering—Data processing.
Classification: LCC QA76.73.C153 E58 2017 | DDC 005.13/3—dc23 LC record available at
http://lccn.loc.gov/2015046988
2011033021

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1—EB—14 13 12 11 10

ISBN 10: 0-13-444429-9

ISBN 13: 978-0-13-444429-1

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 To our husbands, Jerry Richard Etter and Marc Stuart Ingber,
for their support and continued inspiration.

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 Contents

Preface xi

1 Introduction to Computing and Engineering

Problem Solving 2
1.1 Historical Perspective 3
1.2 Recent Engineering Achievements 7
Changing Engineering Environment 9
1.3 Computing Systems 11
Computer Hardware 11
Computer Software 12
1.4 Data Representation and Storage 16
Number Systems 17
Data Types and Storage 23
1.5 An Engineering Problem-Solving Methodology 26
Summary 29

2 Simple C++ Programs 34

ENGINEERING CHALLENGE: Vehicle Performance
2.1 Program Structure 35
2.2 Constants and Variables 39
Scientific Notation 41
Numeric Data Types 42
Boolean Data Type 44
Character Data Type 44
String Data 46
Symbolic Constants 47
Auto Type Specifier 47
2.3 C++ Classes 48
Class Declaration 48
Class Implementation 50
2.4 Building C++ Solutions with IDEs: Xcode 53
Xcode 53
2.5 C++ Operators 61
Assignment Operator 61
Arithmetic Operators 63
Precedence of Operators 65
Overflow and Underflow 68
iv

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 Contents v

Increment and Decrement Operators 68

Abbreviated Assignment Operators 69
2.6 Standard Input and Output 71
The cout Object 71
Stream Objects 72
Manipulators 74
The cin Object 76
2.7 Building C++ Solutions with IDEs: NetBeans 79
NetBeans 79
2.8 Basic Functions Included in the C++ Standard Library 86
Elementary Math Functions 87
Trigonometric Functions 88
Hyperbolic Functions* 90
Character Functions 91
2.9 Problem Solving Applied: Velocity Computation 91
2.10 System Limitations 95
Summary 96

3 Control Structures: Selection 104

ENGINEERING CHALLENGE: Global Change
3.1 Algorithm Development 105
Top-Down Design 105
3.2 Structured Programming 107
Pseudocode 107
Evaluation of Alternative Solutions 109
3.3 Conditional Expressions 109
Relational Operators 109
Logical Operators 110
Precedence and Associativity 113
3.4 Selection Statements: if Statement 114
Simple if Statements 114
if/else Statement 117
3.5 Numerical Technique: Linear Interpolation 121
3.6 Problem Solving Applied: Freezing Temperature of Seawater 125
3.7 Selection Statements: switch Statement 130
3.8 Building C++ Solutions with IDEs: NetBeans 133
NetBeans 134
3.9 Defining Operators for Programmer-Defined Data Types 140
Summary 145

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 vi Contents

4 Control Structures: Repetition 154

ENGINEERING CHALLENGE: Data Collection
4.1 Algorithm Development 155
Pseudocode and Flowchart Description 156
4.2 Repetition Structures 156
while Loop 157
do/while Loop 161
for Loop 164
4.3 Problem Solving Applied: GPS 170
4.4 break and continue Statements 174
4.5 Structuring Input Loops 175
Counter-Controlled Loops 176
Sentinel-Controlled Loop 177
End-Of-Data Loop 178
4.6 Problem Solving Applied: Weather Balloons 180
4.7 Building C++ Solutions with IDEs: Microsoft Visual C++ 186
Microsoft Visual C++ 188
Summary 192

5 Working with Data Files 198

ENGINEERING CHALLENGE: Weather Prediction
5.1 Defining File Streams 199
Stream Class Hierarchy 199
ifstream Class 202
ofstream Class 205
5.2 Reading Data Files 207
Specified Number of Records 208
Trailer or Sentinel Signals 210
End-of-File 212
5.3 Generating a Data File 215
5.4 Problem Solving Applied: Data Filters—Modifying an HTML File 218
5.5 Error Checking 222
The Stream State 224
5.6 Numerical Technique: Linear Modeling 229
5.7 Problem Solving Applied: Ozone Measurements 232
5.8 Building C++ Solutions with IDEs: Xcode-Weather Patterns 238
Summary 245

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 Contents vii

6 Modular Programming with Functions 252

ENGINEERING CHALLENGE: Simulation
6.1 Modularity 253
6.2 Programmer-Defined Functions 255
Function Definition 259
Solution 1 262
Solution 2 263
Function Prototype 265
6.3 Parameter Passing 267
Pass by Value 268
Pass by Reference 270
Storage Class and Scope 276
6.4 Problem Solving Applied: Calculating a Center of Gravity 278
6.5 Random Numbers 282
Integer Sequences 283
Floating-Point Sequences 287
6.6 Problem Solving Applied: Instrumentation Reliability 288
6.7 Defining Class Methods 295
Public Interface 295
Accessor Methods 297
Mutator Methods 297
6.8 Problem Solving Applied: Design of Composite Materials 302
Solution 1: 305
Solution 2: 306
6.9 Numerical Technique: Roots of Polynomials 308
Polynomial Roots 308
Incremental-Search Technique 310
6.10 Problem Solving Applied: System Stability 312
Newton–Raphson Method 318
6.11 Numerical Technique: Integration 322
Integration Using the Trapezoidal Rule 322
Summary 326

7 One-Dimensional Arrays 338

ENGINEERING CHALLENGE: Tsunami Warning Systems
7.1 Arrays 339
Definition and Initialization 340
Pseudocode 342
Range-based for Statement 345
Computation and Output 348
Function Arguments 352

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 viii Contents

7.2 Problem Solving Applied: Hurricane Categories 357

7.3 Statistical Measurements 363
Simple Analysis 363
Variance and Standard Deviation 365
Custom Header Files 368
7.4 Problem Solving Applied: Speech Signal Analysis 368
7.5 Sorting and Searching Algorithms 374
Selection Sort 375
Search Algorithms 376
Unordered Lists 377
Ordered Lists 377
7.6 Problem Solving Applied: Tsunami Warning Systems 379
7.7 Character Strings 385
C Style String Definition and I/O 385
String Functions 387
7.8 The string Class 388
7.9 Building C++ Solutions with IDEs: Xcode Vegetation Maps 390
7.10 The vector class 405
Parameter Passing 407
7.11 Problem Solving Applied: Calculating Probabilities 410
Summary 423

8 Two-Dimensional Arrays 430

ENGINEERING CHALLENGE: Terrain Navigation
8.1 Two-Dimensional Arrays 431
Declaration and Initialization 432
Computations and Output 437
Function Arguments 440
8.2 Problem Solving Applied: Terrain Navigation 446
8.3 Two-Dimensional Arrays and the vector class 451
Function Arguments 454
8.4 Matrices 456
Determinant 456
Transpose 457
Matrix Addition and Subtraction 458
Matrix Multiplication 458
8.5 Numerical Technique: Solution to Simultaneous Equations 461
Graphical Interpretation 461
Gauss Elimination 463
8.6 Problem Solving Applied: Electrical Circuit Analysis 467
8.7 Higher-Dimensional Arrays 473
Summary 475

