ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION – LOCAL AND GLOBAL ISSUES

Causes, effects and control measures. Air pollution. Indoor air pollution.
Water pollution. Soil pollution. Marine pollution. Noise pollution.
Solid waste management, composting, vermiculture. Urban and industrial
waste, recycling and re-use. Nature of thermal pollution and nuclear hazards.
Global warming, Acid rain and Ozone depletion

The thoughtless race for industrial development and unlimited exploitation of

natural resources has adversely affected the all forms of life in the biosphere by
polluting the natural resources like water, air and land. The affected air is highly
dangerous to breath, contaminated water is unfit for drinking and polluted soil is
unfit for cropping.

Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that

causes adverse change. Pollution can take the form of chemical substances or
energy, such as noise, heat or light. Pollutants, the components of pollution, can be
either foreign substances/energies or naturally occurring contaminants. Pollution is
often classed as point source or nonpoint source pollution.

One of the greatest problems that the world is facing today is that of environmental
pollution, increasing with every passing year and causing grave and irreparable
damage the earth. Pollution occurs in different forms; air, water, soil, radioactive,
noise, heat/ thermal and light. Every form of pollution has two sources of
occurrence; the point and the non-point sources. The point sources are easy to
identify, monitor and control, whereas the non-point sources are hard to control.

Types & Causes of Pollution:

 Air Pollution is the most prominent and dangerous form of pollution. It

occurs due to many reasons. Excessive burning of fuel which is a necessity of
our daily lives for cooking, driving and other industrial activities; releases a
huge amount of chemical substances in the air every day and these pollute
the air.

Smoke from chimneys, factories, vehicles or burning of wood basically occurs

due to coal burning; this releases sulphur dioxide into the air making it toxic.
The effects of air pollution are evident too. Release of sulphur dioxide and
hazardous gases into the air causes global warming and acid rain; which in

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turn have increased temperatures, erratic rains and droughts worldwide;

making it tough for the animals to survive. We breathe in every polluted
particle from the air; result is increase in asthma and cancer in the lungs.

 Water Pollution has taken toll of all the surviving species of the earth. Almost
60% of the species live in water bodies. It occurs due to several factors; the
industrial wastes dumped into the rivers and other water bodies cause an
imbalance in the water leading to its severe contamination and death of
aquatic species. If you suspect that nearby water sources have been
contaminated by a corporation then it might be a good idea to hire an expert
to see your options.

Also spraying insecticides, pesticides like DDT on plants pollutes the ground
water system and oil spills in the oceans have caused irreparable damage to
the water bodies. Eutrophication is another big source; it occurs due to daily
activities like washing clothes & utensils near lakes, ponds or rivers; this
forces detergents to go into water which blocks sunlight from penetrating,
thus reducing oxygen and making it inhabitable.

Water pollution not only harms the aquatic beings but it also contaminates
the entire food chain by severely affecting humans dependent on these.
Water-borne diseases like cholera, diarrhea has also increased in all places.

 Soil pollution occurs due to incorporation of unwanted chemicals in the soil

due to human activities. Use of insecticides and pesticides absorbs the
nitrogen compounds from the soil making it unfit for plants to derive
nutrition from. Release of industrial waste, mining and deforestation also
exploits the soil. Since plants can’t grow properly, they can’t hold the soil and
this leads to soil erosion.

 Noise pollution is caused when noise which is an unpleasant sound affects

our ears and leads to psychological problems like stress, hypertension,
hearing impairment, etc. It is caused by machines in industries, loud music,
etc.

 Radioactive pollution is highly dangerous when it occurs. It can occur due to

nuclear plant malfunctions, improper nuclear waste disposal, accidents, etc. It

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causes cancer, infertility, blindness, and defects at the time of birth; can
sterilize soil and affect air and water.

 Thermal/heat pollution is due to the excess heat in the environment creating

unwanted changes over long time periods due to huge number of industrial
plants, deforestation and air pollution. It increases the earth’s temperature,
causing drastic climatic changes and extinction of wildlife.

 Light pollution occurs due to prominent excess illumination of an area. It is

largely visible in big cities, on advertising boards and billboards, in sports or
entertainment events at the night. In residential areas the lives of the
inhabitants is greatly affected by this. It also affects the astronomical
observations and activities by making the stars almost invisible.

WATER

AIR LAND

POLLUTION

RADIOACTIVE NOISE

THERMAL LIGHT

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Effects of Pollution:

 Environment Degradation:
Environment is the first
casualty for increase in
pollution weather in air or
water. The increase in the
amount of CO2 in the
atmosphere leads to smog
which can restrict sunlight
from reaching the earth thus preventing plants in the process of
photosynthesis. Gases like Sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide can cause acid
rain. Water pollution in terms of Oil spill may lead to death of several wildlife
species.

 Human Health: The decrease in quality of air leads to several respiratory

problems including asthma or lung cancer. Chest pain, congestion, throat
inflammation, cardiovascular disease, respiratory diseases are some of
diseases that can be causes by air pollution. Water pollution occurs due to
contamination of water and may pose skin related problems including skin
irritations and rashes. Similarly, Noise pollution leads to hearing loss, stress
and sleep disturbance.

 Global Warming: The

emission of
greenhouse gases
particularly CO2 is
leading to global
warming. Every other
day new industries
are being set up, new vehicles come on roads and trees are cut to make way
for new homes. All of them, in direct or indirect way lead to increase in CO2 in
the environment. The increase in CO2 leads to melting of polar ice caps which
increases the sea level and pose danger for the people living near coastal
areas.

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 Ozone Layer Depletion:

Ozone layer is the thin
shield high up in the sky
that stops ultra violet rays
from reaching the earth.
As a result of human
activities, chemicals, such
as chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs), were released
into the atmosphere which contributed to the depletion of ozone layer.

 Infertile Land: Due to constant use of insecticides and pesticides, the soil may
become infertile. Plants may not be able to grow properly. Various forms of
chemicals produced from industrial waste are released into the flowing water
which also affects the quality of soil.

Pollution not only affect humans by destroying their respiratory, cardiovascular and
neurological systems; it also affects the nature, plants, fruits, vegetables, rivers,
ponds, forests, animals, etc, on which they are highly dependent for survival. It is
crucial to control pollution as the nature, wildlife and human life are precious gifts to
the mankind.

Pollution Control Measures:

Pollution control is a term used in environmental management. It means the control

of emissions and effluents into air, water or soil. Without pollution control, the waste
products from consumption, heating, agriculture, mining, manufacturing,
transportation and other human activities, whether they accumulate or disperse,
will degrade the environment. In the hierarchy of controls, pollution prevention and
waste minimization are more desirable than pollution control. In the field of land
development, low impact development is a similar technique for the prevention of
urban runoff.

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Pollution Control practices:

 Recycling: It is a process to change waste

materials into new products to prevent waste of
potentially useful materials, reduce the
consumption of fresh raw materials, reduce
energy usage, reduce air pollution (from
incineration) and water pollution (from
landfilling) by reducing the need for
"conventional" waste disposal, and lower
greenhouse gas emissions as compared to plastic
production.

Environmental effects of recycling

Material Energy savings Air pollution savings
Aluminium 95% 95%
Cardboard 24% —
Glass 5–30% 20%
Paper 40% 73%
Plastics 70% —
Steel 60% —

Aluminium is one of the most efficient and widely recycled materials. Aluminium is
shredded and ground into small pieces or crushed into bales. These pieces or bales
are melted in an aluminium smelter to produce molten aluminium. By this stage, the
recycled aluminium is indistinguishable from virgin aluminium and further
processing is identical for both. This process does not produce any change in the
metal, so aluminium can be recycled indefinitely.

Recycling aluminium saves 95% of the energy cost of processing new aluminium.
This is because the temperature necessary for melting recycled, nearly pure,
aluminium is 600 °C, while to extract mined aluminium from its ore requires 900 °C.
To reach this higher temperature, much more energy is needed, leading to the high
environmental benefits of aluminium recycling. Americans throw away enough

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 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

aluminium every year to rebuild their entire commercial air fleet. Also, the energy
saved by recycling one aluminium can is enough to run a television for three hours.

Like aluminium, copper is 100% recyclable without any loss of quality, regardless of
whether it is in a raw state or contained in a manufactured product. In volume,
copper is the third most recycled metal after iron and aluminium.

Iron and steel are the world's most recycled materials, and among the easiest
materials to reprocess, as they can be separated magnetically from the waste
stream. Recycling is via a steelworks: scrap is either remelted in an electric arc
furnace (90-100% scrap), or used as part of the charge in a Basic Oxygen Furnace
(around 25% scrap). Any grade of steel can be recycled to top quality new metal,
with no 'downgrading' from prime to lower quality materials as steel is recycled
repeatedly. 42% of crude steel produced is recycled material.

 Reusing: To reuse is to use an item again after it has

been used. This includes conventional reuse where
the item is used again for the same function and new-
life reuse where it is used for a different function. In
contrast, recycling is the breaking down of the used
item into raw materials which are used to make new
items. By taking useful products and exchanging
those, without reprocessing, reuse help save time,
money, energy, and resources.

Advantages and Disadvantages of reuse:

1. Energy and raw materials savings as replacing many single use products with
one reusable one reduces the number that need to be manufactured.
2. Reduced disposal needs and costs.
3. Refurbishment can bring sophisticated, sustainable, well-paid jobs to
underdeveloped economies.
4. Cost savings for business and consumers as a reusable product is often
cheaper than the many single use products it replaces.
5. Some older items were better handcrafted and appreciate in value.

