SCIENCE GRADE NINE NOTES

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)

1. DNA: An Overview

• Full Name: DNA stands for Deoxyribonucleic Acid.

• Role: DNA is the molecule that carries genetic information in all living organisms and many
viruses. It is responsible for storing and transmitting the genetic instructions used in growth,
development, functioning, and reproduction.

2. Structure of DNA

• Double Helix: DNA has a double helix structure, which looks like a twisted ladder. This model
was first proposed by James Watson and Francis Crick in 1953, with crucial contributions
from Rosalind Franklin's X-ray diffraction data.

A. Components of DNA

1. Nucleotides: The basic building blocks of DNA. Each nucleotide consists of three parts:

o Phosphate Group: Forms part of the DNA’s backbone.

o Deoxyribose Sugar: A five-carbon sugar molecule that is central to the nucleotide.

o Nitrogenous Base: There are four types of nitrogenous bases in DNA:

▪ Adenine (A)

▪ Thymine (T)

▪ Cytosine (C)

▪ Guanine (G)

2. Backbone: The backbone of the DNA molecule is made of alternating phosphate and
deoxyribose sugar molecules, connected by covalent bonds known as phosphodiester bonds.
This structure provides stability to the DNA molecule.

B. Base Pairing

• Complementary Base Pairing: The nitrogenous bases pair with each other to form the "rungs"
of the DNA ladder. The pairs are:

o Adenine (A) pairs with Thymine (T): Linked by two hydrogen bonds.

o Cytosine (C) pairs with Guanine (G): Linked by three hydrogen bonds.
 • Antiparallel Strands: The two strands of DNA run in opposite directions. One strand runs
from the 5' (five prime) end to the 3' (three prime) end, and the other strand runs from the
3' to the 5' end. This antiparallel orientation is crucial for DNA replication and function.

3. DNA Function

• Genetic Information Storage: DNA contains the instructions needed for an organism to
develop, survive, and reproduce. These instructions are encoded in the sequence of
nitrogenous bases.

A. Genes

• Definition: A gene is a specific sequence of nucleotides in DNA that encodes the instructions
for making a particular protein.

• Exons and Introns:

o Exons: Coding regions of a gene that are expressed as proteins.

o Introns: Non-coding regions that are removed during RNA processing.

B. Protein Synthesis

• Transcription: The process of copying a gene’s DNA sequence into messenger RNA (mRNA).

o Process:

1. Initiation: RNA polymerase binds to the promoter region of a gene.

2. Elongation: RNA polymerase unzips the DNA and adds RNA nucleotides
complementary to the DNA template strand.

3. Termination: Transcription stops when RNA polymerase reaches a terminator

sequence.

o Product: The mRNA carries the genetic information from the nucleus to the
ribosomes in the cytoplasm, where proteins are synthesized.

• Translation: The process by which the mRNA is decoded to produce a specific protein.

o Process:

1. Initiation: The mRNA binds to the ribosome, and the first tRNA binds to the
start codon (AUG).

2. Elongation: The ribosome moves along the mRNA, reading codons and bringing
in corresponding tRNAs carrying amino acids.

3. Termination: The process ends when a stop codon is reached, and the newly
formed protein is released.
4. DNA Replication

• Purpose: DNA replication is the process by which DNA makes an exact copy of itself, ensuring
that each new cell receives a complete set of genetic information.

A. Steps in DNA Replication

1. Unwinding: The double helix is unwound by the enzyme helicase, which breaks the hydrogen
bonds between the nitrogenous bases, creating a replication fork.

2. Priming: RNA primase adds a short RNA primer to the DNA strand to provide a starting point
for DNA synthesis.

3. Elongation:

o Leading Strand: DNA polymerase adds nucleotides continuously in the 5' to 3'
direction.

o Lagging Strand: DNA polymerase adds nucleotides in short segments called Okazaki
fragments, which are later joined by DNA ligase.

4. Proofreading: DNA polymerase has a proofreading function to correct any errors in the newly
synthesized DNA.

5. Termination: Once the entire DNA molecule has been replicated, the RNA primers are
removed, and the gaps are filled with DNA.

• Semi-Conservative Replication: Each new DNA molecule consists of one old (parental) strand
and one newly synthesized strand.

5. Chromosomes

• Structure: DNA molecules are organized into chromosomes. In eukaryotes, chromosomes are
found in the nucleus, while in prokaryotes, they are in the cytoplasm.

• Chromatin: In non-dividing cells, DNA is in a loosely coiled form called chromatin. During cell
division, chromatin condenses to form visible chromosomes.

• Human Chromosomes: Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes (46 total). Each parent
contributes one chromosome to each pair.

6. Genetic Variation and Mutation

• Mutation: Any change in the DNA sequence is called a mutation. Mutations can occur due to
errors during DNA replication, exposure to mutagens (e.g., radiation, chemicals), or
spontaneously.

o Types of Mutations:

▪ Point Mutation: A single nucleotide change.

▪ Insertion/Deletion: Addition or loss of nucleotides.