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 Contents ix

9 An Introduction to Pointers 482

ENGINEERING CHALLENGE: Weather Patterns
9.1 Addresses and Pointers 483
Address Operator 484
Pointer Assignment 486
Pointer Arithmetic 489
9.2 Pointers to Array Elements 492
One-Dimensional Arrays 493
Character Strings 495
Pointers as Function Arguments 496
9.3 Problem Solving Applied: El Niño-Southern Oscillation Data 501
9.4 Dynamic Memory Allocation 504
The new Operator 504
Dynamically Allocated Arrays 506
The delete Operator 506
9.5 Problem Solving Applied: Seismic Event Detection 508
9.6 Common Errors Using new and delete 514
9.7 Linked Data Structures 516
Linked Lists 516
Stacks 518
Queue 518
9.8 The C++ Standard Template Library 520
The list class 520
The stack class 522
The queue class 523
9.9 Problem Solving Applied: Concordance of a Text File 525
Summary 530

10 Advanced Topics 536

ENGINEERING CHALLENGE: Artificial Intelligence
10.1 Data Abstraction 537
Overloading Operators 538
The Pixel class 538
Arithmetic Operators 540
friend Functions 545
Validating Objects 550
Bitwise Operators 554
10.2 Building C++ Solutions with IDEs: Xcode Image Files 557
10.3 Binary File Input and Output 566
Opening Binary Files 567
Reading and Writing Binary Files 567

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 x Contents

10.4 Problem Solving Applied: Color Image Processing 569

10.5 Recursion 582
Factorial Function 583
Fibonacci Sequence 585
The BinaryTree class 587
10.6 Generic Programming 598
Function Templates 599
Class Templates 603
10.7 Inheritance 609
The Rectangle class 610
The Square Class 613
The Cube class 616
10.8 virtual Methods 619
10.9 Problem Solving Applied: Iterated Prisoner’s Dilemma 622
Summary 631

A C++ Standard Library 636

B ASCII Character Codes 644

C Using MATLAB to Plot Data from ASCII Files 648

C++ Program to Generate a Data File 648
ASCII Data File Generated by the C++ Program 649
Generating a Plot with MATLAB 649

D References 651

E PRACTICE! Solutions 652

Index 671

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 Preface

The C++ programming language is derived from the C programming language, with added
features to support object-oriented programming through the use of classes and programmer-
defined types. The features of the C programming language that make it attractive for system-
level operations and embedded programming are also supported by C++, making C++ one of
the most powerful and versatile programming languages available—and a good choice for an
introduction to computing course for scientists and engineers. This text was written to intro-
duce engineering problem solving with C++ and also the object-oriented features of the C++
programming language. Our objectives are the following:
• to develop a consistent methodology for solving engineering problems
• to present the object-oriented features of C++, while focusing on the fundamentals
of programming and problem solving
• to illustrate a problem-solving process with C++ through a variety of engineering
examples and applications
• to provide an easy-to-understand, integrated introduction to data types, functions,
and container classes defined in the C++ Standard Template Library
To accomplish these objectives, Chapter 1 presents a five-step process that is used con-
sistently in the rest of the text for solving engineering problems. Chapter 2 introduces the built-
in data types supported by C++ and provides an introduction to classes, pre-defined objects,
and member functions that support standard input and output. Chapters 3–6 present the fun-
damental capabilities of C++ for solving engineering problems, including control structures,
data files, functions, and programmer-defined data types. Chapters 7 and 8 present arrays,
vectors, and the string class. Chapter 9 introduces the use of pointers, dynamic memory al-
location, and linked data structures. Chapter 10 provides a more in-depth look at some ad-
vanced topics, including function templates, class templates, recursive member functions,
inheritance, and virtual functions. Throughout all these chapters, we present a large number
of examples from many different engineering, science, and computer science disciplines.
The solutions to these examples are developed using the five-step process and Standard C++.

Features of the Fourth Edition

The fourth edition of our text:
• Introduces students to features of C++11 including the range-based for statement.
Introduces students to multiple IDEs including
• NetBeans
• MS Visual Studio
• Xcode
• Includes new engineering applications using vegetation maps and weather data.
• Includes coverage of binary file input and output.
xi

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 xii Preface

• Has expanded coverage of vectors and programmer-defined data types.

• Has expanded coverage of classes early in the text as optional chapter sections, for
flexibility.
• Has all Practice and Modify sections numbered for clarity.
• Includes additional Statement Boxes, Memory Snapshots, Structure Charts and
Flowcharts.
Student Resources and an Instructor’s Resource Center (IRC) are available online at www.
pearsonhighered.com/cs-resources

Prerequisites
No prior experience with the computer is assumed. The mathematical prerequisites are college
algebra and trigonometry. Of course, the initial material can be covered much faster if the
student has used other computer languages or software tools.

Course Structure
The material in these chapters was selected to provide the basis for a one-term course in engi-
neering and scientific computing. These chapters contain the essential topics of mathematical
computations, character data, control structures, functions, arrays, classes, and pointers. Stu-
dents with a background in another computer language should be able to complete this material
in one semester. A minimal course that provides only an introduction to C++ can be designed
using the nonoptional sections of the text. (Optional sections are indicated in the Contents with
an asterisk.) Three ways to use the text, along with the recommended chapter sections, are as
follows:
• Introduction to C++ Many freshman introductory courses introduce the student to
several computer tools in addition to language. For these courses, we recommend
covering the nonoptional sections of Chapters 1–8. This material presents to students
the fundamental capabilities of C++, and they will then be able to write substan-
tial programs using mathematical computations, character data, control structures,
programmer-defined data types, functions, and arrays.
• Problem Solving with C++ In a semester course devoted specifically to teaching stu-
dents to master the C++ language, we recommend covering most sections of Chap-
ters 1–10. This material covers all the fundamental concepts of the C++ language,
including mathematical computations, character data, control structures, functions,
arrays, classes, templates, and pointers. Sections covering Numerical Techniques may
be assigned as needed.
• Problem Solving with C++ and Numerical Techniques Upper-level students or stu-
dents who are already familiar with other high-level languages will be able to cover the
material in this text very quickly. In addition, they will be able to apply the numerical-
technique material to their other courses. Therefore, we recommend that these students
cover all sections of Chapters 1–10.
The chapters in this text were designed to give the instructor flexibility in the ordering of top-
ics. Coverage of programmer-defined types and classes is incorporated throughout the text,
beginning with Chapter 2. A dependency chart is provided on the next page for illustration.