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Disadvantages are also apparent:

1. Reuse often requires cleaning or transport, which have environmental costs.

2. Some items, such as Freon appliances, infant auto seats, older tube TVs and
secondhand automobiles could be hazardous or less energy efficient as they
continue to be used.
3. Reusable products need to be more durable than single-use products, and
hence require more material per item. This is particularly significant if only a
small proportion of the reusable products are in fact reused.
4. Sorting and preparing items for reuse takes time, which is inconvenient for
consumers and costs money for businesses?
5. Special skills are required to tweak the functional throughput of items when
devoting them to new uses outside of their original purpose.
6. Knowing the standards that legacy products conform to is required for
knowing what adapters to buy for newer products to be compatible with
them, even though the cost of adapters for such applications is a minor
disadvantage.
7. Being a rather minor disadvantage, metal that is repurposed later on can
sometimes contain rust, seeing as it sometimes ages before reuse.

 Reduce / Waste minimization: It is a process of

elimination that involves reducing the amount of
waste produced in society and helps eliminate the
generation of harmful and persistent wastes,
supporting the efforts to promote a more sustainable
society. Waste minimization involves redesigning
products and/or changing societal patterns,
concerning consumption and production, of waste
generation, to prevent the creation of waste.

 Mitigating: Environmental mitigation, compensatory mitigation, or mitigation

banking are the terms used to describe projects or programs intended to offset
known impacts to an existing historic or natural resource such as a stream,
wetland, endangered species, archeological site or historic structure. To
"mitigate" means to make less harsh or hostile. Environmental mitigation is
typically a part of an environmental crediting system established by governing
bodies which involves allocating debits and credits. Debits occur in situations
where a natural resource has been destroyed or severely impaired and credits

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are given in situations where a natural resource has been deemed to be

improved or preserved.

 Preventing: Pollution prevention reduces the amount of pollution generated by

a process, whether it is consumer consumption, driving, or industrial production.
In contrast to most pollution control strategies, which seek to manage a pollutant
after it is formed and reduce its impact upon the environment, the pollution
prevention approach seeks to increase the efficiency of a process, thereby
reducing the amount of pollution generated at its source.

 Compost: It is an organic
matter that has been
decomposed and recycled as a
fertilizer and soil amendment.
Compost is a key ingredient in
organic farming. At the simplest
level, the process of composting
simply requires making a heap
of wetted organic matter
known as green waste (leaves, food waste) and waiting for the materials to break
down into humus after a period of weeks or months. Modern, methodical
composting is a multi-step, closely monitored process with measured inputs of
water, air, and carbon- and nitrogen-rich materials. The decomposition process
is aided by shredding the plant matter, adding water and ensuring proper
aeration by regularly turning the mixture. Worms and fungi further break up the
material.

Pollution control devices:

 Dust collection systems: A dust collector is a system used to enhance the

quality of air released from industrial and commercial processes by collecting
dust and other impurities from air or gas.

o Bag houses: Designed to handle high-volume dust loads, a dust

collector system consists of a blower, dust filter, a filter-cleaning
system, and a dust receptacle or dust removal system. It is

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distinguished from air cleaners, which use disposable filters to remove

dust.

o Cyclones: Cyclonic separation is a method of removing particulates

from an air, gas or liquid stream, without the use of filters, through
vortex separation. Rotational effects and gravity are used to separate
mixtures of solids and fluids. The method can also be used to separate
fine droplets of liquid from a gaseous stream.

o Electrostatic precipitators: An electrostatic precipitator (ESP) is a

filtration device that removes fine particles, like dust and smoke, from
a flowing gas using the force of an induced electrostatic charge
minimally impeding the flow of gases through the unit. In contrast to
wet scrubbers which apply energy directly to the flowing fluid
medium, an ESP applies energy only to the particulate matter being
collected and therefore is very efficient in its consumption of energy
(in the form of electricity).

 Scrubbers: Scrubber systems are a diverse group of air pollution control

devices that can be used to remove some particulates and/or gases from
industrial exhaust streams. The first air scrubber was designed to remove
carbon dioxide from the air of an early submarine, the Ictineo I, a role which
they continue to be used for to this day. Traditionally, the term "scrubber"
has referred to pollution control devices that use liquid to wash unwanted
pollutants from a gas stream. Recently, the term is also used to describe
systems that inject a dry reagent or slurry into a dirty exhaust stream to
"wash out" acid gases. Scrubbers are one of the primary devices that control
gaseous emissions, especially acid gases. Scrubbers can also be used for heat
recovery from hot gases by flue-gas condensation.

o Baffle spray scrubber

o Cyclonic spray scrubber

o Ejector venturi scrubber

o Mechanically aided scrubber

o Spray tower

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o Wet scrubber

 Sewage treatment: Sewage treatment is the process of removing

contaminants from wastewater, including household sewage and runoff
(effluents). It includes physical, chemical, and biological processes to remove
physical, chemical and biological contaminants. Its objective is to produce an
environmentally safe fluid waste stream (or treated effluent) and a solid
waste (or treated sludge) suitable for disposal or reuse (usually as farm
fertilizer).

o Sedimentation (Primary treatment)

o Activated sludge bioreactors (Secondary treatment; also used for

industrial wastewater)

o Aerated lagoons

o Constructed wetlands (also used for urban runoff)

 Industrial wastewater treatment: Industrial wastewater treatment covers

the mechanisms and processes used to treat waters that have been
contaminated in some way by anthropogenic industrial or commercial
activities prior to its release into the environment or its re-use. Most
industries produce some wet waste although recent trends in the developed
world have been to minimize such production or recycle such waste within
the production process. However, many industries remain dependent on
processes that produce wastewaters.

o American Petroleum Institute (API) oil - water separators

o Bio filters

o Dissolved Air Flotation (DAF)

o Powdered activated carbon treatment

o Ultrafiltration

 Vapor Recovery Systems: Vapor (or vapour) recovery is the process of

recovering the vapors of gasoline or other fuels, so that they do not escape
into the atmosphere. This is often done (or required by law) at filling stations,

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in order to reduce noxious and potentially explosive fumes and pollution. The
negative pressure created in the (underground) tank by the withdrawal is
usually used to pull in the vapors. They are drawn-in through holes in the
side of the nozzle and travel through special hoses which have a return path.

 Phytoremediation / Bioremediation: It is a waste management technique

that involves the use of organisms to remove or neutralize pollutants from a
contaminated site. According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA),
bioremediation is a “treatment that uses naturally occurring organisms to
break down hazardous substances into less toxic or nontoxic substances”.
Technologies can be generally classified as in-situ or ex-situ. In-
situ bioremediation involves treating the contaminated material at the site,
while ex situ involves the removal of the contaminated material to be treated
elsewhere. Some examples of bioremediation related technologies are
phytoremediation, bioventing, bioleaching, land farming, bioreactor,
composting, bio-augmentation, rhizofiltration, and bio stimulation.

Bioremediation may occur on its own (natural attenuation or intrinsic

bioremediation) or may only effectively occur through the addition of
fertilizers, oxygen, etc., that help encourage the growth of the pollution-eating
microbes within the medium (bio stimulation). For example, the US Army
Corps of Engineers demonstrated that windrowing and aeration of
petroleum-contaminated soils enhanced bioremediation using the technique
of land farming. Depleted soil nitrogen status may encourage biodegradation
of some nitrogenous organic chemicals, and soil materials with a high
capacity to adsorb pollutants may slow down biodegradation owing to
limited bioavailability of the chemicals to microbes. Recent advancements
have also proven successful via the addition of matched microbe strains to
the medium to enhance the resident microbe population's ability to break
down contaminants. Microorganisms used to perform the function of
bioremediation are known as bioremediators.

However, not all contaminants are easily treated by bioremediation using

microorganisms. For example, heavy metals such as cadmium and lead are
not readily absorbed or captured by microorganisms. A recent experiment,
however, suggests that fish bones have some success absorbing lead from
contaminated soil. Bone char has been shown to bioremediate small amounts

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of cadmium, copper, and zinc. The assimilation of metals such as mercury

into the food chain may worsen matters. Phytoremediation is useful in these
circumstances because natural plants or transgenic plants are able to bio
accumulate these toxins in their above-ground parts, which are then
harvested for removal. The heavy metals in the harvested biomass may be
further concentrated by incineration or even recycled for industrial use.
Some damaged artifacts at museums contain microbes which could be
specified as bio remediating agents. In contrast to this situation, other
contaminants, such as aromatic hydrocarbons as are common in petroleum,
are relatively simple targets for microbial degradation, and some soils may
even have some capacity to auto remediate, as it were, owing to the presence
of autochthonous microbial communities capable of degrading these
compounds.

The elimination of a wide range of pollutants and wastes from the

environment requires increasing our understanding of the relative
importance of different pathways and regulatory networks to carbon flux in
particular environments and for particular compounds, and they will
certainly accelerate the development of bioremediation technologies
and biotransformation processes.

***

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Air Pollution:

Air is mainly a mixture of various gases such as oxygen,

carbon dioxide, nitrogen. These are present in a
particular ratio. Whenever there is any imbalance in the
ratio of these gases, air pollution is caused. The sources
of air pollution can be grouped as under:

 Natural; such as, forest fires, ash from

smoking volcanoes, dust storm and decay of
organic matters.

 Man-made due to population explosion, deforestation, urbanization and

industrializations.

