Mr. Mohammed Haneef (Asst. Professor) AE 6402 – A. S.

& I

UNIT IV AIRCONDITIONING AND PRESSURIZING SYSTEM

Syllabus:

Basic air cycle systems – vapour cycle systems, boot-strap air cycle system – evaporative vapour cycle
systems – evaporation air cycle systems – oxygen systems – fire protection systems, deicing and anti-icing
system.

I. Introductions
Heat Exchangers:

Heat exchangers are simple, passive devices that transfer heat between two different fluids. In aircraft, heat
exchangers are used to absorb and remove heat in a variety of applications within the environmental system and
elsewhere.

Air and Vapor Cycle Machines

Since bleed air coming from the engine is already hot, the environmental system’s challenge is to cool it. The two
devices commonly used for this purpose – Air Cycle Machines (ACMs) and Vapor Cycle Machines (VCMs or Freon
Units) – are related in that each works on similar physical principles. When a gas is compressed, it gets hot. When
expanded, gas cools, meaning that it transfers heat to the surrounding air. The amount of heat or cooling is
proportional to the change in volume of the gas.

If you start with a liter of gas at a given temperature and compress it to a smaller volume, the compressed gas will be
hotter than it was originally. Now, if you remove some of the heat from the compressed gas by blowing some cool
air past it (say, through a heat exchanger) and then expand it back to its original volume again, it will be cooler than
it was to begin with. This is the basic operating principle of both air and vapor cycle machines.
S .P .C .E . T Department of Aeronautical Engineering
 Mr. Mohammed Haneef (Asst. Professor) AE 6402 – A. S. & I

Air Cycle Machine - ACM:

In Air Cycle Machines, high-pressure bleed air from the engines is first passed through a compressor, further
squeezing the already hot gas. It is then routed through a heat exchanger or two to remove heat. The now cooler but
still highly compressed air then passes through an expansion chamber into a larger chamber. The combined effects of
driving the turbine and expanding into a larger chamber dramatically cools the air (usually down close freezing; water
traps are critical in the system to prevent freeze-up). The expansion turbine is connected by shaft to the ACM’s
compressor, so expanding air works to compress the upstream bleed air similar to the way a turbine engine or a
S .P .C .E . T Department of Aeronautical Engineering
 Mr. Mohammed Haneef (Asst. Professor) AE 6402 – A. S. & I
piston engine turbocharger works. This cycle may be repeated several times, with the end result that system air
temperature is cooled far below ambient temperature.

Vapor Cycle Machine - VCM:

While ACMs use air as the cooling material, Vapor Cycle Machines (VCM) use refrigerants specially selected for
cooling capacity. Refrigerants have higher thermal capacities than air, so they transfer more heat on each cycle. The
most important difference is that VCMs take advantage of another physical property that greatly adds to their
efficiency: a great deal of energy is absorbed when a substance changes phase from liquid to gas. Refrigerants (such
as Freon) are designed to undergo phase changes with every cycle of temperature, compression and expansion.
Refrigerant gas is compressed in a VCM’s compressor. It is then run through a special heat exchanger, known as
condenser, where heat is removed. As the gas cools under pressure, it condenses into a liquid (hence the name
“condenser”). The liquefied refrigerant continues on its journey to another heat exchanger, the evaporator, which
interacts with cabin air. As the name implies, the refrigerant is allowed to drop in pressure in the evaporator. As it
evaporates (another phase change), the refrigerant absorbs a tremendous amount of heat from the passing cabin air.
The cooled air is returned to the cabin, while for the refrigerant it’s off to the compressor again to start a new cycle.

Why Two Different Types of Machines?

OR

Difference between ACm and VCM?

OR

Advantages and disadvantages of ACM and VCM?

S .P .C .E . T Department of Aeronautical Engineering

 Mr. Mohammed Haneef (Asst. Professor) AE 6402 – A. S. & I

Air Cycle Machines are ideally suited for turbine aircraft due to the supply of (already) compressed bleed air,
reasonably simple system, and no need for special coolants. On the other hand, ACMs require significant volumes of
bleed air, and turbine components makes ACMs relatively expensive. Large aircraft always have ACMs installed
because of their economy of use, hefty pressurized (bleed) source, and the need to process large volumes of air.

Vapor Cycle Machines, on the other hand, are efficient, significantly less expensive and are well suited to aircraft with
limited engine bleed capacity. A VCM does, however, require a separate mechanical compressor, which adds
complexity and weight.

Small turboprops and corporate jets, in many cases, have VCMs installed. This is particularly true of older corporate
aircraft, which tended to have less available power and, therefore, less bleed capacity. Since newer turbine aircraft
generally have more powerful engines, and ACM technology has developed rapidly for smaller aircraft, ACMs are
more common in newer models.

One other advantage of a VCM is that it can be set up to provide cooling on the ground, without an operating engine,
APU, or external high-pressure air source. While many VCM compressors are engine driven, they can also be set up
to operate from electrical motors. That way, a crew sitting on a hot ramp can plug in ground power and cool down
the passenger cabin before start-up. Given the different efficiencies and benefits of ACMs and VCMs, many aircraft
have both systems installed.

Methods of Air Refrigeration Systems:

Various types of aircraft air refrigeration systems used these days are:

1. Simple air cooling system

2. Simple air evaporative cooling system

3. Boot strap air cooling system

4. Boot strap air evaporative cooling system

5. Reduced ambient air cooling system (Not in Syllabus)

6. Regenerative air cooling system. (Not in Syllabus)

II. BASIC (or) SIMPLE AIR CYCLE COOLING SYSTEMS

S .P .C .E . T Department of Aeronautical Engineering
 Mr. Mohammed Haneef (Asst. Professor) AE 6402 – A. S. & I

A simple air cooling system for aircrafts is shown in Fig. 8.1. The main components of this system are the main
compressor driven by a gas turbine, a heat exchanger, a cooling turbine and a cooling air fan. The air required for
refrigeration system is bled off from the main compressor. This high pressure and high temperature air is cooled
initially in the heat exchanger where ram air is used for cooling. It is further cooled in the cooling turbine by the
process of expansion. The work of this turbine is used to drive the cooling fan which draws cooling air through the
heat exchanger. This system is good for ground surface cooling and for low flight speeds.