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 Preface xiii

Dependency Chart

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO
COMPUTING AND ENGINEERING
PROBLEM SOLVING

CHAPTER 2
SIMPLE
C++ PROGRAMS

CHAPTER 3
CONTROL
STRUCTURES:
SELECTION

CHAPTER 4
CONTROL
STRUCTURES:
REPETITION

CHAPTER 5
WORKING WITH
DATA FILES

CHAPTER 6
MODULAR PROGRAMMING
WITH FUNCTIONS

CHAPTER 7
ONE-DIMENSIONAL
ARRAYS

CHAPTER 8
TWO-DIMENSIONAL
ARRAYS

CHAPTER 9
AN INTRODUCTION
TO POINTERS

CHAPTER 10
ADVANCED TOPICS

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 xiv Preface

Problem-Solving Methodology
The emphasis on engineering and scientific problem solving is an integral part of the text.
Chapter 1 introduces a five-step process for solving engineering problems using the computer.
The steps are as follows:

1. State the problem clearly.

2. Describe the input and output information, and determine required data types.
3. Work a simple example by hand.
4. Develop an algorithm and convert it to a computer program.
5. Test the solution with a variety of data.

To reinforce the development of problem-solving skills, each of these five steps is clearly
identified each time a complete engineering problem is solved. In addition, top-down design
and stepwise refinement are presented with the use of decomposition outlines, pseudocode,
and flowcharts.

Engineering and Scientific Applications

Throughout the text, emphasis is placed on incorporating real-world engineering and scientific
examples and problems. This emphasis is centered around a theme of engineering challenges,
which include

• understanding weather patterns, climate, and global change

• computerized speech understanding
• image processing
• artificial intelligence
• enhanced oil and gas recovery
• simulation

Each chapter begins with a photograph and a discussion of an aspect of one of these chal-
lenges that provides a glimpse of some of the exciting and interesting areas in which engineers
might work. Later in the chapters, we solve a problem that not only relates to the introductory
problem, but also has applications in other problem solutions.

Standard C++
The statements presented and all programs developed use C++ standards developed by the In-
ternational Organization for Standardization (ISO). By using Standard C++, students learn to
write portable code that can be transferred from one computer platform to another. Many of
the standard capabilities of the C++ programming language are discussed in the text. Addi-
tional components of the C++ Standard Library are discussed in Appendix A.

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 Preface xv

Software Engineering Concepts

Engineers and scientists are expected to develop and implement user-friendly and reusable
computer solutions. Learning software engineering techniques is therefore crucial. Readabil-
ity and documentation are stressed in the development of programs. Additional topics that
relate to software engineering are discussed throughout the text and include issues such as soft-
ware life cycle, portability, maintenance, modularity, recursion, abstraction, reusability,
structured programming, validation, and verification.

Four Types of Problems

Learning any new skill requires practice at a number of different levels of difficulty. We have
developed four types of exercises that are used throughout the text to develop problem-solving
skills. The first type is Practice problems. These numbered exercises are short-answer ques-
tions that relate to the section of material just presented. Most sections are immediately fol-
lowed by a set of Practice problems to help students determine if they are ready to continue
to the next section. Complete solutions to all the Practice problems are included at the end of
the text.
The Modify problems are designed to provide hands-on experience with example pro-
grams and the programs developed in the Problem Solving Applied sections. In these sections,
we develop a complete C++ program using the five-step process. The Modify problems ask
students to run the program with different sets of data, to test their understanding of how the
program works and of the relationships among the engineering variables. These exercises also
ask the students to make simple modifications to the program and then run the program to test
their changes.
All chapters end with a set of Exam Practice! problems, and every chapter includes a set
of Programming Problems. The Exam Practice! problems are short-answer questions that
relate to the material covered in the chapter. These problems help students determine how well
they understand the features of C++ presented in the chapter. The Programming Problems
are new problems that relate to a variety of engineering applications, and the level of difficulty
ranges from very straightforward to longer project assignments. Each Programming Problem
requires that the student develop a complete C++ program or function. Engineering data sets
for many of the problems are included within the Instructor’s Resource Center (IRC) to use in
testing. Also provided within the IRC are solutions to all of the Exam Practice! problems and
Programming Problems.

Study and Programming Aids

Statement Boxes, Memory Snapshots, and Program Traces provide easily accessible visual
illustrations of important concepts. Margin notes are used to help the reader not only identify
the important concepts, but also easily locate specific topics. In addition, margin notes are used
to identify programming style guidelines and debugging information. Style guidelines show
students how to write C++ programs that incorporate good software discipline; debugging
sections help students recognize common errors so that they can avoid them. The programming
style notes are indicated with the margin note Style, and the debugging notes with a bug

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 xvi Preface

icon. Object-oriented features of C++ display an OOP icon to help students recognize these
features early in the text. Each Chapter Summary contains a summary of the style notes
and debugging notes, plus a list of the Key Terms from the chapter and a C++ Statement
Reference of the new statements, to make the book easy to use as a reference.

Numerical Techniques
Numerical techniques that are commonly used in solving engineering problems are also pre-
sented, and include interpolation, linear modeling (regression), root finding, numerical
integration, and the solution to simultaneous equations. The concept of a matrix is also
introduced and then illustrated using a number of examples. All of these topics are presented
assuming only a trigonometry and college algebra background.

Appendices
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Appendix A contains a discussion of components in the C++ Standard Library. Appendix B
presents the ASCII character codes. Appendix D contains a list of references used through-
out the text. A MATLAB reference is also included as Appendix C, and solutions to Practice!
problems make up Appendix E.

Additional Resources
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Acknowledgments
We would like to thank our outstanding team of reviewers—Wei-Yu Bao, Florida International
University; David Feinstein, University of South Alabama; Melanie Ford, Pennsylvania State
University; Liang Hong, Tennessee State University; Beverly Jaeger, Northeastern University;
Monica Mallini, Northern Virginia Community College; Jason White, Manchester Community
College for their detailed and constructive comments and their valuable suggestions. We would
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would like to thank our outstanding production team, including Carole Snyder, Gregory Dulles,
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ation by ozone in the earth’s atmosphere.
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an Advanced Very High Resolution Ra-
diometer (AVHRR), shows an El Nino
event in the east Pacific Ocean. El Nino
is an oscillation of the ocean-atmosphere
system that impacts weather around the
world. The difference between normal
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(furthest below normal) through blue and yellow to red (furthest above normal). Land masses are black and out-
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the acoustic features of speech. These acoustic features
reflect both the physical size and shape of the mouth
and throat of the speaker and learned speech patterns
such as tone and pitch. Acoustical speech signals can be
converted to electrical signals which can be analyzed,
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metric. Biometrics is the study of ways to identify in-
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The Project Gutenberg eBook of Baharia Oasis
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Title: Baharia Oasis

Its topography and geology

Author: John Ball

H. J. L. Beadnell

Release date: April 10, 2024 [eBook #73366]

Language: English

Original publication: Cairo: National Printing Department, 1903

Credits: Galo Flordelis (This file was produced from images

generously made available by the HathiTrust Digital
Library/Cornell University)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BAHARIA OASIS

***
 SURVEY DEPARTMENT, PUBLIC WORKS MINISTRY

EGYPT.

BAHARIA OASIS:

ITS TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

BY

JOHN BALL, Ph. D., A.R.S.M., Assoc. M. Inst. C.E.

AND

HUGH J. L. BEADNELL, F.G.S., F.R.G.S.

CAIRO
National Printing Department
1903
 CONTENTS.