Air pollution is caused mainly by Transportation, fuel combustion in stationary

sources, burning of fossil fuels like coal, wood, dry grass, and construction
activity. Motor vehicles produce high levels of Carbon Monoxide (CO) and
Hydrocarbons (HC) and Nitrogen Oxides (NO). Construction activities, bad roads
and burning of fossil fuels are responsible for Dust (particulate matter) Pollution.
Residential and Commercial activities also contribute to Air Pollution.

Major Causes for air pollution:

 Exhaust fumes from vehicles

 The burning of fossil fuels, such as coal, oil, or gas
 Harmful off-gassing from things such as paint, plastic production, and
so on
 Metals include lead, nickel, arsenic, beryllium, tin, vanadium, titanium,
cadmium and mercury
 Particulate matter include fly ash, dust, grit and other suspended
particulate matter
 Radiation spills or nuclear accidents

Indoor air pollution: It refers to the physical, chemical, and biological

characteristics of air in the indoor environment within a home, building, or an
institution or commercial facility. Indoor air pollution is a concern in the developed
countries, where energy efficiency improvements sometimes make houses relatively
airtight, reducing ventilation and raising pollutant levels. Indoor air problems can be
subtle and do not always produce easily recognized impacts on health. Different

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conditions are responsible for indoor air pollution in the rural areas and the urban
areas.

In the developing countries, it is the rural areas that face the greatest threat from
indoor pollution, where some 3.5 billion people continue to rely on traditional fuels
such as firewood, charcoal, and cow dung for cooking and heating. Concentrations of
indoor pollutants in households that burn traditional fuels are alarming. Burning
such fuels produces large amount of smoke and other air pollutants in the confined
space of the home, resulting in high exposure. Women and children are the groups
most vulnerable as they spend more time indoors and are exposed to the smoke. In
1992, the World Bank designated indoor air pollution in the developing countries as
one of the four most critical global environmental problems. Daily averages of
pollutant level emitted indoors often exceed current WHO guidelines and acceptable
levels. Although many hundreds of separate chemical agents have been identified in
the smoke from biofuels, the four most serious pollutants are particulates, carbon
monoxide, polycyclic organic matter, and formaldehyde. Unfortunately, little
monitoring has been done in rural and poor urban indoor environments in a manner
that is statistically rigorous.

 In urban areas, exposure to indoor air pollution has increased due to a

variety of reasons, including the construction of more tightly sealed
buildings, reduced ventilation, the use of synthetic materials for building and
furnishing and the use of chemical products, pesticides, and household care
products. Indoor air pollution can begin within the building or be drawn in
from outdoors. Other than nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, and lead, there
are a number of other pollutants that affect the air quality in an enclosed
space.

 Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC’s) originate mainly from solvents and

chemicals. The main indoor sources are perfumes, hair sprays, furniture
polish, glues, air fresheners, moth repellents, wood preservatives, and many
other products used in the house. The main health effect is the imitation of
the eye, nose and throat. In more severe cases there may be headaches,
nausea and loss of coordination. In the long term, some of the pollutants are
suspected to damage to the liver and other parts of the body.

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 Tobacco smoke generates a wide range of harmful chemicals and is known to

cause cancer. It is well known that passive smoking causes a wide range of
problems to the passive smoker (the person who is in the same room with a
smoker and is not himself/herself a smoker) ranging from burning eyes,
nose, and throat irritation to cancer, bronchitis, severe asthma, and a
decrease in lung function.

 Pesticides, if used carefully and the manufacturers, instructions followed

carefully they do not cause too much harm to the indoor air. Biological
pollutants include pollen from plants, mite, hair from pets, fungi, parasites,
and some bacteria. Most of them are allergens and can cause asthma, hay
fever, and other allergic diseases.

 Formaldehyde is a gas that comes mainly from carpets, particle boards, and
insulation foam. It causes irritation to the eyes and nose and may cause
allergies in some people.

 Asbestos is mainly a concern because it is suspected to cause cancer.

 Radon is a gas that is emitted naturally by the soil. Due to modern houses
having poor ventilation, it is confined inside the house causing harm to the
dwellers.

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Effects of air pollution: air pollution affects on humans, plants and animals.

On humans:

1. Lead particulate from automobile exhausts cause lead poisoning resulting in

coma and even death.

2. Kidney and liver damages due to cadmium particulate from smoking

3. Somatic and genetic problems due to radioactive fall out

4. Nerve, kidney and brain damages due to mercury from combustion of fossil
fuels and plants

5. Respiratory damage due to nickel particulates from tobacco smoke

6. Irritation of eyes, nose and throat

On plants: spraying of pesticides and fertilizers and other agricultural practices

cause exposure of the plants to a large number of air pollutants. It cause adversely
on the growth of plants due to disruption of photosynthesis activity by decreasing
the content of chlorophyll.

1. NO2 causes premature leaf fall and reduced yields of plants

2. SO2 bleaches the leaf surface and causes chlorosis (loss of chlorophyll and
yellowing of the leaf) especially in leaf vegetables

3. Peroxyacylnitrate (PAN) damages leafy vegetables causing premature fall and

curling of sepals

4. Ozone causes dead areas on the leaf (necrosis) and damages the leaves

On animals: they may get affected when the animals feed on the particulate coated
plants. Lead poisoning results in bronchitis and lack of appetite in pet animals.

On climate: due to deforestation and fuel combustion in industries and automobiles

the CO2 content of the atmosphere is expected to double by the year 2020. The
increased CO2 content will enhance the atmospheric temperature of earth resulting
in the melting of polar ice, glaciers etc causes flooding of coastal areas. Many times it
may change the rainfall pattern thereby causing low yielding in the agricultural
practices.

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Control measures of air pollution:

 Dust collection systems: A dust collector is a system used to enhance the

quality of air released from industrial and commercial processes by collecting
dust and other impurities from air or gas.

o Bag houses / fabric filters: Designed to handle high-volume dust loads,

a dust collector system consists of a blower, dust filter, a filter-
cleaning system, and a dust receptacle or dust removal system. It is
distinguished from air cleaners, which use disposable filters to remove
dust.

o Cyclones: Cyclonic separation is a method of removing particulates

from an air, gas or liquid stream, without the use of filters, through
vortex separation. Rotational effects and gravity are used to separate
mixtures of solids and fluids. The method can also be used to separate
fine droplets of liquid from a gaseous stream.

Bag House Blower Cyclonic separator

o Electrostatic precipitators: An electrostatic precipitator (ESP) is a

filtration device that removes fine particles, like dust and smoke, from
a flowing gas using the force of an induced electrostatic charge
minimally impeding the flow of gases through the unit. In contrast to
wet scrubbers which apply energy directly to the flowing fluid
medium, an ESP applies energy only to the particulate matter being
collected and therefore is very efficient in its consumption of energy
(in the form of electricity).

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 Scrubbers: Scrubber systems are a diverse group of air pollution control

devices that can be used to remove some particulates and/or gases from
industrial exhaust streams. The first air scrubber was designed to remove
carbon dioxide from the air of an early submarine, the Ictineo I, a role which
they continue to be used for to this day. Traditionally, the term "scrubber"
has referred to pollution control devices that use liquid to wash unwanted
pollutants from a gas stream. Recently, the term is also used to describe
systems that inject a dry reagent or slurry into a dirty exhaust stream to
"wash out" acid gases. Scrubbers are one of the primary devices that control
gaseous emissions, especially acid gases. Scrubbers can also be used for heat
recovery from hot gases by flue-gas condensation.

o Baffle spray scrubber

o Cyclonic spray scrubber

o Ejector venturi scrubber

o Mechanically aided scrubber

o Spray tower

o Wet scrubber

***

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Water Pollution:

Water pollution is the contamination of water

bodies (e.g. lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers and
groundwater). This form of environmental
degradation occurs when pollutants are directly
or indirectly discharged into water bodies
without adequate treatment to remove harmful
compounds.

“More precisely, the water pollution is nothing but presence of impurities and
foreign substances those are lower the quality of water, convert the waters unfit for
drinking and finally leads to health hazard. The quality of the water should be pure
for any type of consumption”.

Water pollution affects the entire biosphere – plants and organisms living in these
bodies of water. In almost all cases the effect is damaging not only to individual
species and population, but also to the natural biological communities.

Water pollution is a major global problem which requires ongoing evaluation and
revision of water resource policy at all levels (international down to individual
aquifers and wells). It has been suggested that water pollution is the leading
worldwide cause of deaths and diseases, and that it accounts for the deaths of more
than 14,000 people daily. An estimated 580 people in India die of water pollution
related illness every day. Around 90% the water in the cities of China is polluted,
half a billion Chinese had no access to safe drinking water. In addition to the acute
problems of water pollution in developing countries, developed countries also
continue to struggle with pollution problems. For example, in the most recent
national report on water quality in the United States, 45 percent of assessed stream
miles, 47% of assessed lake acres, and 32 percent of assessed bays and estuarine
square miles were classified as polluted. The head of China's national development
agency that one quarter the length of China’s seven main rivers was so poisoned the
water harmed the skin.

Water is typically referred to as polluted when it is impaired by anthropogenic

contaminants and either does not support a human use, such as drinking water, or

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undergoes a marked shift in its ability to support its constituent biotic communities,
such as fish. Natural phenomena such as volcanoes, algae blooms, storms, and
earthquakes also cause major changes in water quality and the ecological status of
water.

Although interrelated, surface water and groundwater have often been studied and
managed as separate resources. Surface water seeps through the soil and becomes
groundwater. Conversely, groundwater can also feed surface water sources. Sources
of surface water pollution are generally grouped into two categories based on their
origin.