FIG 8.1: SIMPLE AIR CYCLE COOLING SYSTEM

Working / Processess:

FIG 8.2: T-S DIAGRAM FOR SIMPLE AIR CYCLE COOLING SYSTEM

The above figure indicating the operation of simple aircraft refrigeration system is also traced on a T-s diagram. The
actual cycle is actually different from theoretical cycle. Theoretical cycle is indicated by dotted lines while the actual
cycle is represented by straight line. The T-s diagram for a simple air cooling system is shown in Fig. 8.1. The various
Processes are discussed below:

S .P .C .E . T Department of Aeronautical Engineering

 Mr. Mohammed Haneef (Asst. Professor) AE 6402 – A. S. & I
1. Ramming process. Let the pressure and temperature of ambient air is p1 and T1 respectively. The ambient air is
rammed isentropically from pressure p1 and temperature T1 to the pressure P2 and temperature T2. This ideal
ramming action is shown by the vertical line 1-2 in Fig.8.2. In actual practice, because of internal friction due to
irreversibilities, the temperature of the rammed air is more than T2. Thus the actual ramming process is shown by
the curve 1-2' which is adiabatic but not isentropic due to friction. The pressure and temperature of the rammed air
is now p2' and T2' respectively. During the ideal or actual ramming process, the total energy or enthalpy remains
constant i.e., h2 h2' and T2 T2' .

2. Compression process. The isentropic compression of air in the main compressor is represented by the line 2' 3 . In
actual practice, because of internal friction, due to irreversiblities, the actual compression is represented by the curve
2' 3' .

3. Cooling process. The compressed air is cooled by the ram air in the heat exchanger. This process is shown by the
curve 3' 4 in Fig. 8.2. In actual practice, there is a pressure drop in the heat exchanger which is not shown in the
figure. The temperature of air decreases from T3' to T4 .

4. Expansion process. The cooled air is now expanded isentropically in the cooling turbine as shown by the curve 4-5.
In actual practice, because of internal friction due to irreversibilities, the actual expansion in the cooling turbine is
shown by the curve 4-5'. The work of this turbine is used to drive the cooling air fan which draws cooling air from the
heat exchanger.

5. Refrigeration process. The air from the cooling turbine ( i.e. after expansion) is sent to the cabin and cock pit
where it gets heated by the heat of equipment and occupancy. This process is shown by the curve 5'-6.

II. SIMPLE AIR EVAPORATIVE (or) BASIC VAPOUR CYCLE COOLING SYSTEMS

FIG 8.8: SIMPLE AIR EVAPORATIVE COOLING SYSTEM

S .P .C .E . T Department of Aeronautical Engineering

 Mr. Mohammed Haneef (Asst. Professor) AE 6402 – A. S. & I
A simple air evaporative cooling system is shown in Fig. 8.8. It is similar to the simple cooling system except that the
addition of an evaporator between the beat exchanger and cooling turbine. The evaporator provides an additional
cooling effect through evaporation of a refrigerant such as water. At high altitudes, the evaporative cooling may be
obtained by using alcohol or ammonia. The water, alcohol and ammonia have different refrigerating effects at
different altitudes. At 20 000 metres height, water boils at 400 C, alcohol at 90 C and ammonia at - 70° C.

Working / Processess:

It is similar to the simple cooling system except that the addition of an evaporator between the beat exchanger and
cooling turbine. The evaporator provides an additional cooling effect through evaporation of a refrigerant such as
water. At high altitudes, the evaporative cooling may be obtained by using alcohol or ammonia. The water, alcohol
and ammonia have different refrigerating effects at different altitudes. At 20000 metres height for example, water
boils at 400 C, alcohol at 90 C and ammonia at - 70° C.

The T-s diagram for simple air cycle evaporative cooling system is shown in Fig. 8.9. The various processes are same
I
as discussed in the previous article, except that the c in Fig. 8.9.

FIG 8.9: T-S DIAGRAM FOR SIMPLE AIR CYCLE COOLING SYSTEM

The various processes are same as in the simple air cooling system, except that the cooling process in the evaporator
is shown by 4 - 4'.

Notes:
1. In. T-s diagram as shown in Fig. 8.9, the thick lines show the ideal condition of the process, while e dotted lines
show actual conditions of the process..
2. If cooling of 45 minutes duration or less is required, it may be advantageous to use evaporative cooling alone.

S .P .C .E . T Department of Aeronautical Engineering

 Mr. Mohammed Haneef (Asst. Professor) AE 6402 – A. S. & I

IV. BOOT-STRAP AIR CYCLE SYSTEM

A boot-strap air cooling system is shown in Fig. 8.11. This cooling system has two heat exchangers instead of one and
a cooling turbine drives a secondary compressor instead of cooling fan. The air bled from the main compressor is first
cooled by the ram air in the first heat exchanger. 'This cooled air, after compression in the secondary compressor, is
led to the second heat exchanger where it is again cooled by the ram air before passing to the cooling turbine. This
type of cooling system is mostly used in transport type aircraft.

Fig. 8.11. Boot-strap air cooling system.

The T-s diagram for a boot-strap air cycle cooling system is shown in Fig. 8.18. The various processes are as follows:

Fig. 8.12 T-s diagram for boot strap air cooling system.