Pages.
PREFACE 5
CHAPTER I. — Introduction 7
„ II. — Surveying Methods and General Results 11
„ III. — The Roads connecting the Oasis of Baharia with the
Nile Valley and with other Oases 17
„ IV. — Topography, with Notes on the Water-Supply,
Inhabitants, etc. 37
„ V. — Geology 47
„ VI. — Antiquities 73

Plates.
Plate I. — Map of the Oasis geologically coloured at end
„ II. — Sketch Map showing Position of the Oasis „
„ III. — Villages and Principal Sources of Water „
„ IV. — Section through Western Escarpment, 11 kilometres
north of south end of Depression „
„ V. — Diagrammatic Section from hill 15 kilometres north-
east of Ain el Haiss to the Eocene-Cretaceous
junction on desert to west „
„ VI. — Section from Mandisha through Jebel Mayesra and
Conical Hill to Western Plateau „
„ VII. — Map of the Synclinal fold from Jebel Hefhuf to its
termination in the Western Plateau, 13 kilometres
north-west of Ain el Haiss „
„ VIII. — Sketch sections of Eastern Scarp „

Illustrations in the Text.

Fig. 1. — Section across Syncline, 12½ kilometres north-west
of Ain el Haiss 66
„ 2. — Sketch shewing probable relations of Eocene and
Cretaceous in Anticline on Western Desert
Plateau, 11½ kilometres north-west of El Qasr 69
 P R E FA C E

The geological examination of the Oases of the Libyan Desert

was commenced in 1897, when two parties were sent out to Baharia
Oasis, one under the charge of Dr. Ball, who, with Mr. G. Vuta as
topographer, started from Minia and explored the eastern half of the
area, while Mr. Beadnell with Mr. L. Gorringe as his topographer
started from Maghagha and examined the western side of the oasis.
The expeditions commenced work in October, and mapping on the
scale of ¹⁄₅₀₀₀₀ the whole area was surveyed before the end of the
year. The return traverses were made to Minia by the first party via
Farafra to Assiut by the second. The following chapters and maps set
forth the results of this joint exploration, certain gaps being filled
from the data of Ascherson.
B A H A R I A O AS I S
 CHAPTER I.

Introduction.

The Oasis of Baharia (or Northern Oasis), also known as the

Little Oasis, lies between the parallels 27° 48′ and 28° 30′ of north
latitude, and between the meridians 28° 35′ and 29° 10′ east of
Greenwich, being thus situated in the Libyan Desert about 180
kilometres, or four to five days’ march by camel, west of the Nile
Valley (Sketchmap, Plate II). Like the other oases of the Western
Desert (Farafra, Dakhla and Kharga) to the south, Baharia is a large
natural excavation in the great Libyan plateau; it differs, however,
from those oases, which are open on one or more sides, in being
entirely surrounded by escarpments, and the vast number of isolated
hills within the depression form an unique topographical feature. In
Baharia, as, with the exception of Dakhla, in the oases generally, the
cultivated area bears only a very small proportion to the total oasis-
area, the remainder of the floor of the natural excavation being
barren desert. The oasis contains four principal villages, all situated
in its northern portion, and it is in the neighbourhood of these that
water, and consequently vegetation, is most abundant.
The early history of Baharia is shrouded in an obscurity greater
even than that surrounding the history of Kharga. That it was
inhabited at a very early date is shown however by a stela of the
reign of Thothmes II (about B.C. 1600-1500) found there by
Ascherson, by a tomb of the 19th dynasty (B.C. 1300) and fragments
of two temples, one dating from the reign of King Apries (B.C. 588-
570) and the other from the reign of Amasis (B.C. 569-526),
discovered by Steindorff in 1900, and by the references to it in the
Ptolemaic inscriptions of the temple of Edfu. The oasis of Baharia is
referred to in the hieroglyphic inscriptions of its newly-discovered
temples as “the northern oasis of Amenhotep,” and as “the oasis
Huye”; by Strabo it is called δεύτερα “the second” and by Ptolemy
ὄασις μικρὰ “the small oasis.” The Romans have left traces of their
occupation of Baharia in an arch near the village of El Qasr[1] and
other ruins, as well as in numerous wells and underground
aqueducts, which latter are still used by the present inhabitants.
Fragmentary ruins of churches and a Coptic village attest the fact of
the occupation of the place during Christian times. At present
Baharia, along with the neighbouring oasis of Farafra to the south, is
administered as part of the Mudiria of Minia, and is fairly prosperous,
though lacking in enterprise to an even greater extent than is shown
by the two southern oases of Dakhla and Kharga.
The first European traveller to reach the oasis of Baharia appears
to have been Belzoni,[2] who reached it from Beni Suef on May 26th,
1819, and after spending some eleven days there returned by the
same route. Though his observations appear to have been correctly
made, the description of his travels is largely coloured by
imagination, and his map appears only to have been a rough sketch.
He erroneously confused Baharia with the oasis of Jupiter Ammon,
whose temple he imagined he had found in the remains of the
Roman arch near El Qasr, the chief village of the oasis. It is hardly
necessary to remark that the oasis of Jupiter Ammon is really that
now known as Siwa, situated some 340 kilometres west-north-west
of Baharia.
The earliest connected modern account of the oasis of any value
is that of Cailliaud,[3] who with Letorzec visited the place in 1820 on
his way from Siwa to Farafra, and during a stay of about six weeks
examined and mapped some of its principal features. He drew
attention to its antiquities and gave a careful description of the hot
springs and ancient aqueducts, besides taking a number of
observations of latitude and noting some of the topographical and
geological features, such as the occurrence of volcanic rocks in the
oasis. Cailliaud records his meeting in Baharia with Hyde, an English
traveller, who, however, does not appear to have published any
account of his wanderings.
 In the winter of 1823-1824 Baharia was visited by Pacho in
company with F. Muller. In an account of Pacho’s travels[4] published
after his unhappy death, there is no reference to his observations in
this oasis beyond an indication of his route on the map.
Wilkinson[5] visited the oasis of Baharia in 1825.
The Rohlfs’ expedition of 1874,[6] with the distinguished
scientists K. von Zittel and W. Jordan as geologist and topographer
respectively, added very considerably to our knowledge of Baharia,
more especially in the way of fixing precisely the geographical
positions and levels of its principal points. Zittel, however, did not
visit this oasis, and in consequence its geological structure was not
studied, the few references to it made in the publications of the
Rohlfs’ expedition being based on an examination of specimens
collected by Ascherson.
Probably the most accurate map hitherto existing of Baharia
Oasis is that of Ascherson,[7] who spent nearly three months there
in 1876. Ascherson, who entered the oasis by the road from the
Fayum and returned to Samalut, chiefly directed his attention to
botanical observations, but his memoir contains some valuable
topographical and geological information which supplements that of
previous and later observers in important measure; he has also the
distinction of finding the stela of the reign of Thothmes III already
referred to, and the remains of an Egyptian temple; the latter is
probably identical with one of those discovered by Steindorff in
1900.
The short memoir by Capt. H. G. Lyons, R.E.,[8] published in
1894, brought together a number of observations on the geology of
the Libyan Desert generally, and his discovery of fossils, referred to
Exogyra Overwegi, for the first time established the Upper
Cretaceous age of the clays and sandstones forming the floor and
lower part of the scarp in the northern end of the depression.
 In 1897 the Geological Survey carried out its examination, the
results of which are set forth in the following chapters.
Since the survey expedition, Baharia has been visited by
Steindorff,[9] who during his five days’ stay in the oasis made
important additions to our knowledge of its antiquities. These will be
further referred to in the chapter on the topography of the oasis.