Point Sources:

Point source water pollution refers to contaminants that enter a waterway from a
single, identifiable source, such as a pipe or ditch. Examples of sources in this
category include discharges from a sewage treatment plant, a factory, or a city storm
drain.

Non-Point Sources:

Nonpoint source pollution refers to diffuse contamination that does not originate
from a single discrete source. NPS pollution is often the cumulative effect of small
amounts of contaminants gathered from a large area. A common example is the
leaching out of nitrogen compounds from fertilized agricultural lands. Nutrient
runoffs in storm water from “sheet flow” over an agricultural field or a forest are
also cited as examples of NPS pollution.

Contaminated storm water washed off of parking lots, roads and highways, called
urban runoff, is sometimes included under the category of NPS pollution. However,
because this runoff is typically channeled into storm drain systems and discharged
through pipes to local surface waters, it becomes a point source.

Causes of water pollution:

1. Raw sewage running into lake or streams

2. Industrial waste spills contaminating groundwater

3. Radiation spills or nuclear accidents

4. Illegal dumping of substances or items within bodies of water

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5. Biological contamination, such as bacteria growth

6. Farm runoff into nearby bodies of water.

Effects of water pollution:

Water pollution is very harmful to humans, animals and water life. The effects can be
catastrophic, depending on the kind of chemicals, concentrations of the pollutants
and where there are polluted. The effects of water pollution are varied and depend
on what chemicals are dumped and in which locations.

Many water bodies near urban areas (cities and towns) are highly polluted. This is
the result of both garbage dumped by individuals and dangerous chemicals legally
or illegally dumped by manufacturing industries, health centers, schools and market
places.

1. Death of aquatic (water) animals: The main problem caused by water

pollution is that it kills life that depends on these water bodies. Dead fish,
crabs, birds and sea gulls, dolphins, and many other animals often wind up on
beaches, killed by pollutants in their habitat (living environment).

2. Disruption of food-chains: Pollution disrupts the natural food chain as well.

Pollutants such as lead and cadmium are eaten by tiny animals. Later, these
animals are consumed by fish and shellfish, and the food chain continues to
be disrupted at all higher levels.

3. Diseases: Eventually, humans are affected by this process as well. People can
get diseases such as hepatitis by eating seafood that has been poisoned. In
many poor nations, there is always outbreak of cholera and diseases as a
result of poor drinking water treatment from contaminated waters.

4. Destruction of ecosystems: Ecosystems (the interaction of living things in a

place, depending on each other for life) can be severely changed or destroyed
by water pollution. Many areas are now being affected by careless human
pollution, and this pollution is coming back to hurt humans in many ways.

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Control measures of water pollution:

The treatment for is essential to use the water as potable. The main objective of the
water treatment is to remove the contaminants. The procedures for treatment of
water are:

1. Primary treatment:

a. Screening

b. Grit removal

c. Sedimentation

d. Floatation

e. Neutralization

2. Secondary treatment:

a. Activated sludge process

3. Tertiary process:

a. Removal of suspended solids

b. Removal of BOD

c. Removal of dissolved solids

d. Removal of toxic substances

Besides, the following are the different measures to control the water pollution.

a. Scientific techniques should be adopted for environmental control of

catchment areas of rivers, ponds or streams

b. Industrial plants should be based on recycling operations as it helps prevent

disposal of wastes into natural waters but also extraction of products from
waste.

c. No type of waste (treated, partially treated or untreated) should be discharged

into any natural water body.

d. Industries should develop closed loop water supply schemes and domestic
sewage must be used for irrigation.

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e. Qualified and experienced people must be consulted from time to time for
effective control of water pollution.

f. Public awareness must be initiated regarding adverse effects of water pollution

using the media.

g. Laws, standards and practices should be established to prevent water pollution

and these laws should be modified from time to time based on current
requirements and technological advancements.

h. Basic and applied research in public health engineering should be encouraged.

***

Soil Pollution:

Soil contamination or soil pollution is caused by

the presence of xenobiotic (human-made)
chemicals or other alteration in the natural soil
environment. It is typically caused by industrial
activity, agricultural chemicals, or improper
disposal of waste. The most common chemicals
involved are petroleum hydrocarbons, polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (such as
naphthalene and benzo (a) pyrene), solvents, pesticides, lead, and other heavy
metals. Contamination is correlated with the degree of industrialization and
intensity of chemical usage.

(Land pollution is the deterioration (destruction) of the earth’s land surfaces, often
directly or indirectly as a result of man’s activities and their misuse of land
resources.)

The concern over soil contamination stems primarily from health risks, from direct
contact with the contaminated soil, vapors from the contaminants, and from
secondary contamination of water supplies within and underlying the soil. Mapping
of contaminated soil sites and the resulting cleanup are time consuming and
expensive tasks, requiring extensive amounts of geology, hydrology, chemistry,
computer modeling skills, and GIS in Environmental Contamination, as well as an
appreciation of the history of industrial chemistry.

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Types of land pollution:

There are different types of land pollution. These four main types:

1. Solid Waste: These include all the various kinds of rubbish we make at home,
school, hospitals, market and work places. Things like paper, plastic
containers, bottles, cans, food and even used cars and broken electronic
goods, broken furniture and hospital waste are all examples of solid waste.
Some of these are biodegradable (meaning they easily rot or decay into
organic matter). Examples include food droppings, paper products as well as
vegetation (like grass and twigs). Others are not biodegradable, and they
include plastics, metals and aluminum cans, broken computer and car parts.

2. Pesticides and Fertilizers: Many farming activities engage in the application

of fertilizers, pesticides and insecticides for higher crop yield. This is good
because we get more food, but can you think of what happens to the
chemicals that end up on the crops and soils? Sometimes, insects and small
animals are killed and bigger animals that eat tiny animals (as in food chains)
are also harmed. Finally, the chemicals may be washed down as it rains and
over time, they end up in the water table below.

3. Chemicals: Chemical and nuclear power plants produce waste materials that
have to be stored somewhere. Fertilizer, insecticides, pesticides,
pharmaceuticals manufacturers also produce lots of solid and liquid waste. In
many cases they are stored in an environmentally safe way, but there are
some that find their way into landfills and other less safe storage facilities.
Sometimes they also find their way into leaking pipes and gutters. They end
up polluting soils and making crops harmful to our health.

4. Deforestation: Humans depend on trees for many things including life. Trees
absorb carbon dioxide (a greenhouse gas) from the air and enrich the air with
Oxygen, which is needed for life. Trees provide wood for humans and a
habitat to many land animals, insects and birds. Trees also, help replenish
soils and help retain nutrients being washed away. Unfortunately, we have
cut down millions of acres of tree for wood, construction, farming and mining
purposes, and never planted new trees back. This is a type of land pollution.

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Main Causes of Soil Pollution:

1. Industrial Activity: Industrial activity has been the biggest contributor to

the problem in the last century, especially since the amount of mining and
manufacturing has increased. Most industries are dependent on
extracting minerals from the Earth. Whether it is iron ore or coal, the by
products are contaminated and they are not disposed off in a manner that
can be considered safe. As a result, the industrial waste lingers in the soil
surface for a long time and makes it unsuitable for use.

2. Agricultural Activities: Chemical utilization has gone up tremendously

since technology provided us with modern pesticides and fertilizers. They
are full of chemicals that are not produced in nature and cannot be broken
down by it. As a result, they seep into the ground after they mix with
water and slowly reduce the fertility of the soil. Other chemicals damage
the composition of the soil and make it easier to erode by water and air.
Plants absorb many of these pesticides and when they decompose, they
cause soil pollution since they become a part of the land.

3. Waste Disposal: Finally, a growing cause for concern is how we dispose of

our waste. While industrial waste is sure to cause contamination, there is
another way in which we are adding to the pollution. Every human
produces a certain amount of personal waste products by way or urine
and feces. While much of it moves into the sewer the system, there is also
a large amount that is dumped directly into landfills in the form of
diapers. Even the sewer system ends at the landfill, where the biological
waste pollutes the soil and water. This is because our bodies are full of
toxins and chemicals which are now seeping into the land and causing
pollution of soil.

4. Accidental Oil Spills: Oil leaks can happen during storage and transport of
chemicals. This can be seen at most of the fuel stations. The chemicals
present in the fuel deteriorate the quality of soil and make them
unsuitable for cultivation. These chemicals can enter into the
groundwater through soil and make the water undrinkable.

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5. Acid Rain: Acid rain is caused when pollutants present in the air mixes up
with the rain and fall back on the ground. The polluted water could
dissolve away some of the important nutrients found in soil and change
the structure of the soil.

6. Deforestation: This is when trees are cut down for economic purposes,
mining, farming and construction. In forests areas, trees absorb and
reflect about 20% of the intense heat from the sun, protecting and
preserving its surface soils. Cutting down trees mean that the land is
exposed to direct sunlight and rain, resulting in soil erosions,
desertification and land degradation

7. Ashes / Landfill: The residual matter that remains after solid fuels are
burned. When waste is burned in incinerators, two types of ashes are
produced. Bottom ash is the debris from burnt metal and glass waste.
Bottom ash is not bio-degradable. The second type of ash is called fly ash.
This is the ash that is trapped by filters in the chimney of the incinerators.
It is known to be very toxic (poisonous). Every four trucks of waste burnt
produce about one truck of ashes that end up in the landfill too. Ashes
easily leak into the soil and water tables causing land and water pollution.

8. Mining and other industries: This includes piles of coal refuse and heaps
of slag and underground debris. Mining and forestry activities that clear
the land surfaces (clear-cutting) and use 'skid trails' often leave the land
unrestored. The surface is exposed to erosion which destroys the quality
of the land. Additionally, iron and other chemicals such as copper,
mercury and lead from mining practices leach into the soil, polluting it
and leaving it exposed to water bodies as well.