S .P .C .E . T Department of Aeronautical Engineering

 Mr. Mohammed Haneef (Asst. Professor) AE 6402 – A. S. & I
1. The process 1-2' represents the isentropic ramming of ambient air from pressure p1, and temperature Tl to
pressure P2 and temperature T8. The process 1-2' represents the actual ramming process because of internal
friction due to irreversibilities.
2. The process 2'-3 represents the isentropic compression of air in the main compressor and the process 2'-3'
represents the actual compression of air because of internal friction due to irreversibilities.
3. The process 3'-4 represents the cooling by ram air in the first heat exchanger. The pressure drop in the heat
exchanger is neglected.
4. The process 4.5 represents compression of cooled air, from first heat exchanger, in the secondary compressor.
The process 4-5' represents the actual compression process because of internal friction due to irreversibilities.
5. The process 5'-6 represents the cooling by ram air in the second heat exchanger. The pressure drop in heat
exchanger in neglected.
6. The process 6-7 represents isentropic expansion of the cooled air in the cooling turbine upto the cabin pressure.
The process 6-7' represents actual expansion of the cooled air in the cooling turbine.
7. The process 7'-8 represents the heating of air upto the cabin temperature T8.

V. BOOT-STRAP AIR EVAPORATIVE COOLING SYSTEM

A boot-strap air cycle evaporative cooling system is shown in Fig. 8.14. It is similar to the boot-strap air cycle cooling
system except that the addition of an evaporator between the second heat exchanger and the cooling turbine. The T-
s diagram for a boot-strap air evaporative cooling system is shown in Fig 8.15. The various processes of this cycle are
same as a simple boot-strap system except the process 5''-6 which represents cooling in the evaporator using any
suitable evaporant.

Fig. 8.14: Boot-strap air evaporative cooling system

S .P .C .E . T Department of Aeronautical Engineering

 Mr. Mohammed Haneef (Asst. Professor) AE 6402 – A. S. & I
Bootstrap Air Evaporative Cooling System is similar to the bootstrap air cooling system. The only difference between
them is the addition of an evaporator between the second heat exchanger and a cooling turbine.

Note: Since the temperature of air leaving the cooling turbine in boot-strap evaporative system is lower than the
simple boot-strap system, therefore mass of air per tonne of refrigeration will be less in boot- strap evaporative
system.

Fig. 8.15.T-s diagram for boot-strap air evaporative cooling system.

Working:
 1–2 Isentropic ramming of the surrounding air from pressure P1 and temperature T1 to pressure P2 and
temperature T2.
 1–2` Actual ramming process on account of inner erosion because of irreversibilities.

 2′- 3 Isentropic compression of air in the primary compressor.

 2–3′ Actual compression of air as a result of inward erosion because of irreversibilities.

 3′- 4 Cooling of the air in the primary heat exchanger. During this process, the drop in pressure is neglected.

 4–5 Isentropic compression of cooled air, from the main heat exchanger, in the auxiliary compressor.

 4–5′ Actual Compression process in light of interior erosion because of irreversibilities.

 5`- 5" Cooling by ram air in the secondary heat exchanger. During this process, the drop in pressure is
neglected.

 5"-6 Cooling of air in the evaporator.

 6–7 Isentropic expansion of cooled air in the cooling turbine up to compartment pressurization.

S .P .C .E . T Department of Aeronautical Engineering

 Mr. Mohammed Haneef (Asst. Professor) AE 6402 – A. S. & I
 6–7′ Actual Expansion of the cooled air in the cooling turbine.

 7′- 8 Heating of air up to the compartment temperature T8.

Q) BOOT-STRAP SYSTEM MERITS AND DEMERITS ?

Merits of Bootstrap Air Conditioning:

1. Convenient and Abundantly Available Refrigerant. Bootstrap Air Conditioning system uses air as a refrigerant or
working fluid. Air is available very abundantly in the atmosphere. The cost of refrigerant thereby in bootstrap
system is zero.
2. Harmless Refrigerant. Air as a refrigerant is not dangerous in case of leakage. We surround it in the atmosphere.
It is not poisonous or inflammable hence trivial leaks are not alarming in bootstrap system. In fact they do not
affect the operation of refrigeration that much.
3. Lower Weight Per Ton of Refrigeration. The air is mixture of gases and very light to be used a refrigerant. Large
refrigeration system require enormous amount of liquid refrigerant when they are operating using vapor
compression cycle. Due to usage of air as working fluid the weight per ton of refrigeration is highly reduced. The
less weight of refrigeration system makes a huge difference in aircraft. The lower the weight of the accessories
attached with the plane, the better.
4. No Evaporator Space/Cost Required. Bootstrap cooling does not require any evaporator with evaporator coil in
which the refrigerant flows and the air interacts with it externally. In bootstrap system there is no requirement of
evaporator as it is an open refrigeration system, in which refrigerant is refreshed after the completion of every
cycle. Air is used as a refrigerant and directly delivered into the passenger cabin.
5. Simple Design Due to Low Pressure. The overall pressure in the system and pressure locally at individual points
remain much lower as compared to other refrigeration cycle like vapor compression cycle. Thereby the design of
components is comparatively easier and simple avoiding complications and high differential pressures.
6. No Refrigerant Phase Change.The phase of the refrigerant (air) is not changed during the entire cycle. This adds
massively to the simplicity of the system. This makes it very easy during the charging of the refrigerant, which in
this case is refreshed after each cycle. Further no phase change allows the system to operate even when it is
operated far from design conditions.
7. Cabin Pressurization.Despite impressive temperature differences, it also allows necessary pressurization of the
passenger cabin required in the aircraft.

Demerits of Bootstrap Air Conditioning:

1. Lower COP. Bootstrap system use air as the refrigerant. In general they have very low coefficient of
performance compared to other cycles using refrigerant that change phase during the refrigeration.
2. Large Sized Components. Despite low weight per ton, air refrigeration system has large-sized components to
S .P .C .E . T Department of Aeronautical Engineering
 Mr. Mohammed Haneef (Asst. Professor) AE 6402 – A. S. & I
control the flow of air. This can be a unfavorable factor during handling or transportation of components.
3. Frosting Due to High Moisture Content. The moisture in air could freeze the lines of the system. This condition is
called frosting. The reason why frosting occurs in air refrigeration system is because there is no control of the
quality and moisture content of the refrigerant (the refrigerant is ambient air).
4. Dust and Pollution in Air. The components of bootstrap air conditioning system have to be serviced in a routine.
They have to be checked for maintenance as cycle is open type. This means components of the system are
exposed to dust particle in the atmospheric air delivered at the inlet.