[1] This ruin was described by Cailliaud (Voyage à Méroé. etc., vol. I,
p. 183) who records that in his time (1820) only the central arcade
remained standing. Steindorff found in 1900 that even this last
fragment had fallen.
[2] Narrative of the Operations and Recent Discoveries within the
Pyramids, Tombs, and Excavations in Egypt and Nubia, and of a
Journey to the Coast of the Red Sea, in search of the Ancient
Berenice, and another to the oasis of Jupiter Ammon.—London, 1820,
pp. 395-433.
[3] Voyage à Méroé, au Fleuve Blanc, an-delà de Fàzogl dans le midi
du Royaume de Sennàr, à Syouah et dans cinq autres Oasis. Paris,
1826. The work consists of four volumes, accompanied by numerous
maps and plates illustrating the antiquities.
[4] Relation d’un voyage dans la Marmarique, la Cyrénaique et les
Oasis d’Audjelah et de Maradèh. Paris, 1827. (This date is probably
wrong, as a reference is made in the work, (p. VII) to the suicide of
Pacho on Jan. 26th, 1829).
[5] Modern Egypt and Thebes. London, 1843, vol. II, p. 357-371.
[6] See G. Rohlfs, Drei Monate in der libyschen Wüste, Cassel, 1875;
Jordan, Physische Geographie und Meteorologie der libyschen Wüste,
Cassel, 1876; and Zittel, Geologie der libyschen Wüste. Cassel, 1883.
Jordan appears to have been the only member of the Rohlfs’ party to
actually visit Baharia. He left the other members at Lake Sittra (N. lat.
28° 42′ 40″, long. 27° 4′ 23″, E. of Green.) and entered Baharia from
the N.W. of El Qasr; after passing about 1½ days in Baharia Oasis he
journeyed southwards via Farafra to rejoin his colleagues in Dakhla.
[7] Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft für Erdkunde zu Berlin, Band 20, Heft
II, 1885. Also Dr. Schweinfurth’s summary of Ascherson’s results in
“Petermann’s Mittheilungen,” 22. Band, 1876, p. 264.
[8] On the Stratigraphy and Physiography of the Libyan Desert of
Egypt. Q. J. G. S. Nov, 1894, pp. 531-547.
[9] Vorlaüfiger Bericht über seine im Winter 1899-1900 nach der Oase
Siwa und nach Nubien unternommenen Reisen.—Königl. Sächs.
Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Leipzig, 1900, p. 226. Steindorff
entered the Oasis from Siwa, and returned from it via the Fayum. He
appears only to have visited the northern part of Baharia.
 CHAPTER II.

Surveying Methods and General Results.

Crossing the Libyan Desert from Maghagha and Minia

respectively, the two parties of the Geological Survey met at a joint
camp close to Zubbo, one of the chief villages of the oasis. It was
desirable to fix this meeting-point as a primary station for the
subsequent plotting of the maps. Cailliaud[10] gave the latitude of
Zubbo as 28° 21′ 47″, and its longitude as 26° 43′ 46″ E. of Paris,
(equivalent to 29° 3′ 55″ E. of Greenwich). Jordan gave for Bawitti
the position N. lat. 28° 21′ 12″, long. E. of Greenwich 28° 56′ 45″.
Taking the difference of latitude and longitude between Bawitti and
Zubbo as found by the Survey, viz., lat. + 55″, long. + 4′ 16″, we
have as the equivalent of Jordan’s latitude for Zubbo 28° 22′ 7″, and
for his longitude 29° 1′ 1″ E. of Greenwich. Thus, while there is a
fair agreement between the two authors as regards latitude, there is
a difference of 2′ 54″ in the values of the longitude.
The longitude is of course always the difficult matter in the
geographical determination of places not easy of access. Cailliaud’s
value rests on the method of distance and azimuths, both roughly
determined only; Jordan, on the other hand, used the absolute
though not very precise method of lunar distances measured with a
sextant. The Survey parties depended entirely on direct
measurement by means of measuring-wheels from known points in
the Nile Valley; the values obtained in this way are tabulated
below[11].

I.—Traverse from Maghagha to Zubbo.

Maghagha Railway Station, long. E. of Greenwich 30° 50′ 49″
Recorded west departure, Maghagha to Zubbo, 187·77
km. 1 56 46
Giving long. of Zubbo 28 54 3

II.—Traverse from Minia to Zubbo.

Minia Railway Station, long. E. of Greenwich 30° 45′ 39″
Recorded west departure, Minia to Zubbo, 176·32 km. 1 47 50
Giving long. of Zubbo 28 57 49

III.—Traverse from Zubbo to Minia, via the south end of the Oasis.
Recorded east departure, Zubbo-Minia, 174·87 km. 1° 46′ 45″
Minia Railway Station, long. E. of Greenwich 30 45 39
Giving long. of Zubbo 28 58 54

The arithmetic mean of these three determinations is 28° 56′

55″; owing, however, to the breakdown of the measuring-wheel
during the outward traverse from Maghagha, and the consequent
necessity of estimating a part of the distance traversed by the time
taken in marching, the different traverses are not equal in value, and
the longitude finally adopted by the survey, as the best
approximation after investigation of the various sources of error in
the measurements, was 28° 58′ 34″. It would thus appear that
Jordan’s position may be a little too far east, the difference
amounting to 2′ 27″, or about 3½ kilometres, while Cailliaud’s value
would place the position at a rather less distance west of that
adopted.
The survey observations confirmed the accuracy of Jordan’s
latitude (28° 22′ 7″), from which the value found by Cailliaud differs,
as already remarked, only slightly.
The surveying operations within the oasis were based on a rapid
plane-table triangulation from a measured base line within it, details
being simultaneously sketched in, on a scale of ¹⁄₅₀₀₀₀. The site
chosen for the base was a level stretch of ground extending between
the camp at Zubbo and an isolated clump of date-palms to the
north-east; the length of this line was found by repeated wheel-
measurement to be 3·88 kilometres. The two parties ran off their
triangulations from this base to the surrounding hills, and carried on
the mapping southward by plane-table, taking stations chiefly on the
hills and prominent points of the scarps, and not meeting again till
Ain el Haiss, in the southern part of the oasis, was reached. Here a
test was made as to agreement of the two sets of maps, only a
small difference being found. The position of Ain el Haiss, as found
by taking the mean of the two determinations, is latitude 28° 2′ 11″
N., longitude 28° 39′ 19″ E. of Greenwich; this places the spring
about 4′ 18″ east of Jordan’s determination (lat. 28° 1′ 55″ N., long.
28° 13′ 47″ E. of Green.).
The two parties made a third connection at the extreme south
end of the oasis-depression. Our observations for this point give its
latitude as 27° 48′ 13″ N., and its longitude as 28° 32′ 19″ E. of
Greenwich, placing it very near the position shown on Jordan’s map.
The plane-table method making use of the magnetic meridian, it
was imperative to determine the amount of declination of the
compass. This was done at one point only, viz., at the south end of
the oasis, the value found (by observation of the transit of Polaris)
being 4° 50′ W. The declination is fairly constant over the entire
area, except near the eruptive dolerite masses, the magnetite in
which causes a very sensible deflection of the needle; in the
neighbourhood of these, however, the surveying was carried on
independently of the compass. With regard to the yearly change of
declination, we have as data the previous observations of Cailliaud,
who found the declination at Zubbo in January, 1820, to be 12° 13′
W.; of Jordan, who obtained the value 6° 56′ W. in March, 1874; and
of Capt. Lyons,[12] whose observations with a Bamberg
declinatorium at Mandisha in April, 1894, gave the value 5° 8·9′ W.
Tabulating these:—

Observed Declination
Observer. Date. Yearly change.
W.