 ▪ Frameshift Mutation: Caused by insertions or deletions that change the
reading frame of the gene.

o Consequences: Mutations can be neutral, beneficial, or harmful. They are a primary

source of genetic diversity but can also lead to genetic disorders.

7. DNA Technology

• DNA Sequencing: The process of determining the exact order of the nucleotides within a
DNA molecule. It is used in research, medicine, and forensic science.

• PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction): A technique used to amplify small segments of DNA,
creating millions of copies for analysis.

• Genetic Engineering: The direct manipulation of an organism's DNA to change its

characteristics. Techniques include CRISPR-Cas9, which allows for precise editing of the
genome.

8. DNA and Heredity

• Mendelian Inheritance: Traits are passed from parents to offspring through genes according
to principles discovered by Gregor Mendel.

o Law of Segregation: Each parent contributes one allele for each gene to their
offspring.

o Law of Independent Assortment: Genes for different traits are inherited

independently of one another.

• Punnett Squares: A tool used to predict the probability of offspring inheriting certain traits
based on the genetic makeup of the parents.

9. DNA in Evolution

• Evolution: DNA mutations and genetic recombination contribute to the variation necessary
for evolution by natural selection.

• Molecular Evolution: The study of how DNA sequences change over time and contribute to
the evolutionary history of species.

10. Epigenetics

• Definition: Epigenetics involves changes in gene expression that do not involve alterations to
the underlying DNA sequence. These changes can be influenced by environmental factors and
can be heritable.

• Mechanisms:

o DNA Methylation: Addition of methyl groups to DNA, often silencing gene expression.
 o Histone Modification: Changes to the proteins around which DNA is wound, affecting
gene accessibility.

1. Alleles

• Definition: Alleles are different versions of a gene that are found at the same place (locus)
on a chromosome.

• Expression: Each person has two alleles for each gene, one inherited from each parent.

o Homozygous: When both alleles for a gene are the same (e.g., AA or aa).

o Heterozygous: When the alleles are different (e.g., Aa).

• Dominant and Recessive Alleles:

o Dominant Alleles: An allele that expresses its trait even when only one copy is present
(e.g., A in Aa).

o Recessive Alleles: An allele that only expresses its trait when two copies are present
(e.g., a in aa).

• Codominance and Incomplete Dominance:

o Codominance: Both alleles in a heterozygous individual fully express themselves (e.g.,

blood type AB).

o Incomplete Dominance: The phenotype of a heterozygous individual is a blend of the

two alleles (e.g., red and white flower alleles producing pink flowers).

2. Locus

• Definition: The locus (plural: loci) is the specific physical location of a gene or DNA sequence
on a chromosome.

• Chromosomal Loci: Each gene occupies a specific locus on a chromosome, which is crucial for
identifying where a gene is located within the genome.

• Gene Mapping: Scientists use loci to map genes on chromosomes, which helps in studying
genetic traits and diseases.

3. Chromosomes and Genes

• Chromosome Structure: Chromosomes are long strands of DNA wound around proteins called
histones. Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes.

• Gene: A segment of DNA that contains the instructions for building a specific protein. Each
gene occupies a specific locus on a chromosome.

• Homologous Chromosomes: Pairs of chromosomes (one from each parent) that have the same genes at
the same loci but may have different alleles.
4. Genetic Inheritance

• Mendelian Genetics:

o Law of Segregation: Each parent passes one allele for each gene to their offspring.

o Law of Independent Assortment: Genes for different traits are inherited independently of
each other.

• Punnett Squares:

o A diagram used to predict the outcome of a particular cross or breeding experiment.

o Shows the possible genotypes of offspring based on the alleles from the parents.

5. Mutation and Variation

• Mutation: A change in the DNA sequence that can affect how a gene functions.

o Point Mutation: A change in a single nucleotide.

o Insertion/Deletion: Addition or removal of one or more nucleotides.

o Effects of Mutations: Mutations can be beneficial, harmful, or neutral. They contribute to

genetic diversity within a population.

• Variation: Differences in DNA sequences among individuals in a population. This variation can lead to
different traits or characteristics.

6. Gene Expression

• Transcription: The process by which the information in a gene’s DNA is transferred to a messenger
RNA (mRNA).

• Translation: The mRNA is then used as a template to build a protein during the process of translation.

• Regulation: Gene expression is tightly regulated, ensuring that the right genes are expressed at the
right times.

7. Genetic Disorders

• Monogenic Disorders: Caused by mutations in a single gene (e.g., cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia).

• Polygenic Disorders: Involve multiple genes (e.g., heart disease, diabetes).

• Chromosomal Disorders: Result from abnormalities in chromosome number or structure (e.g., Down
syndrome, Turner syndrome).

8. Modern Genetics

• DNA Sequencing: The process of determining the exact sequence of nucleotides in a DNA molecule.

• Genetic Engineering: Techniques used to modify the genetic material of organisms, including CRISPR -
Cas9 for gene editing. Gene Therapy: A technique that uses genes to treat or prevent disease.