VII. OXYGEN SYSTEMS

Need for Oxygen System:

A lack of oxygen causes a person to experience a condition called hypoxia. This condition results in
"lightheadedness." headaches, dizziness, nausea, unconsciousness, or death, depending upon its duration and
degree. When permanent physical damage results from lack of oxygen, the condition is defined as anoxia.

The importance of oxygen, especially when flying at higher altitudes, is not appreciated by many persons who fly,
including pilots. It is generally known that the human body requires oxygen to sustain life, but the effects of a lack of
sufficient oxygen on various functions of the body are not understood by a large percentage of the flying public.
Studies have shown that the effects of hypoxia become apparent at approximately 5000 ft [1500 m] altitude in the
form of reduced night vision. It is recommended, therefore, that a pilot flying above 5000 ft altitude at night use
oxygen. As stated before, pilots flying above 10 000 ft [3048 m] altitude should use oxygen. Requirements for oxygen
in aircraft are set forth in FAR Parts 23, 25, and 91.

Two principal factors affect the amount of oxygen that a person will absorb. These are (I) the amount of oxygen in the
air the person is breathing and (2) the pressure of the air and oxygen mixture. Normal air contains approximately 21
percent oxygen, and this provides adequate oxygen for the human body at lower altitudes. At 34 000 ft [10 363m]
altitude, a person must be breathing I 00 percent oxygen to absorb the same amount of oxygen as when breathing
air at sea level. It is, therefore, apparent that the percentage of oxygen in the air that a person is breathing must be
increased in keeping with altitude if the person is to receive an adequate supply of oxygen for optimum functioning
of physical and mental faculties and functions. To adjust for variations -in cabin altitude, oxygen systems are often
equipped with barometric regulators, which increase the flow of oxygen as cabin altitude increases. In a
nonpressurized aircraft, the cabin altitude is the same as the aircraft altitude, and the oxygen flow is adjusted for
aircraft altitude.

Components of Oxygen Systems:

There are three components to most oxygen systems, whether they are portable or installed systems.
S .P .C .E . T Department of Aeronautical Engineering
 Mr. Mohammed Haneef (Asst. Professor) AE 6402 – A. S. & I

1. Storage system (containers) (or) source - Oxygen Tanks

Oxygen cylinders, also called oxygen bottles, are the containers used to hold the aircraft gaseous oxygen supply. The
cylinders may be designed to carry oxygen at a high or low pressure. High-pressure cylinders are designed to contain
oxygen at a pressure of approximately 1800 psi [12 411 kPa]. These cylinders can be identified by their green color
and by the words "Aviators' Breathing Oxygen" on the side of the cylinder. Because of the high pressure in the
cylinders, they must be very strong to withstand the operational stress without shattering. Three types of
construction are used: a highstrength, heat-treated, steel-alloy cylinder; a wire-wrapped metal cylinder; and a Kevlar-
wrapped aluminum cylinder. Figure 16-35 shows typical oxygen cylinders.

Low-pressure cylinders are made either of stainless steel with stainless steel bands seam-welded to the body of the
cylinder or of low-alloy steel. These cylinders are coloured yellow to distinguish them from the high-pressure
cylinders. The low-pressure cylinders are designed to store oxygen at a maximum of 450 psi [3100.5 kPa], although
they arc not normally filled above 425 psi [2928 kPa].

2. Delivery system (or) Regulators

Regulators for the pressure and flow of oxygen are incorporated in stored-gas systems because the oxygen is stored
in high-pressure cylinders under pressures of 1800 psig [12 411 kPa] or more. The high pressure must be reduced to a
value suitable for application directly to a mask or to a breathing regulator. This lower pressure is usually in the range
of 40 to 75 psig [279 to 517 kPa], depending upon the system. One type of pressure regulator is illustrated in Fig. 16-
38. This pressure regulator is similar in design to many other gas- or air-pressure regulators in that it utilizes a
diaphragm balanced against a spring to control the flow of gas. This regulator consists of a housing, diaphragm,
regulator spring, link actuator assembly, relief valve, and an inlet valve. With no inlet pressure on the regulator,
spring tension on the diaphragm through the link actuator assembly forces the inlet valve to the open position. When
oxygen is flowing, regulated pressure in the lower diaphragm chamber acts against the diaphragm, causing it to move
upward and compress the regulator spring. The link actuator assembly then mechanically causes the regulator valve
to move toward the closed position, thus reducing the flow of oxygen. When the pressure in the lower chamber of
the diaphragm is equal to the regulator spring force, the diaphragm ceases to move and positions the inlet valve to
maintain the proper oxygen flow.

S .P .C .E . T Department of Aeronautical Engineering

 Mr. Mohammed Haneef (Asst. Professor) AE 6402 – A. S. & I

Fig. 16-38
3. Mask (or) nasal cannula

Oxygen masks vary considerably in size, shape, and design; however, each is designed for either

(i) Passenger mask or Phase Dilution Mask

(ii)Airline drop-down units (Dixie cup)
(iii)Quick-don mask.

(i)Passenger mask or Phase Dilution Mask

Passenger oxygen masks for airliners are of the constant flow type and the face piece is oronasal in design; that is, it
is designed to cover both the nose and the mouth. They are referred to as phase-dilution masks because of the
characteristics of their operation.

When oxygen is turned on to the passenger mask, it enters the bottom of the reservoir bag and causes it to inflate.
When inhaling, the user draws oxygen from the reservoir bag until it is deflated. At that time, the user begins to
breathe cabin air plus a small amount of oxygen, which is flowing through the reservoir. Thus, there are two phases
of oxygen consumption during inhalation. The first and largest part of the inhalation draws almost pure oxygen into
the lungs. When the reservoir bag has deflated, the user continues to inhale but is breathing primarily cabin air. The
first part of the inhalation provides a very rich oxygen mixture, which goes deep into the lungs. The last part of the
inhalation, in which cabin air is being breathed, affects only the upper part of the lungs, the bronchial tubes, and the
windpipe (trachea). Since these parts of the respiratory system do not contribute to the absorption of oxygen by the
blood, the low oxygen content of the cabin air breathed during the last part of inhalation is of little consequence.
When the user of the mask exhales, the air is discharged through an exit valve in the mask to the cabin atmosphere.
A passenger wearing an oxygen mask on a DC-10 airliner is shown in Fig. 16-42.