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Effects of land pollution:

There can be catastrophic consequences of land pollution in relation to humans,

animals, water and soils. The effects are even worse if the garbage is not separated
into organic, re-usable and recyclable waste.

1. Effect on Health of Humans: Considering how soil is the reason we are able to
sustain ourselves, the contamination of it has major consequences on our
health. Crops and plants grown on polluted soil absorb much of the pollution
and then pass these on to us. This could explain the sudden surge in small
and terminal illnesses.

Long term exposure to such soil can affect the genetic make-up of the body,
causing congenital illnesses and chronic health problems that cannot be
cured easily. In fact, it can sicken the livestock to a considerable extent and
cause food poisoning over a long period of time. The soil pollution can even
lead to widespread famines if the plants are unable to grow in it.

2. Effect on Growth of Plants: The ecological balance of any system gets affected
due to the widespread contamination of the soil. Most plants are unable to
adapt when the chemistry of the soil changes so radically in a short period of
time. Fungi and bacteria found in the soil that bind it together begin to
decline, which creates an additional problem of soil erosion.

The fertility slowly diminishes, making land unsuitable for agriculture and
any local vegetation to survive. The soil pollution causes large tracts of land
to become hazardous to health. Unlike deserts, which are suitable for its
native vegetation, such land cannot support most forms of life.

3. Decreased Soil Fertility: The toxic chemicals present in the soil can decrease
soil fertility and therefore decrease in the soil yield. The contaminated soil is
then used to produce fruits and vegetables which lacks quality nutrients and
may contain some poisonous substance to cause serious health problems in
people consuming them.

4. Toxic Dust: The emission of toxic and foul gases from landfills pollutes the
environment and causes serious effects on health of some people. The
unpleasant smell causes inconvenience to other people.

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5. Changes in Soil Structure: The death of many soil organisms (e.g.

earthworms) in the soil can lead to alteration in soil structure. Apart from
that, it could also force other predators to move to other places in search of
food.

Control measures of soil pollution:

The greatest prevention to land pollution is in the three ‘R's are Reduce Waste, Re-
use things and Recycle things. This is true even for governments. They can also use
the three ‘R’ rule to minimize the amount of waste that ends up in landfills. After the
three 'R's, remember to turn the rest of the garbage into compost.

 By minimizing the generation of solid waste

 By reusing and recycling of solid wastes such as

o Paper

o Metal parts

o Glass articles

 By employing proper disposal methods such as

o Composting

o Sanitary landfilling

 By treating heavy metals and toxins

 By minimizing the use of artificial fertilizers

 Soil erosion should be prevented

 Reduce the salinization of soils

 By increasing the infiltration of rain water

 Extensive afforestation

A number of ways have been suggested to curb the current rate of pollution. Such
attempts at cleaning up the environment require plenty of time and resources to be
pitched in. Industries have been given regulations for the disposal of hazardous
waste, which aims at minimizing the area that becomes polluted. Organic methods of

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farming are being supported, which do not use chemical laden pesticides and
fertilizers. Use of plants that can remove the pollutants from the soil is being
encouraged. However, the road ahead is quite long and the prevention of soil
pollution will take many more years.

***

Noise pollution:

Noise pollution or noise disturbance is the disturbing or excessive noise that may
harm the activity or balance of human or animal life. The source of most outdoor
noise worldwide is mainly caused by machines and transportation systems, motor
vehicles, aircraft, and trains. Outdoor noise is summarized by the word
environmental noise. Poor urban planning may give rise to noise pollution, since
side-by-side industrial and residential buildings can result in noise pollution in the
residential areas.

Indoor noise can be caused by machines, building activities, and music

performances, especially in some workplaces. Noise-induced hearing loss can be
caused by outside (e.g. trains) or inside (e.g. music) noise.

High noise levels can contribute to cardiovascular effects in humans, a rise in blood
pressure, and an increase in stress and vasoconstriction, and an increased incidence
of coronary artery disease. In animals, noise can increase the risk of death by
altering predator or prey detection and avoidance, interfere with reproduction and
navigation, and contribute to permanent hearing loss.

Sources of noise pollution:

 Household sources: Gadgets like food mixer, grinder, vacuum cleaner,

washing machine and dryer, cooler, air conditioners can be very noisy and
injurious to health. Others include loud speakers of sound systems and TVs,
iPods and ear phones. Another example may be your neighbor’s dog barking
all night every day at every shadow it sees, disturbing everyone else in the
apartment.

 Social events: Places of worship, discos and gigs, parties and other social
events also create a lot of noise for the people living in that area. In many
market areas, people sell with loud speakers; others shout out offers and try

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to get customers to buy their goods. It is important to note that whey these
events are not often, they can be called 'Nuisance' rather than noise pollution.

 Commercial and industrial activities: Printing presses, manufacturing

industries, construction sites, contribute to noise pollutions in large cities. In
many industries, it is a requirement that people always wear earplugs to
minimize their exposure to heavy noise. People who work with lawn mowers,
tractors and noisy equipment are also required to wear noise-proof gadgets.

 Transportation: Think of aero planes flying over houses close to busy airports
like Heathrow (London) or Ohare (Chicago), over ground and underground
trains, vehicles on road—these are constantly making a lot of noise and
people always struggle to cope with them.

Effects of noise pollution:

On Human:

 Noise pollution effects both health and behavior. Unwanted sound (noise) can
damage psychological health. Noise pollution can cause hypertension, high
stress levels, tinnitus, hearing loss, sleep disturbances, and other harmful
effects.

 Sound becomes unwanted when it either interferes with normal activities

such as sleeping, conversation, or disrupts or diminishes one’s quality of life

 Chronic exposure to noise may cause noise-induced hearing loss. Older males
exposed to significant occupational noise demonstrate more significantly
reduced hearing sensitivity than their non-exposed peers, though differences
in hearing sensitivity decrease with time and the two groups are
indistinguishable by age 79. A comparison of Maaban tribesmen, who were
insignificantly exposed to transportation or industrial noise, to a typical U.S.
population showed that chronic exposure to moderately high levels of
environmental noise contributes to hearing loss.

 High noise levels can contribute to cardiovascular effects and exposure to

moderately high levels during a single eight-hour period causes a statistical
rise in blood pressure of five to ten points and an increase in stress, and
vasoconstriction leading to the increased blood pressure noted above, as well

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as to increased incidence of coronary artery disease. Noise pollution also is a

cause of annoyance. A 2005 study by Spanish researchers found that in urban
areas households are willing to pay approximately four Euros per decibel per
year for noise reduction.

On Wildlife:

 Noise can have a detrimental effect on wild animals, increasing the risk of
death by changing the delicate balance in predator or prey detection and
avoidance, and interfering the use of the sounds in communication, especially
in relation to reproduction and in navigation. Acoustic overexposure can lead
to temporary or permanent loss of hearing.

 An impact of noise on wild animal life is the reduction of usable habitat that
noisy areas may cause, which in the case of endangered species may be part
of the path to extinction. Noise pollution may have caused the death of certain
species of whales that beached themselves after being exposed to the loud
sound of military sonar.

 Noise also makes species communicate more loudly, which is called Lombard
vocal response. Scientists and researchers have conducted experiments that
show whales' song length is longer when submarine-detectors are on. If
creatures do not "speak" loudly enough, their voice will be masked by
anthropogenic sounds. These unheard voices might be warnings, finding of
prey, or preparations of net-bubbling. When one species begins speaking
more loudly, it will mask other species' voice, causing the whole ecosystem
eventually to speak more loudly.

 Marine invertebrates, such as crabs (Carcinus maenas), have also been shown
to be impacted by ship noise. Larger crabs were noted to be impacted more
by the sounds than smaller crabs. Repeated exposure to the sounds did lead
to acclimatization.

 European robins living in urban environments are more likely to sing at night
in places with high levels of noise pollution during the day, suggesting that
they sing at night because it is quieter, and their message can propagate
through the environment more clearly. The same study showed that daytime

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noise was a stronger predictor of nocturnal singing than night-time light

pollution, to which the phenomenon often is attributed.

 Zebra finches become less faithful to their partners when exposed to traffic
noise. This could alter a population's evolutionary trajectory by selecting
traits, sapping resources normally devoted to other activities and thus
leading to profound genetic and evolutionary consequences.

 In a first of its kind preliminary study on the Health effects from noise as it
relates to weight gain and blood cortisol levels in farm animals, in this study,
two groups of growing geese, the first remaining within 50 meters from a
wind turbine and the second 500 meters; after 12 weeks of growth the
research group found that the closer, first group, had "significant differences"
when compared with its more distant pairing and "gained less weight and
had a higher concentration of cortisol in blood," compared to individuals
from the more distant group, with the results of the study suggesting "a
negative effect of the immediate vicinity of a wind turbine on the stress
parameters of geese and their productivity."

Marine pollution:

Marine pollution occurs when harmful, or potentially harmful, effects result from the
entry into the ocean of chemicals, particles, industrial, agricultural and residential
waste, noise, or the spread of invasive organisms. Most sources of marine pollution
are land based. The pollution often comes from nonpoint sources such as
agricultural runoff, wind-blown debris and dust. Nutrient pollution, a form of water
pollution, refers to contamination by excessive inputs of nutrients. It is a primary
cause of eutrophication of surface waters, in which excess nutrients, usually
nitrogen or phosphorus, stimulate algae growth.