Cailliaud January 1820 12° 13′

 Observed Declination
Observer. Date. Yearly change.
W.

Jordan March 1874 6° 33′·6 6′·3

Lyons April 1894 5° 8′·9 4′·2
Geological Survey December 1897 4° 50′ 5′·3

In view of the magnitude of the diurnal variation, which may

range up to 10′ of arc, and our present lack of knowledge of the
distribution of this diurnal variation during the twenty-four hours, a
comparison after so short an interval as that between the last two
observations is not to be trusted. It would seem proved from the
three foregoing observations that the yearly variation is at present
decreasing, the mean from 1820 to 1874 being 6′·3 as against 4′·2
for the period 1874-1894. This decrease is also noticeable in
comparisons of the declinations observed at different times in other
parts of Egypt.
The altitudes above sea-level of the principal points, more
especially in the eastern half of the oasis, were determined with a
Watkin aneroid barometer, which had been compared with the Cairo
standard mercurial barometer. A fairly long stay was made at the
Zubbo camp, and the altitude of this point may be regarded as fairly
accurately fixed by the observations tabulated below:—

Zubbo. Cairo.
Date and Time. Difference.
Bar. (corrected). Bar. (corrected).

mm. mm. mm.

October 12, 6 p.m. 753·54 761·10 7·56

„ 14, 8 a.m. 754·94 763·04 8·10
„ 6 p.m. 753·79 761·53 7·74
„ 15, 7.30 a.m. 754·55 762·60 8·05
„ 9 p.m. 754·30 762·64 8·34
„ 17, 7.15 a.m. 754·18 761·84 7·66
 Zubbo. Cairo.
Date and Time. Difference.
Bar. (corrected). Bar. (corrected).

„ 18, 7 a.m. 753·79 761·64 7·85

noon 752·52 761·34 8·82
„ 19, 8.30 a.m. 752·65 762·31 9·66
Nov., 26, 3 p.m. 754·81 763·29 8·48
„ 27, 8 a.m. 754·81 764·12 9·31
Mean 8·32

Since 1 mm. of mercury corresponds at the mean temperature of

observation (20° C.) to 11·4 metres of height, we have height of
Zubbo camp above Cairo observatory = 8·32 × 11·4 = 94·7, or say
95 metres. Since the observatory is 33 metres above sea-level, the
camp at Zubbo is 128 metres above sea-level. Jordan’s altitude for
Bawitti, which probably lies at about the same level as Zubbo, is 113
metres, and when it is remembered that the point of the Survey’s
observation lay not in Zubbo itself, but at the camp on elevated
ground some 10 or 12 metres above it, the results show a very good
agreement.
At Ain el Haiss three barometric observations were taken on
different days; the comparison of these with the Cairo records would
place this point 156 metres above sea-level. Jordan’s value is 122
metres, the number of observations on which this figure is based not
being stated, it is difficult to say which of the two altitudes is the
more probable.
At the remaining camps within the oasis, and at the camps en
route between the oasis and Minia, corresponding observations were
taken, the number of comparisons with Cairo varying from two to
seven at an individual station. These observations being reduced and
corrected by comparison among themselves gave the levels of the
different camps with some degree of approximation to accuracy, and
the altitudes of intermediate points were found by interpolation
based on barometric readings. The resulting altitudes will be found
on the map (Plate I); where no altitudes have been taken by the
Survey, the values given by Ascherson on his map have been
inserted.
The statistics relating to the oasis, and the methods of cleaning
out wells, are based on information supplied by the Government
officials at Bawitti, and may be taken as fairly reliable. The
particulars regarding water-supply are of course based mainly on
direct observation during the survey of the villages.
The botany of the oasis having been fully studied by
Ascherson[13] no attempt was made by the Survey to collect or
describe the plants met with. The abundant growths of the beautiful
maiden-hair fern (Adiantum Capillus Veneris)[14] will not, however,
fail to strike even the casual visitor to the old Roman aqueducts,
which still serve as the principal water-channels of the oasis. Nor
were the animals of the oasis made the subject of any detailed
observations, although the existence of several of the species of
lizards and snakes common to the Nile Valley was recorded, and
specimens collected when easily obtainable.
Baharia is not rich in archæological remains, and, with few
exceptions, even those existing were not examined by the Survey,
though the positions of all ruins met with during the work were
mapped. In a later chapter will be found a connected though brief
account of all the antiquities noted, the publications of previous
authors being referred to wherever the descriptions cannot be given
from personal observations.
The principal point attended to in the topographical mapping by
the survey was the accurate delineation of the bounding scarps of
the oasis and of the large number of hills within it. These features,
of which an accurate map was essential for any proper consideration
of the geology, had been only rapidly sketched by previous
travellers, and the precise shape of the oasis was still unknown. In
the cultivated spots, on the other hand, much had been done by
Cailliaud, Jordan and Ascherson towards mapping the detail. Hence,
beyond re-determining the precise positions of the main points and
the general limits of the cultivated areas, no attempt at detailed
mapping in these areas was undertaken by the Survey parties, it
being felt that it would be preferable in the limited time available to
concentrate attention on the almost totally unknown features, so
essential to any geological consideration, rather than to devote
considerable time to the details of the inhabited spots.
Thus, while the field maps resulting from the survey represented
the oasis for the first time in its true shape, and the hills within it in
their true relative magnitudes and positions, they fell somewhat
short of the maps of Ascherson and Cailliaud in the number of
springs, ruins, etc., shown. The more important ruins overlooked by
the survey have, however, been inserted approximately from existing
maps, and the whole result (Plates I, III and VII), is an advance on
the existing representations.
The geology of the oasis was very carefully investigated, this
being a field in which comparatively little had been done, and a
number of very interesting results were obtained. The principal
points in this connection worthy of note resulting from the detailed
examination of the scarps and hills are—
(i) The existence of a marked unconformity between the Upper
Cretaceous and Eocene strata, thus confirming the unconformity
between these two great systems which had been noted[15] earlier
at Abu Roash; this unconformity has now been remarked in many
parts of Egypt.[16] The palæontological proofs of this unconformity
were obtained from the western scarp, the beds of the eastern side,
though they show the same thickening, being much poorer in fossils;
(ii) The occurrence of an extensive series of Upper Cretaceous
beds of Cenomanian to Danian age within the depression and
forming a large part of the desert to the west;
(iii) The precise extent and relations of the dolerite capping some
of the sandstone hills in the north of the depression;
 (iv) The existence of well-marked folding having an important
bearing on the origin of the oasis;
(v) The presence of ferruginous sandstone deposits of later origin
than the primary formation of the oasis-hollow, though long anterior
to the date when the work of excavation, which gave the oasis its
present form, took place.
These points will be found discussed at some length in the
chapter on the geology of the oasis.