S .P .C .E . T Department of Aeronautical Engineering

 Mr. Mohammed Haneef (Asst. Professor) AE 6402 – A. S. & I

Fig. 16-42.

(ii) Airline drop-down units (Dixie cup)

Oxygen masks on airliners are stowed in overhead compartments or in a compartment at the top of the seat back. If
the cabin should depressurize, the compartments open automatically and present oxygen masks to the passengers. If
the automatic system fails to work, a backup electrical system can be activated by a member of the crew to open the
oxygen compartments.

The continuous flow, phase-dilution (or phase-sequential) mask looks similar to a general aviation re-breather mask.
However, the masks function differently and the phase dilution mask allows the user to go to higher altitudes (upto
40,000 ft). This mask uses an external reservoir bag and a series of one-valves working in sequence to allow a
mixture of 100% oxygen and cabin air into the mask. When activated by pulling down on a suspended mask, oxygen
from a supply source flows continuously into the reservoir bag. During inhalation, a one-way valve allows the flow of
oxygen from the reservoir bag into the lungs. If the reservoir bag empties before inhalation is complete, a second
one-way valve on the mask face piece opens to permit the flow of cabin air into the mask, allowing the user to take a
full breath. Expired air is vented out of the mask into the cabin via a one-way exhalation valve, out of reservoir bag

(iii) Quick-don mask.

S .P .C .E . T Department of Aeronautical Engineering

 Mr. Mohammed Haneef (Asst. Professor) AE 6402 – A. S. & I

For some aircraft, which operate at very high altitudes.quick-donning masks are used. These masks can be put on in 5
s or less. Figure 16-43 (seep. 542) shows the pneumatic harness type of diluter-demand masks.

Fig 16.43.
Pressurized aircraft are normally equipped with diluter demand oxygen systems for use by the flight-deck crew. The
masks used by the crew are of an oronasal design and contain microphones and a strap or harness arrangement that
will hold the mask securely in position.

Types of Oxygen Systems:

Oxygen Systems are classified based on the following:

1. Based on Aircraft Pressurization:

A. Gaseous Oxygen Systems for Unpressurized Aircraft
(i). Portable
(ii). Fixed
B. Gaseous Oxygen Systems for Unpressurized Aircraft
(i). Portable
(ii). Fixed
2. Based on sorage system or Source:
C.Gaseous aviator’s breathing oxygen (ABO).
D. Liquid aviators breathing oxygen (LOX).
E. Sodium chlorate candles (solid-state oxygen).
F. Molecular sieve oxygen generators (MSOG).
3. Based on Delivery system (or) Regulators:
G. Continuous flow system.
H. Diluter demand system.
I. Pressure Demand System.
4. Based on the Mask (or) nasal cannula:
S .P .C .E . T Department of Aeronautical Engineering
 Mr. Mohammed Haneef (Asst. Professor) AE 6402 – A. S. & I
J. Demand system or
K. Continuous-flow (constant-flow) system.

1. Based on portability

A. Gaseous Oxygen Systems for Unpressurized Aircraft

Unpressurized aircraft that are capable of flying at altitudes requiring the use of oxygen by crew and passengers may
be equipped with portable or fixed gaseous oxygen systems. The system includes a high-pressure oxygen tank, a
pressure regulator, pressure gauge, manifold, and various types of outlets (fittings) to which tubing connected to
masks may be attached. The regulators may be of the demand type or the constant-flow type. It is preferred that the
regulators and masks for the pilot and copilot be of the demand type. In most cases, however. Constant-flow
regulators and masks are used for both crew and passengers.

(i). Portable :

Fig. 16-34
A typical portable unit or system is shown in Fig. 16-34. The simplest type of portable oxygen system includes a
Department of Transportation- (DOT-) approved oxygen cylinder of either II ft3 [311.5 L] capacity or 22 ft3 [623 L]
capacity, a regulator assembly, a pressure gauge, an ONOFF valve, hose couplings, flow indicator, and one or two
oronasal masks. This system is charged to 1800 psi [ 12 411 kPa] and is suitable for altitudes up to 28 000 ft [8536 m].
Portable oxygen systems are available with automatic flow control regulators, which adjust oxygen flow in
accordance with altitude.

(ii). Fixed:
The fixed system is permanently installed in an airplane where a need for oxygen may exist at any time during flight
at high altitudes. Commercial airplanes are always equipped with fixed systems, augmented by a few portable units
for crew members, who must be mobile, and for emergency situations where only one or two persons may require

S .P .C .E . T Department of Aeronautical Engineering

 Mr. Mohammed Haneef (Asst. Professor) AE 6402 – A. S. & I
oxygen for unusual physical reasons. A permanently installed (fixed), stored-gas oxygen system for a light twin
airplane is shown in Fig. 16-44.

This system consists of a high-pressure oxygen cylinder with a regulator, an altitude-compensating regulator. a filler
valve, an overboard discharge indicator, a control cable and knob, a cylinder pressure gauge, outlets, oxygen masks,
and required plumbing. The supply regulator attached to the oxygen cylinder reduces the high cylinder pressure to a
lower, constant pressure. The altitude-compensating regulator reduces oxygen expenditure at lower altitudes, thus
increasing oxygen supply duration. The pressure gauge shows actual cylinder pressure. The oxygen outlets are
installed in the overhead console and above the passenger seats. Each outlet contains a spring-loaded valve that
prevents oxygen flow until the mask hose is engaged with the outlet.