Many potentially toxic chemicals adhere to tiny particles which are then taken up by
plankton and benthos animals, most of which are either deposit or filter feeders. In
this way, the toxins are concentrated upward within ocean food chains. Many
particles combine chemically in a manner highly depletive of oxygen, causing
estuaries to become anoxic.

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When pesticides are incorporated into the marine ecosystem, they quickly become
absorbed into marine food webs. Once in the food webs, these pesticides can cause
mutations, as well as diseases, which can be harmful to humans as well as the entire
food web.

Toxic metals can also be introduced into marine food webs. These can cause a
change to tissue matter, biochemistry, behavior, reproduction, and suppress growth
in marine life. Also, many animal feeds have a high fish meal or fish hydrolysate
content. In this way, marine toxins can be transferred to land animals, and appear
later in meat and dairy products.

Pollution is often classed as point source or non-point source pollution. Point source
pollution occurs when there is a single, identifiable, and localized source of the
pollution. An example is directly discharging sewage and industrial waste into the
ocean. Pollution such as this occurs particularly in developing nations. Nonpoint
source pollution occurs when the pollution comes from ill-defined and diffuse
sources. These can be difficult to regulate. Agricultural runoff and windblown debris
are prime examples.

Direct discharge:

Pollutants enter rivers and the sea directly from urban sewerage and industrial
waste discharges, sometimes in the form of hazardous and toxic wastes. Inland
mining for copper, gold. etc., is another source of marine pollution. Most of the
pollution is simply soil, which ends up in rivers flowing to the sea. However, some
minerals discharged in the course of the mining can cause problems, such as copper,
a common industrial pollutant, which can interfere with the life history and
development of coral polyps. Mining has a poor environmental track record. For
example, according to the United States Environmental Protection Agency, mining
has contaminated portions of the headwaters of over 40% of watersheds in the
western continental US. Much of this pollution finishes up in the sea.

Land runoff:

Surface runoff from farming, as well as urban runoff and runoff from the
construction of roads, buildings, ports, channels, and harbors, can carry soil and
particles laden with carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and minerals. This nutrient-rich

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water can cause fleshy algae and phytoplankton to thrive in coastal areas; known as
algal blooms, which have the potential to create hypoxic conditions by using all
available oxygen.

Polluted runoff from roads and highways can be a significant source of water
pollution in coastal areas. About 75 percent of the toxic chemicals that flow into
Puget Sound are carried by storm water that runs off paved roads and driveways,
rooftops, yards and other developed land.

Deep sea mining:

Deep sea mining is a relatively new mineral retrieval process that takes place on the
ocean floor. Ocean mining sites are usually around large areas of polymetallic
nodules or active and extinct hydrothermal vents at about 1,400 - 3,700 meters
below the ocean’s surface. The vents create sulfide deposits, which contain precious
metals such as silver, gold, copper, manganese, cobalt, and zinc. The deposits are
mined using either hydraulic pumps or bucket systems that take ore to the surface
to be processed. As with all mining operations, deep sea mining raises questions
about environmental damages to the surrounding areas.

Because deep sea mining is a relatively new field, the complete consequences of full
scale mining operations are unknown. However, experts are certain that removal of
parts of the sea floor will result in disturbances to the benthic layer, increased
toxicity of the water column and sediment plumes from tailings. Removing parts of
the sea floor disturbs the habitat of benthic organisms, possibly, depending on the
type of mining and location, causing permanent disturbances. Aside from direct
impact of mining the area, leakage, spills and corrosion would alter the mining area’s
chemical makeup.

Among the impacts of deep sea mining, sediment plumes could have the greatest
impact. Plumes are caused when the tailings from mining (usually fine particles) are
dumped back into the ocean, creating a cloud of particles floating in the water. Two
types of plumes occur: near bottom plumes and surface plumes. Near bottom
plumes occur when the tailings are pumped back down to the mining site. The
floating particles increase the turbidity, or cloudiness, of the water, clogging filter-
feeding apparatuses used by benthic organisms. Surface plumes cause a more

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serious problem. Depending on the size of the particles and water currents the
plumes could spread over vast areas. The plumes could impact zooplankton and
light penetration, in turn affecting the food web of the area.

Ship pollution:

Ships can pollute waterways and oceans in many ways. Oil spills can have
devastating effects. While being toxic to marine life, polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAHs), found in crude oil, are very difficult to clean up, and last for
years in the sediment and marine environment.

Oil spills are probably the most emotive of marine pollution events. However, while
a tanker wreck may result in extensive newspaper headlines, much of the oil in the
world’s seas comes from other smaller sources, such as tankers discharging ballast
water from oil tanks used on return ships, leaking pipelines or engine oil disposed of
down sewers.

Discharge of cargo residues from bulk carriers can pollute ports, waterways and
oceans. In many instances vessels intentionally discharge illegal wastes despite
foreign and domestic regulation prohibiting such actions. It has been estimated that
container ships lose over 10,000 containers at sea each year (usually during storms).
Ships also create noise pollution that disturbs natural wildlife, and water from
ballast tanks can spread harmful algae and other invasive species.

Ballast water taken up at sea and released in port is a major source of unwanted
exotic marine life. The invasive freshwater zebra mussels, native to the Black,
Caspian and Azov seas, were probably transported to the Great Lakes via ballast
water from a transoceanic vessel. Meinesz believes that one of the worst cases of a
single invasive species causing harm to an ecosystem can be attributed to a
seemingly harmless jellyfish. Mnemiopsis leidyi is a species of comb jellyfish that
spread so it now inhabits estuaries in many parts of the world. It was first
introduced in 1982, and thought to have been transported to the Black Sea in a
ship’s ballast water. The population of the jellyfish shot up exponentially and, by
1988, it was wreaking havoc upon the local fishing industry. “The anchovy catch fell
from 204,000 tons in 1984 to 200 tons in 1993; sprat from 24,600 tons in 1984 to
12,000 tons in 1993; horse mackerel from 4,000 tons in 1984 to zero in 1993.” Now

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that the jellyfish have exhausted the zooplankton, including fish larvae, their
numbers have fallen dramatically, yet they continue to maintain a stranglehold on
the ecosystem.

Invasive species can take over once occupied areas facilitate the spread of new
diseases, introduce new genetic material, alter underwater seascapes and jeopardize
the ability of native species to obtain food. Invasive species are responsible for about
$138 billion annually in lost revenue and management costs in the US alone.

Atmospheric pollution:

Another pathway of pollution occurs through the atmosphere. Windblown dust and
debris, including plastic bags, are blown seaward from landfills and other areas.
Dust from the Sahara moving around the southern periphery of the subtropical ridge
moves into the Caribbean and Florida during the warm season as the ridge builds
and moves northward through the subtropical Atlantic. Dust can also be attributed
to a global transport from the Gobi and Taklamakan deserts across Korea, Japan, and
the Northern Pacific to the Hawaiian Islands. Since 1970, dust outbreaks have
worsened due to periods of drought in Africa. There is a large variability in dust
transport to the Caribbean and Florida from year to year; however, the flux is
greater during positive phases of the North Atlantic Oscillation. The USGS links dust
events to a decline in the health of coral reefs across the Caribbean and Florida,
primarily since the 1970s.

Climate change is raising ocean temperatures and raising levels of carbon dioxide in
the atmosphere. These rising levels of carbon dioxide are acidifying the oceans. This,
in turn, is altering aquatic ecosystems and modifying fish distributions, with impacts
on the sustainability of fisheries and the livelihoods of the communities that depend
on them. Healthy ocean ecosystems are also important for the mitigation of climate
change.

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Solid waste management:

It is the unwanted or useless solid materials generated from combined residential,

industrial and commercial activities in a given area. It may be categorized according
to its origin (domestic, industrial, commercial, construction or institutional);
according to its contents (organic material, glass, metal, plastic paper etc); or
according to hazard potential (toxic, non-toxin, flammable, radioactive, infectious
etc).

Management of solid waste reduces or eliminates adverse impacts on the

environment and human health and supports economic development and improved
quality of life. A number of processes are involved in effectively managing waste for
a municipality. These include monitoring, collection, transport, processing, recycling
and disposal.

Methods of waste reduction, waste reuse and recycling are the preferred options
when managing waste. There are many environmental benefits that can be derived
from the use of these methods. They reduce or prevent greenhouse gas emissions,
reduce the release of pollutants, conserve resources, save energy and reduce the
demand for waste treatment technology and landfill space. Therefore it is advisable
that these methods be adopted and incorporated as part of the waste management
plan. Waste reduction and reuse Waste reduction and reuse of products are both
methods of waste prevention. They eliminate the production of waste at the source
of usual generation and reduce the demands for large scale treatment and disposal
facilities. Methods of waste reduction include manufacturing products with less
packaging, encouraging customers to bring their own reusable bags for packaging,
encouraging the public to choose reusable products such as cloth napkins and
reusable plastic and glass containers, backyard composting and sharing and
donating any unwanted items rather than discarding them. All of the methods of
waste prevention mentioned require public participation. In order to get the public
onboard, training and educational programmes need to be undertaken to educate
the public about their role in the process. Also the government may need to regulate
the types and amount of packaging used by manufacturers and make the reuse of
shopping bags mandatory.