[10] Op. cit., vol. IV.

[11] The positions of the two points of connection in the valley were
determined by Capt. Lyons in 1896.
The return traverse via Farafra to Assiut is left out of consideration
owing to its great length and consequent low value in the
determination of the longitude of Zubbo. It agrees however, very
closely with the others, owing to compensation of errors.
[12] Lyons, Proceedings of the Royal Society, vol. 71.
[13] Op. cit.
[14] The occurrence of this fern in the ravines of the Fayum may also
be recorded here.
[15] Beadnell, H. J. L., Geological Magazine. Jan., 1900, No. 427, pp.
46-48; The Cretaceous Region of Abu Roash, near the Pyramids of
Giza. Geol. Surv. Egypt, Report 1900, Part II, 1902.
[16] See Reports of the Geological Survey on Farafra, Kharga and the
Eastern Desert.
 CHAPTER III.

The Roads connecting the Oasis ofBaharia with the Nile Valley and other
Oases.

The roads traversed by the Survey parties between Baharia and

other places are three in number, viz., from near Maghagha and
from Minia in the Nile Valley, and from Baharia to Farafra Oasis.
Other well-known routes run from the Fayum, from Bahnessa,
Samalut (Ascherson) and Delga, in the Nile Valley, from Alexandria,
via Mogara, and from Siwa (Jordan, Cailliaud). The Survey’s return
traverse to Minia from the south end of Baharia did not follow any
defined road, but kept on the open plateau on a course computed
from the known positions of the points of departure and destination.
[17]

Road from
The road from Feshn and Maghagha to Baharia
Feshn and leaves the edge of the Nile Valley cultivation at Qasr el
Maghagha Lamlum Bey, which bears 51½° west of true north from
to Baharia.
Maghagha railway station, and is distant 15·4
kilometres. From this point the road is well-defined and easily
followed right into the oasis. In the following description the
distances are given from the edge of the Nile Valley cultivation.
The road at first leads over a strip of drift sand, half a kilometre
broad, with short prickly scrub, passing a white mosque on the left
and then turning off somewhat to a direction 26° south of west, and
continuing in a straight line for 15 kilometres over an undulating
gravelly plain. The high prominent cliffs, about 7 or 8 kilometres to
the north-west, are the flanks of Jebel Muailla, and a valley known
as Wadi Muailla leads through them to the Wadi Rayan in the Fayum
depression.[18] At 19 kilometres the valley scarp, with a number of
isolated peaks, is approached on the right, while ridges and low
mounds form the plain below, well-marked lines of drainage running
from here in a south-east direction towards the cultivation. At 23
kilometres the scarp runs back, enclosing a large bay, across which
the road runs and ascends to the plateau beyond at 27·8 kilometres.
Numerous isolated parallel sand-dunes in the form of small ridges
are seen running out into the bay from the cliff at the far end, all
lying slightly west of north and east of south, or parallel to the
normal wind direction.
The escarpment bounding the Nile Valley at this point is only
some 15 metres in height, being thus quite insignificant compared
with the cliffs on the east side. The plateau here was found to be
about 140 metres above the cultivation, the road having risen
gradually throughout. The latter continues for about 1½ kilometres
across the strip of plateau when it again descends, making a slight
detour to the left for easy descent. It then continues 9° south of
west, slightly winding, over gravelly undulating ground. At 31-32
kilometres a line of low hills is passed on the right, while a dark well-
marked range lies 6-7 kilometres to the left.
A ridge of sandstone, known as Jebel el Ghudda, is passed on
the right at 45 kilometres, from the end of which a small dune runs
out; beyond, the plain resumes its monotonous undulating character,
a low ridge being crossed at 61 kilometres. There, the road,
consisting of a number of more or less parallel well-marked narrow
paths worn by camels, which have a somewhat general habit of
marching in line one behind the other, changes its direction to 36°
south of west, falling gradually in level until a patch of scrub is
reached 6½ kilometres further on. This scrub was dead at the time
of the visit, and furnished a useful supply of fuel. From this point the
course is 7° south of west (true), which direction is maintained for
the next 42 kilometres over a remarkably monotonous undulating
gravel-covered desert, the typical “serir” of the Arabs. At 92 and
93½ kilometres some more patches of dead scrub were passed on
the right, while logs of silicified wood were noticed strewing the
plain on the left. An Arab grave was met with at 96 kilometres, while
skeletons of camels lie about near the roadside at frequent intervals;
at 110 kilometres the eye of the traveller is relieved by a small grove
of green thorny flat-topped acacia trees (Acacia nilotica, or “sunt” of
the Arabs) with a patch of coarse grass; four gazelle (probably
Gazella dorcas) were observed browsing on the scrub here.
The course now continues 12½° south of west, over gently
undulating gravelly “serir”, until the eastern scarp of El Bahr is
reached at 125 kilometres from the cultivation of the Nile Valley. The
“serir” or undulating gravelly type of desert then ceases.
El Bahr is a depression, some 60-70 metres deep, cut out in
white limestone rocks; its breadth at the point crossed by the road
was 8 kilometres. Within it are several high prominent hills, one of
which near the centre on the left side of the road is called Jebel Gar
Marzak. The bottom of the depression was quite green with
vegetation; sufficient water is said to fall every year to keep these
plants alive, and in 1894 rain is said to have fallen to such an extent
that a pool of considerable size was formed; the silt deposited by
this is plainly visible at the present time. A good deal of blown sand
occurs within the depression. El Bahr evidently corresponds to the
Bahr Bela Ma, (river without water) figured on some authors’ maps,
which has been frequently but erroneously referred to as an old
river-course; although this idea was shown to be untenable by
Zittel[19] and Ascherson[20] it has subsequently been maintained by
non-scientific writers. No traces of any river deposit occur in the
depression, which consists simply of a series of unconnected
depressions, eroded by wind-borne sand.[21]
The track leaves the depression at 134 kilometres, rising over
heavy sand; it then continues 3° north of west. The character of the
desert has now completely changed, and instead of the smooth
undulating gravelly “serir,” its surface is rough and hummocky, being
formed of hard bare limestone, cut up into sharp knobs and grooved
into furrows by the powerful action of wind-borne sand; it resembles
closely the surface of the rough open sea. This type of desert is
spoken of as “kharafish” by the Arabs. While the “serir” forms an
ideal surface for travelling over, the “kharafish” is the worst
imaginable, the innumerable hillocks necessitating incessant small
deviations, while the hard rough surface is in some places very
troublesome to camels; moreover, an extensive view is out of the
question and no tracks are visible on the surface, so that the road is
easily lost except where marked by frequent cairns built of loose
stones.
Occasional patches of blown sand are here met with, and the
first well-marked dunes were crossed at 141 kilometres. From here
onwards for kilometres the whole area was more or less sandy with
occasional narrow well-marked ridges or dunes, running almost due
north and south, and varying in breadth from that of a single line to
a number of parallel ridges side by side half a kilometre broad. The
largest dune of this group at 146½ kilometres is known as Ghard el
Shubbab. The steepest sides are those facing west where the angle
may reach 30°.
At the particular locality crossed by this road the sand area is
very easily crossed, a circuitous route being followed in order to take
advantage of the flatter dunes with the easiest slopes when crossing
the steeper ridges. Probably the road crosses at one of the easiest
points. This remarkable line of dunes, known as the Abu Moharik,
has its origin in the neighbourhood of the oasis of Mogara and runs
southward, almost without a break, across the desert until Kharga is
reached, whence with a slight break owing to the broken character
of the ground it continues southward within the oasis-depression.
The total width of the sand-belt on the road under description is
about 6 kilometres.
At 153 to 156 kilometres a number of black conical hills, Gar el
Hamra, are situate from 1 to 2 kilometres from the road on the
south side. One or two more sand-dunes were crossed and then the
road, maintaining its direction of 2°-3° north of west, lay over a
more or less uneven dark-coloured limestone desert broken up into a
number of small hills. At 169 kilometres a broad ridge of sand-dunes
was encountered, running 18° west of true north. These light yellow
dunes afford a beautiful and remarkable sight, running northwards
away to the horizon over a dark brown-coloured desert in an almost
perfectly straight line and with a sharply maintained junction-line
between the edge of the sand and the desert surface adjoining.
Within a few hundred metres of the western side of the sand-
dunes the road commences the descent from the plateau into the
oasis-depression. The road enters at the most northerly extremity of
the oasis, the descent being particularly easy at this point, passing
the large dark-coloured hill, Jebel Horabi (or Morabi?), on the right
almost immediately afterwards.
A fine view of the depression is obtainable from the top of the
escarpment, a broad low-lying expanse, bounded by steep
escarpments or walls, stretching away to the south, its monotony
relieved by several large flat-topped hill-masses, near which, on the
lowest portions of the floor, dark areas, the cultivated lands and
palm-groves can be distinguished. The road crosses the depression
in a south-westerly direction, passes a spring known as Ain el Gidr,
the first watering place, and divides in front of the great hill-masses
separating the two groups of villages, the eastern branch keeping
close under the eastern scarp of Jebel Mayesra, to avoid a large area
of soft salty ground, and leading to the villages of Zubbo and
Mandisha, While the western branch continues its course to the
cultivation surrounding El Qasr and Bawitti. The distance by this road
from Qasr el Lamlum Bey to the village of Zubbo is 190 kilometres
and to Bawitti 195 kilometres.