The oxygen filler valve is usually located under an access panel on the outside of the fuselage and near the oxygen
cylinder. The filler valve consists of the valve incorporating a filter and valve cap. A check valve is installed in the high-
pressure line at the regulator to prevent the escape of oxygen from the cylinder at the filler line port. The overboard

S .P .C .E . T Department of Aeronautical Engineering

 Mr. Mohammed Haneef (Asst. Professor) AE 6402 – A. S. & I
discharge indicator is located on the bottom or side of the aircraft near the oxygen bottle. A low pressure (60 + 20 psi
[413.7 + 137.9 kPa]) green disk is provided to prevent dust and contamination from entering the line. The indicator
line is connected to the high-pressure rupture fitting of the regulator. A disk disappearance in the indicator indicates
that oxygen cylinder overpressure existed and oxygen has been routed overboard.

B. Gaseous Oxygen Systems for Unpressurized Aircraft

Oxygen systems for pressurized aircraft are primarily installed for emergency use in case of cabin-pressurization
failure or cabin decompression. The oxygen supply is sufficient to take care of all passengers and crew until the
airplane is at a low altitude, where oxygen is no longer necessary. A drawing showing the layout of the oxygen system
for the airplane is shown in Fig. 16-46. Note that the passenger oxygen manifolds extend the full length of the cabin
on each side. Only one passenger overhead oxygen installation is shown; but an installation is provided for each
passenger.
(i). Portable

On one model of the Douglas DC-9, two independent gaseous systems are installed, one in the flight compartment

for the crew and one in the passenger compartment for the passengers and cabin attendants. Thus failure in one
system will not affect the operation of the other system. In addition, a portable oxygen cylinder is located in the flight
S .P .C .E . T Department of Aeronautical Engineering
 Mr. Mohammed Haneef (Asst. Professor) AE 6402 – A. S. & I
compartment to assure an emergency Supply of oxygen for the flight crew. The portable cylinder is mounted on a
bracket and secured by a quick-disconnect clamp. A portable oxygen cylinder is also installed at each cabin
attendant's station to enable the attendant to be mobile in the event of cabin decompression.

(ii). Fixed
The crew oxygen system in the schematic diagram of Fig. 16-47 (p. 546) consists of a high-pressure supply cylinder, a
shutoff valve with a cylinder pressure gauge, a pressure regulator, automatic pressure breathing-demand regulators,
oro nasal masks, and a quick - disconnect test fitting.

The diluter-demand pressure breathing regulator installed at each flight-crew station automatically controls the
mixture ratio of air to oxygen, the ratio varying with cabin pressure.

2. Based on storage system or Source:

C. Gaseous aviator’s breathing oxygen (ABO).

 Storing oxygen as a gas in tanks / cylinders has the major advantage of being more economical. It can be stored in
high-pressure (1800-2200 psi) containers or low-pressure (400-450 psi) containers.

 The major disadvantage is the weight and bulk of the storage containers, which may become an issue in smaller
aircraft. Aviator’s oxygen must meet certain standards to ensure that it is safe to be taken to altitude.

 Only aviator’s-grade breathing oxygen meets this specification. Neither medical grade nor industrial grade oxygen
is safe to substitute because they do not meet the same stringent standards as ABO.

D. Liquid aviators breathing oxygen (LOX).

S .P .C .E . T Department of Aeronautical Engineering

 Mr. Mohammed Haneef (Asst. Professor) AE 6402 – A. S. & I
 Oxygen can be serviced to the aircraft in a liquid state. The advantage of LOX is that it has a nine hundred-to-one
expansion ratio. In other words, one liter of LOX will expand into 900 gaseous liters of ABO. This provides a three-
to-one space and a five-to-one weight savings over gaseous ABO.

 The major disadvantages are that LOX is stored at its critical temperature of minus 91ºC and its volatile nature
when it comes in contact with petroleum products. If LOX comes in contact with exposed skin, severe frostbite
may occur.

E. Sodium chlorate candles (solid-state oxygen).

 Sodium chlorate is a chemical that, when heated to 180º C, will thermally decompose and release oxygen.
Sodium chlorate candles have the advantage of saving weight and space over ABO because they provide a six
hundred-to-one expansion ratio.

 The major disadvantage is that once the chemical reaction starts (the candle is activated), it can’t be stopped
easily. Additionally, the candle produces a great deal of heat and precautions must be taken to avoid a fire
hazard.

F. Molecular sieve oxygen generators (MSOG).

The air we breathe contains 21% oxygen and the remainder is nitrogen and inert gases that play no major role in
respiration. MSOGs take ambient air and separate oxygen from the nitrogen and inert gases. The separated oxygen is
concentrated and used to supply the aircraft. . The military has used this system for many years, as well as medical
patients who need a portable oxygen system. Civil aviation hasn’t embraced MSOG, but it may become more
common in future aircraft.

FIG: MSOG

S .P .C .E . T Department of Aeronautical Engineering

 Mr. Mohammed Haneef (Asst. Professor) AE 6402 – A. S. & I

3. Based on Delivery system (or) Regulators:

G. Continuous flow system.

The majority of oxygen systems for both private and commercial aircraft are of the continuous-now type. The
regulator on the oxygen supply provides a continuous flow of oxygen to the mask. The mask valving provides for
mixing of ambient air with the oxygen during the breathing process. As mentioned previously, some continuous-flow
systems adjust flow rate in accordance with altitude. It is a very economical system in that it doesn’t need
complicated masks or regulators to function. But it is also very wasteful—the oxygen flow is constant whether you’re
inhaling, exhaling, or pausing in between breaths. This system is typically used at 28,000 feet and lower.

Fig: Continuous flow system

H. Diluter demand system.

Demand and diluter-demand regulators used with demand masks supply oxygen to the user during inhalation. The
diluter-demand regulator automatically adjusts the percentage of oxygen and air supplied to the mask in accordance
with altitude. The demand masks cover most of the user's face and create an airtight seal. This is why a low pressure
is created when the user inhales. These masks are used primarily by crew members because they use the oxygen
more efficiently and have higher altitude capabilities.