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Recycling refers to the removal of items from the waste stream to be used as raw
materials in the manufacture of new products. Thus from this definition recycling
occurs in three phases: first the waste is sorted and recyclables collected, the
recyclables are used to create raw materials. These raw materials are then used in
the production of new products. The sorting of recyclables may be done at the
source (i.e. within the household or office) for selective collection by the
municipality or to be dropped off by the waste producer at a recycling centres. The
pre-sorting at the source requires public participation which may not be
forthcoming if there are no benefits to be derived. Also a system of selective
collection by the government can be costly. It would require more frequent
circulation of trucks within a neighborhood or the importation of more vehicles to
facilitate the collection. Another option is to mix the recyclables with the general
waste stream for collection and then sorting and recovery of the recyclable materials
can be performed by the municipality at a suitable site. The sorting by the
municipality has the advantage of eliminating the dependence on the public and
ensuring that the recycling does occur. The disadvantage however, is that the value
of the recyclable materials is reduced since being mixed in and compacted with
other garbage can have adverse effects on the quality of the recyclable material.

Waste from our homes is generally collected by our local authorities through regular
waste collection, or by special collections for recycling. Within hot climates such as
that of the Caribbean the waste should be collected at least twice a week to control
fly breeding, and the harboring of other pests in the community. Other factors to
consider when deciding on frequency of collection are the odors caused by
decomposition and the accumulated quantities.

Composting is nature's process of recycling decomposed organic materials into a

rich soil known as compost. Anything that was once living will decompose. Basically,
backyard composting is an acceleration of the same process nature uses. By
composting your organic waste you are returning nutrients back into the soil in
order for the cycle of life to continue. Finished compost looks like soil–dark brown,
crumbly and smells like a forest floor.

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Types of composting:

Backyard composting — if you have a yard and a balance of browns (fallen leaves or
straw) and greens (grass clippings and food scraps), you have all you need to make
compost.

Worm composting (vermicomposting) — if you have a tiny yard or live in an

apartment or have an abundance of food scraps, this type of composting is for you.

Grass cycling: if you have grass clippings and don't want to use them in a compost
pile you can leave them on the lawn to decompose. Read about grass cycling for tips,
techniques and benefits.

'Vermiculture' literally means worm growing or worm farming. When earthworms

are used primarily for the production of compost, the practice is referred to as
vermicomposting. Vermicompost is the product or process of composting using
various worms, usually red wigglers, white worms, and other earthworms to create
a heterogeneous mixture of decomposing vegetable or food waste, bedding
materials, and vermicast. Vermicast, also called worm castings, worm humus or
worm manure, is the end-product of the breakdown of organic matter by an
earthworm. These castings have been shown to contain reduced levels of
contaminants and a higher saturation of nutrients than do organic materials before
vermicomposting.

Containing water-soluble nutrients, Vermicompost is an excellent, nutrient-rich

organic fertilizer and soil conditioner. This process of producing Vermicompost is
called vermicomposting.

Control measures of urban and industrial wastes: An integrated waste

management strategy includes three main components

1. Source reduction

2. Recycling

3. Disposal

 Source reduction is one of the fundamental ways to reduce waste. This can be
done by using less material when making a product, reuse of products on site,
designing products or packaging to reduce their quantity. On an individual

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level we can reduce the use of unnecessary items while shopping, buy items
with minimal packaging, avoid buying disposable items and also avoid asking
for plastic carry bags.

 Recycling is reusing some components of the waste that may have some
economic value. Recycling has readily visible benefits such as conservation of
resources reduction in energy used during manufacture and reducing
pollution levels. Some materials such as aluminum and steel can be recycled
many times. Metal, paper, glass and plastics are recyclable. Mining of new
aluminum is expensive and hence recycled aluminum has a strong market
and plays a significant role in the aluminum industry. Paper recycling can
also help preserve forests as it take about 17 trees to make one ton of paper.
Crushed glass (cullet) reduces the energy required to manufacture new glass
by 50 percent. Cullet lowers the temperature requirement of the glassmaking
process thus conserving energy and reducing air pollution.

However, even if recycling is a viable alternative, it presents several problems.

The problems associated with recycling are either technical or economical.
Plastics are difficult to recycle because of the different types of polymer resins
used in their production. Since each type has its own chemical makeup different
plastics cannot be recycled together. Thus separation of different plastics before
recycling is necessary. Similarly in recycled paper the fibers are weakened and it
is difficult to control the colour of the recycled product. Recycled paper is banned
for use in food containers to prevent the possibility of contamination. It very
often costs less to transport raw paper pulp than scrap paper. Collection, sorting
and transport account for about 90 percent of the cost of paper recycling.

The processes of pulping, deinking and screening wastepaper are generally more
expensive than making paper from virgin wood or cellulose fibers. Very often
thus recycled paper is more expensive than virgin paper. However as technology
improves the cost will come down.

 Disposal of solid waste is done most commonly through a sanitary landfill or

through incineration. A modern sanitary landfill is a depression in an
impermeable soil layer that is lined with an impermeable membrane. The

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three key characteristics of a municipal sanitary landfill that distinguish it

from an open dump are:

• Solid waste is placed in a suitably selected and prepared landfill site in a

carefully prescribed manner.

• The waste material is spread out and compacted with appropriate heavy
machinery.

• The waste is covered each day with a layer of compacted soil. The problem with
older landfills is associated with groundwater pollution. Pollutants seeping out
from the bottom of a sanitary landfill (leachates) very often percolate down to
the groundwater aquifer no matter how thick the underlying soil layer. Today it
is essential to have suitable bottom liners and leachate collection systems along
with the installation of monitoring systems to detect groundwater pollution.

The organic material in the buried solid waste will decompose due to the action of
microorganisms. At first the waste decomposes aerobically until the oxygen that was
present in the freshly placed fill is used up by the aerobic microorganisms. The
anaerobes take over producing methane which is poisonous and highly explosive
when mixed with air in concentrations between 5 and 15 percent. The movement of
gas can be controlled by providing impermeable barriers in the landfill. A venting
system to collect the blocked gas and vent it to the surface where it can be safely
diluted and dispersed into the atmosphere is thus a necessary component of the
design of sanitary landfills.

Even though landfilling is an economic alternative for solid waste disposal, it has
become increasingly difficult to find suitable landfilling sites that are within
economic hauling distance and very often citizens do not want landfills in their
vicinity. Another reason is that no matter how well engineered the design and
operation may be, there is always the danger of some environmental damage in the
form of leakage of leachates. Incineration is the process of burning municipal solid
waste in a properly designed furnace under suitable temperature and operating
conditions. Incineration is a chemical process in which the combustible portion of
the waste is combined with oxygen forming carbon dioxide and water, which are
released into the atmosphere.

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This chemical reaction called oxidation results in the release of heat. For complete
oxidation the waste must be mixed with appropriate volumes of air at a temperature
of about 815o C for about one hour.

Incineration can reduce the municipal solid waste by about 90 percent in volume
and 75 percent in weight. The risks of incineration however involve air quality
problems and toxicity and disposal of the fly and bottom ash produced during the
incineration process. Fly ash consists of finely divided particulate matter, including
cinders, mineral dust and soot. Most of the incinerator ash is bottom ash while the
remainder is fly ash. The possible presence of heavy metals in incinerator ash can be
harmful. Thus toxic products and materials containing heavy metals (for example
batteries and plastics) should be segregated.

Thus extensive air pollution control equipment and high-level technical supervision
and skilled employees for proper operation and maintenance is required. Thus while
sanitary landfills and incinerators have their own advantages and disadvantages, the
most effective method of solid waste management is source reduction and recycling.

Thermal pollution:

Thermal pollution is defined as sudden increase or decrease in temperature of a

natural body of water which may be ocean, lake, river or pond by human influence.
This normally occurs when a plant or facility takes in water from a natural resource
and puts it back with an altered temperature. Usually, these facilities use it as a
cooling method for their machinery or to help better produce their products.

Causes of Thermal Pollution

1. Water as Cooling Agent in Power, Manufacturing and Industrial plants:

Production and Manufacturing plants are biggest source of thermal
pollution. These plants draw water from nearby source to keep machines
cool and then release back to the source with higher temperature. When
heated water returns to the river or ocean, the water temperature rises
sharply. When oxygen levels are altered in the water, this can also degrade
the quality and longevity of life in wildlife that lives underwater. This
process can also wipe away streamside vegetation, which constantly
depends on constant levels of oxygen and temperature. By altering these

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natural environments, industries are essentially helping decrease the quality

of life for these marines based life forms and can ultimately destroy habitats
if they are not controlled and careful about their practices.

2. Soil Erosion: Soil erosion is another major factor that causes thermal
pollution. Consistent soil erosion causes water bodies to rise, making them
more exposed to sunlight. The high temperature could prove fatal for
aquatic biomes as it may give rise to anaerobic conditions.

3. Deforestation: Trees and plants prevent sunlight from falling directly on

lakes, ponds or rivers. When deforestation takes place, these water bodies
are directly exposed to sunlight, thus absorbing more heat and raising its
temperature. Deforestation is also a main cause of the higher concentrations
of greenhouse gases i.e. global warming in the atmosphere.

4. Runoff from Paved Surfaces: Urban runoff discharged to surface waters from
paved surfaces like roads and parking lots can make water warmer. During
summer seasons, the pavement gets quite hot, which creates warm runoff
that gets into the sewer systems and water bodies.

5. Natural Causes: Natural causes like volcanoes and geothermal activity under
the oceans and seas can trigger warm lava to raise the temperature of water
bodies. Lightening can also introduce massive amount of heat into the
oceans. This means that the overall temperature of the water source will
rise, having significant impacts on the environment.