Geology of
Having now described the topographical features of
the Feshn- this road, the chief geological characters may be
Baharia noticed. The plain between the Nile Valley cultivation
and the scarp of the plateau is covered with sandy gravel, partly
downwash from the higher ground in Recent times, and partly the
remains of definite gravel deposits belonging to the Nile Valley
Pleistocene series.[22] The pebbles now found strewn over the plain
consist chiefly of flints, doubtless derived from the Eocene
limestones forming the deserts on both sides of the Nile Valley, and
occasional pebbles of hard felspar porphyry which must have
originally been derived from the igneous massifs of the Red Sea
Hills. Both are well rounded, although the former are frequently
broken up into angular fragments by temperature changes. White
granular beds of gypsum, of various degrees of impurity, crop out on
the plain in places, and in all probability there was in Pleistocene
times an extensive deposit of this mineral all over the surface of the
low-lying country. In the desert lying between the Fayum and the
Nile Valley further to the north, these gypseous beds occur of great
thickness and wide extent, and the deposits crossed on this road are
doubtless part of the same series.
The cliffs of Jebel Muailla to the north are capped by a hard dark
bed of limestone, which weathers with a vertical face, while the
more gentle slopes, generally more or less hidden with sand, are
doubtless formed of softer limestones, marls, and clays. During the
survey of the Fayum (see foot-note, p. 17) the hills surrounding
Wadi Muailla were found to be formed of Lower Mokattam beds
(Middle Eocene) and the hills seen from this road are doubtless
composed of the same beds. The ridges crossed at 20 kilometres are
formed of hard, compact, close-grained crystalline limestone,
covered with more or less gypsum and flint gravel; the limestone
beds forming these ridges show dips which suggest the existence of
a fault running N.E.-S.W., parallel to the trend of the cliff behind, and
this may be part of the extensive faults and folds of the Nile Valley.
In one small hill (22 kilometres) shales with Ostrea were noticed at
the base, with occasional hard oyster-limestone bands; the upper
part was formed of 10 metres of gravel consisting of well-rounded
limestone pebbles. This superficial deposit must be classed as
Pleistocene and may be a sea-beach, though no conclusive evidence
was obtainable on this point. The escarpment passed at 23
kilometres is capped by a bed of white limestone, shales forming the
slope, but was not examined at close quarters. The floor of the bay
formed by the receding cliff shows outcropping brown limestone
with Ostrea, and the escarpment on the far side is capped by a hard
white crystalline limestone with much flint, the latter forming bands.
On the surface is a thin calcareous gypseous gravel deposit,
doubtless of the same age as the gypseous beds already mentioned
as occurring on the plain below. The flanks of the scarp are hidden
by downwash. The cliff bounding this strip of plateau, 1½ kilometres
further on, is composed of the same beds, the limestone being here
silicified, with large silicified Conidæ. With regard to the age of these
limestones and clays they are probably equivalent to part of the
Lower Mokattam series already mentioned as forming the hill-
masses round Wadi Rayan, although no Nummulites gizehensis beds
were observed in the sections examined. A conspicuous black knob
among the low gravelly hills left two kilometres on the right at 32
kilometres, was found to be a neck of hard dark andesitic basalt, one
of the few occurrences of igneous rocks in the Western Desert.
Several other similar looking dark hills were in sight, but time did not
admit of their examination. The dark well-marked range 6-7
kilometres to the left of the road is probably identical with a range of
hills occurring 10 kilometres west of Bahnessa, which was
mapped[23] during the survey of the Nile Valley in 1899, and found
to consist of a mass of andesitic basalt similar to that forming the
small neck on this road. Doubtless they are both parts of the same
intrusion. The surface of the plain is still composed in part of
gypseous deposits, with occasional outcrops of the underlying
limestone, the surface being covered with a certain amount of loose
sand with rounded flints and their broken fragments. In the
neighbourhood of Jebel el Ghudda the plain consists of limestone
with numerous individuals of the large Nummulites gizehensis, and
are thus of Lower Mokattam age. Much of the limestone is
crystalline. The hills of Jebel el Ghudda are formed by younger
overlying beds consisting of hard silicified sandstones and grits
(quartzites), which lithologically are very similar to the beds of Jebel
Ahmar near Cairo, of Oligocene age. They may, however, belong to
the Upper Eocene series, so well developed above the Upper
Mokattam in the escarpments to the north of the Fayum, as this
series contains similar beds with similar silicified wood. They enclose