A diluter-demand regulator is shown in Fig. 16--39. When the user inhales, a slight negative pressure is created in the
chamber to the right of the demand diaphragm. This pressure reduction causes the diaphragm to move to the right
and opens the demand valve. This causes a negative pressure to be applied to the chamber under the reducing valve
diaphragm, moving the diaphragm to the left. When the diaphragm moves to the left, the pressure-reducing valve is
lifted off of its seat, allowing oxygen to enter the regulator and flow toward the mask. FIGURE 16-39 Diluter-demand
oxygen regulator. The mixing of air with oxygen is caused by the aneroid in the mixing chamber. The aneroid is a
sealed metal bellows. At sea level the aneroid is compressed by atmospheric pressure so that the oxygen-metering

S .P .C .E . T Department of Aeronautical Engineering

 Mr. Mohammed Haneef (Asst. Professor) AE 6402 – A. S. & I
port is closed and the air-metering port is open. As atmospheric pressure is decreased, the aneroid expands, opening
the oxygen-metering port and reducing the air-metering port. At an altitude of approximately 34 000 ft [10 363.2 m],
the air-metering port is completely closed and the user is receiving only oxygen.

Fig16.39: Diluter demand system

The diluter-control closing mechanism can be used to override the diluter-control operation of the system by
mechanically closing off the air-metering port and fully opening the oxygen-metering port. Additionally, if the
mechanism should malfunction, the user can open the emergency metering control, bypass the diluter mechanism,
and be supplied with pure oxygen.

I. Pressure Demand System.

Pressure-demand regulators contain an aneroid mechanism, which automatically increases the flow of oxygen into
the mask under positive pressure. This enables the user to absorb more oxygen under

Fig: Pressure demand system

S .P .C .E . T Department of Aeronautical Engineering
 Mr. Mohammed Haneef (Asst. Professor) AE 6402 – A. S. & I
the conditions at very high altitudes. This type of equipment is normally used at altitudes above 40 000 ft [13 632 m].
The additional pressure is needed to enable the user to absorb oxygen at a greater rate than would be absorbed at
ambient pressure. A pressure demand mask must be worn with a pressure-demand regulator. By action of special
pressure-compensating valves, the mask provides for a buildup of oxygen pressure from the regulator and creates
the required input of oxygen into the lungs.

4. Based on the oxygen delivery through mask:

(i) a demand system:

An oxygen mask for a demand system must fit the face closely, enclosing both the mouth and nose, and must form an
airtight seal with the face. Inhalation by the user will then cause a low pressure in the demand regulator, which
results in opening of an oxygen valve and a flow of oxygen to the mask. When the user exhales, the flow of oxygen is
cut off.

(ii) a continuous-flow (constant-flow) system.

An oxygen mask for a constant-flow system is designed so that some ambient air is mixed with the oxygen. The
complete mask usually includes an oronasal face piece, a reservoir bag, valves, a supply hose, and a coupling fitting.
Some models include a flow indicator in the supply hose.

When the oxygen is turned on to a constant-flow mask, it fills the reservoir through a valve. When inhaling, the user
draws oxygen directly from the reservoir bag. When the oxygen in the reservoir bag is depleted, the user breathes
cabin air. When the user exhales, the reservoir bag refills with oxygen. The oxygen from the supply line flows
continuously into the mask, sometimes filling the reservoir bag and at other times being breathed by the user.
Exhaled oxygen and air are discharged from the mask into the cabin. Typical examples of continuous-flow oxygen
masks are shown in Fig. 16-41.

S .P .C .E . T Department of Aeronautical Engineering

 Mr. Mohammed Haneef (Asst. Professor) AE 6402 – A. S. & I

Fig. 16-41

VIII. FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Definition: Auxiliary Systems - Systems not essential to the actual operation of theaircraft are commonly called
auxiliary systems.Among such systems are ice and rain protection, fire warning and fire-extinguishing systems. Water
and waste systems, position and warning systems, and auxiliary power units (APUs).

Introduction:

A complete fire protection system on modern aircraft and on many older model aircraft includes both fire detection
and a fire extinguishing system.
The two types of fire protection systems available on an aircraft are:

A. One system is “fire or overheat detection”, and

1. The thermal switch system,
1. (a). Fenwal Spot Detector
2. Thermocouple system, and
3. The continuous-loop detector system.
3. (a). Kiddle System
3. (b). Fenwal System
3. (c). Continuous Element System

B. Other is “fire suppression or extinguishing”.

1. RECIPROCATING ENGINE CONVENTIONAL CO2 SYSTEM:
2. TURBOJET FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEM
2. (a). Fire Detection System
2. (b). Fire Extinguishing System
S .P .C .E . T Department of Aeronautical Engineering
 Mr. Mohammed Haneef (Asst. Professor) AE 6402 – A. S. & I
Fire Detection System Requirements:

Fire protection systems on modern aircraft do not rely on observation as primary method of fire detection. An ideal
tire detection system will include as many as possible of the following feature

 A system which will not cause false warnings under any flight or ground operating conditions.
 Rapid indication of a fire and accurate location of the fire.
 Accurate indication that a fire is out.
 Indication that a fire has re-ignited.
 Continuous indication for duration of afire.
 Means for electrically testing the detector system from the aircraft cockpit.
 Detectors which resist exposure to oil water, vibration, extreme temperatures, maintenance handling.
 Detectors which are light in weight and easily adaptable to any mounting position.
 Detector circuitry which operates ·directly from the aircraft power system without inverters.
 Minimum electrical current requirements when not indicating a fire.
 Each detection system should actuate a cockpit light indicating the location of the fire and an audible alarm
system.
 A separate detection system for each engine.