Effects of Thermal Pollution:

Among recognized scientists and scholars, there are generally two schools of
thought when it comes to the effects of thermal pollution. Some lean on the side of
the negatives of this pollution on marine ecosystems and how it is detrimental to
positive environmental practices. However, some lean towards the side that without
these industries operating the way they do, then some of the most basic parts of
human life would be completely obsolete. Waste water would not be able to be
properly maintained, we would have no industries that could produce the goods we
need, and so on. The effects of thermal pollution on ecosystems, however, greatly
outweigh the benefits that industries have by participating in the act.

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1. Decrease in DO (Dissolved Oxygen) Levels: The warm temperature reduces

the levels of DO (Dissolved Oxygen) in water. The warm water holds
relatively less oxygen than cold water. The decrease in DO can create
suffocation for plants and animals such as fish, amphibians and copepods,
which may give rise to anaerobic conditions. Warmer water allows algae to
flourish on surface of water and over the long term growing algae can
decrease oxygen levels in the water.

2. Increase in Toxins: With the constant flow of high temperature discharge

from industries, there is a huge increase in toxins that are being regurgitated
into the natural body of water. These toxins may contain chemicals or
radiation that may have harsh impact on the local ecology and make them
susceptible to various diseases.

3. Loss of Biodiversity: A dent in the biological activity in the water may cause
significant loss of biodiversity. Changes in the environment may cause certain
species of organisms to shift their base to some other place while there could
be significant number of species that may shift in because of warmer waters.
Organisms that can adapt easily may have an advantage over organisms that
are not used to the warmer temperatures.

4. Ecological Impact: A sudden thermal shock can result in mass killings of fish,
insects, plants or amphibians. Hotter water may prove favorable for some
species while it could be lethal for other species. Small water temperature
increases the level of activity while higher temperature decreases the level of
activity. Many aquatic species are sensitive to small temperature changes
such as one degree Celsius that can cause significant changes in organism
metabolism and other adverse cellular biology effects.

5. Affects Reproductive Systems: A significant halt in the reproduction of

marine wildlife (although this may be true, reproduction can still occur
between fish – but the likelihood of defects in newborns is significantly
higher) can happen due to increasing temperatures as reproduction can
happen within certain range of temperature. Excessive temperature can
cause the release of immature eggs or can prevent normal development of
certain eggs.

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6. Increases Metabolic Rate: Thermal pollution increases the metabolic rate of

organisms as increasing enzyme activity occurs that causes organisms to
consume more food than what is normally required, if their environment
were not changed. It disrupts the stability of food chain and alters the balance
of species composition.

7. Migration: The warm water can also cause particular species of organisms to
migrate to suitable environment that would cater to its requirements for
survival. This can result in loss for those species that depend on them for
their daily food as their food chain is interrupted.

Nuclear Hazards:

Risk or danger to human health or the environment posed by radiation emanating

from the atomic nuclei of a given substance, or the possibility of an uncontrolled
explosion originating from a fusion or fission reaction of atomic nuclei.

Radioactive substances are present in nature They undergo natural radioactive

decay in which unstable isotopes spontaneously give out Fast moving particles, high
energy radiations or both, at a fixed rate until a new stable isotope is formed The
isotopes release energy either in the form of Gamma rays ( high energy
Electromagnetic radiation) Alpha particles & beta particles (ionization particles)
Alpha particles : fast moving positively charged particles Beta particles: high speed
negatively charged electrons These ionization radiations have variable penetration
power

Sources of radioactivity:

Anthropogenic sources:

 Nuclear power plants

 nuclear accidents

 X-rays

 Diagnostic kits

 Test laboratories

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Effects of radiations: Effects of radiations Radioisotopes enter the environment

during mining of uranium Radioactivity in the earth crust enters the crops grown
there and ultimately in human beings Radionuclide's enter the water bodies or the
ground water coming in contact with the contaminated soil or rock radioactive
iodine (I-131) accumulates in thyroid gland and causes cancer. Strontium-90
accumulates in the bones and causes leukemia or cancer of bone marrow.

Genetic damage: is caused by radiations This induce mutations in the DNA, there by
affecting Genes & chromosomes The damage is often seen in the offspring's and may
be transmitted up to several generations

Somatic damage: includes burns, miscarriages, eye cataract & cancer of bone,
thyroid, breast, lungs, skin

Control of nuclear pollution:

Control of nuclear pollution sitting of nuclear power plant should be carefully done
after studying long term and short term effects Proper disposal of wastes from
laboratory involving the use of radioisotopes should be done.

***

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Global warming:

Global warming is the term used to describe a gradual increase in the average
temperature of the Earth's atmosphere and its oceans, a change that is believed to be
permanently changing the Earth’s climate. There is great debate among many
people, and sometimes in the news, on whether global warming is real (some call it a
hoax). But climate scientists looking at the data and facts agree the planet is
warming. While many view the effects of global warming to be more substantial and
more rapidly occurring than others do, the scientific consensus on climatic changes
related to global warming is that the average temperature of the Earth has risen
between 0.4 and 0.8 °C over the past 100 years. The increased volumes of carbon
dioxide and other greenhouse gases released by the burning of fossil fuels, land
clearing, agriculture, and other human activities, are believed to be the primary
sources of the global warming that has occurred over the past 50 years. Scientists
from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate carrying out global warming research
have recently predicted that average global temperatures could increase between 1 -
3.5°C by the year 2100. Carbon dioxide and water vapors present in the atmosphere
having a nature that internal vibration mode. Due to this activity, those two absorbs
reradiate infrared radiation there by causing increasing in temperature in the
atmosphere. Every year 22 billion tons of carbon dioxide is released into the
atmosphere by burning of fuels. Changes resulting from global warming may include
rising sea levels due to the melting of the polar ice caps, as well as an increase in
occurrence and severity of storms and other severe weather events.

Global Warming Impacts

Many of the following "harbingers" and "fingerprints" are now well under way:

1. Rising Seas--- inundation of fresh water marshlands (the everglades), low-

lying cities, and islands with seawater.
2. Changes in rainfall patterns --- droughts and fires in some areas, flooding in
other areas. See the section above on the recent droughts, for example!
3. Melting of the ice caps --- loss of habitat near the poles. Polar bears are now
thought to be greatly endangered by the shortening of their feeding season
due to dwindling ice packs.
4. Melting glaciers --- significant melting of old glaciers is already observed.
5. Widespread vanishing of animal populations --- following widespread
habitat loss.

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6. Bleaching of Coral Reefs due to warming seas and acidification due to

carbonic acid formation --- One third of coral reefs now appear to have been
severely damaged by warming seas.
7. Loss of Plankton due to warming seas --- The enormous (900 mile long)
Aleution island ecosystems of orcas (killer whales), sea lions, sea otters, sea
urchins, kelp beds, and fish populations, appears to have collapsed due to loss
of plankton, leading to loss of sea lions, leading orcas to eat too many sea
otters, leading to urchin explosions, leading to loss of kelp beds and their
associated fish populations.

Acid Rains:

Acid rain is a rain or any other form of precipitation that is unusually acidic,
meaning that it possesses elevated levels of hydrogen ions (low pH). It can have
harmful effects on plants, aquatic animals and infrastructure. Acid rain is caused by
emissions of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen
oxide (NOX) from industries and combustion of
fuels, which react with the water molecules in
the atmosphere to produce acids (CO2 + H2O 
H2CO3). Nitrogen oxides can also be produced
naturally by lightning strikes and sulfur
dioxide is produced by volcanic eruptions. Maximum pollution caused by these two
gases SO2 and NOX is more in China and India is in the next position. SO2 is mainly
due to burning of diesels which is 0.05% by weight. Recent surveys conducted by
Centre for Atmospheric Survey, Indian Institute of Delhi reveals this information
that Delhi, Maharastra and Chembur are under threat. The volume of these SO2 and
NOX gases may likely rise to 18500 kilo tons (kt) by 2020. The chemicals in acid rain
can cause paint to peel, corrosion of steel structures such as bridges, erosion of
stone statues and fertility of the soil is to be lost.

Ozone depletion:

Ozone depletion describes two distinct but related phenomena observed since the
late 1970s: a steady decline of about 4% per decade in the total volume of ozone in
Earth's stratosphere (the ozone layer), and a much larger springtime decrease in
stratospheric ozone over Earth's Polar Regions. The latter phenomenon is referred
to as the ozone hole. In addition to these well-known stratospheric phenomena,
there are also springtime polar tropospheric ozone depletion events.

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The details of polar ozone whole formation differ from that of mid-latitude thinning
but the most important process in both is catalytic destruction of ozone by atomic
halogens. The main source of these halogen atoms in the stratosphere is photo
dissociation of man-made halocarbon refrigerants, solvents, propellants, and foam-
blowing agents (CFCs, HCFCs, freons, halons). These compounds are transported
into the stratosphere after being emitted at the surface. Both types of ozone
depletion have been observed to increase as emissions of halo-carbons increased.

CFCs and other contributory substances are referred to as ozone-depleting

substances (ODS). Since the ozone layer prevents most harmful UVB wavelengths
(280–315 nm) of ultraviolet light (UV light) from passing through the Earth's
atmosphere, observed and projected decreases in ozone have generated worldwide
concern leading to adoption of the Montreal Protocol that bans the production of
CFCs, halons, and other ozone-depleting chemicals such as carbon tetrachloride and
trichloroethane. It is suspected that a variety of biological consequences such as
increases in skin cancer, cataracts, damage to plants, and reduction of plankton
populations in the ocean's photic zone may result from the increased UV exposure
due to ozone depletion.

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T RAMBABU – ASSISTANT PROFESSOR – WET CENTRE::S.R.K.R.ENGINEERING COLLEGE, BHIMAVARAM – 534204