A. FIRE DETECTION SYSTEMS

A fire detection system should signal the presence of a fire. Units of the system are installed in locations where there
are greater possibilities of a fire. Three detector systems in common use are

1. the thermal switch system,

1. (a).Fenwal Spot Detector
2. thermocouple system, and
3. The continuous-loop detector system.
3. (a).Kiddle System
3. (b).Fenwal System
3.(c). Continuous Element System

1. Thermal Switch System:

A thermal switch system consists of one or more lights energized by the aircraft power system and thermal switches
that control operation of the lights. These thermal switches are heat-sensitive units that complete electrical circuits
at a certain temperature. They are connected in parallel with each other but in series with the indicator lights (figure

S .P .C .E . T Department of Aeronautical Engineering

 Mr. Mohammed Haneef (Asst. Professor) AE 6402 – A. S. & I
10-1). If the temperature rises above a setvalue in any one section of the circuit, the thermalswitch will close,
completing the light circuit toindicate the presence of a fire or overheat condition.

fig 10-1
No set number of thermal switches is required; the exact number is usually determined by the aircraft manufacturer.
On some installations several thermal detectors are connected to one light; on others there may be only one thermal
switch for an indicator light. Some warning lights are the "push-to-test" type. The bulb is tested by pushing it in to
complete an auxiliary test circuit. The circuit in figure 10-1includes a test relay. With the relay contact in the position
shown, there are two possible paths for current flow from the switches to the light. This is an additional safety
feature. Energizing the test relay completes a series circuit and checks all the wiring and the light bulb.

Also included in the circuit shown in figure 10-1is a dimming relay. By energizing the dimming relay, the circuit is
altered to include a resistor in series with the light. In some installations several circuits are wired through the
dimming relay, and all the warning lights may be dimmed at the same time.

The thermal switch system uses a bimetallic thermostat switch or spot detector similar to that shown in figure 10-2.
Each detector unit consists of a bimetallic thermo switch. Most spot detectors are dual-terminal thermo switches.

1. (a) Fenwal Spot Detector:

Fenwal spot detectors are wired in parallel between two complete loops of wiring, as illustrated infigure 10-3. Thus,
the system can withstand onefault, either an electrical open circuit or a short toground, without sounding a false fire
warning. Adouble fault must exist before a false fire warningcan occur. In case of a fire or overheat condition,the
spot-detector switch closes and completes acircuit to sound an alarm.

S .P .C .E . T Department of Aeronautical Engineering

 Mr. Mohammed Haneef (Asst. Professor) AE 6402 – A. S. & I

2. Thermocouple Systems
The thermocouple fire warning system operates on an entirely different principle than the thermal switch system. A
thermocouple depends upon the rate of temperature rise and will not give a warning when an engine slowly
overheats or a short circuit develops. The system consists of a relay box, warning lights, and thermocouples.

The relay box contains two relays, the sensitive relay and the slave relay, and the thermal test unit. Such a box may
contain from one to eight identical circuits, depending on the number of potential firez
ones. The relays control the warning lights. Int urn, the thermocouples control the operation of therelays. The circuit
consists of several thermocouplesin series with each other and with the sensitiverelay.

The thermocouple is constructed of two dissimilar metals such as chrome} and constantan. The point where these
metals are joined and will be exposed to the heat of a fire is called a hot junction. There is also a reference junction
enclosed in a dead airspace between two insulation blocks. A metal cage surrounds the thermocouple to give
mechanical protection without hindering the free movement of air to the hot junction. If the temperature rises
rapidly, the thermocouple produces a voltage because of the temperature difference between the reference
junction and the hot junction. If both junctions are heated at the same rate, no voltage will result and no warning
signal is given.

S .P .C .E . T Department of Aeronautical Engineering

 Mr. Mohammed Haneef (Asst. Professor) AE 6402 – A. S. & I
If there is a fire, however, the hot junction will heat more rapidly than the reference junction. Theensuing voltage
causes a current to flow within the detector circuit. Any time the current is greater than 4 milliamperes (0.004
ampere), the sensitive relay will close. This will complete a circuit from the aircraft power system to the coil of the
slave relay which closes and completes the circuit to the fire-warning light.

The total number of thermocouples used in individual detector circuits depends on the size of the fire zone and the
total circuit resistance. The total nresistance usually does not exceed 5 ohms. As shown in figure 10-4, the circuit has
two resistors. The resistor connected across the terminals of the slave relay absorbs the coil's self-induced voltage.
This is to prevent arcing across the points of the sensitive relay; since the contacts of the sensitive relay are so fragile
they would burn or weld if arcing were permitted.

3. Continuous-Loop Detector Systems:

A continuous-loop detector or sensing system permits more complete coverage of a fire hazard area than any type
of spot-type temperature detectors .Continuous-loop systems are versions of the thermal switch system. They are
over heat systems, heat-sensitive units that complete electrical circuits at a certain temperature. There is no rate-of-
heat-risesensitivity in a continuous-loop system. Two widely used types of continuous-loop systems are the Kidde
and the Fenwal systems.

3. (a). Kiddle System:

In the Kidde continuous-loop system (figure10-5), two wires are imbedded in a special
ceramic core within an lnconel tube. One of the two wires in the Kidde sensing system is
welded to the case at each end and acts as an internal ground. The second wire is a hot
lead(above ground potential) that provides a currentsignal when the ceramic core
material changes its resistance with a change in temperature.

3. (b). Fenwal System:

Another continuous-loop system, the Fenwal system (figure 10-6), uses a single wire
surrounded bya continuous string of ceramic beads in an lnconel tube.

The beads in the Fenwal detector are wetted with a eutectic salt which possesses the
characteristic of suddenly lowering its electrical resistance as the sensing element
reaches its alarm temperature. In both the Kidde and the Fenwal systems, the
resistance of the ceramic or eutectic salt core material prevents electrical current from
flowing at normal temperatures. In case of a fire or overheat condition, the core resistance drops and current flows
between the signal wire and ground, energizing the alarm system. The Fenwal system uses a magnetic amplifier
control unit. This system is non-averaging but will sound an alarm when any portion of its sensitive element reaches
the alarm temperature.

S .P .C .E . T Department of Aeronautical Engineering

 Mr. Mohammed Haneef (Asst. Professor) AE 6402 – A. S. & I

3.(c). Continuous Element System

Fig 10.7. Lindberg fire detection system schematic.

The Lindberg fire detection system (figure 10-7) is a continuous-element type detector consisting of a stainless steel
tube containing a discrete element. This element has been processed to absorb gas in proportion to the operating
temperature set point. When the temperature rises (due to a fire or overheat condition) to the operating
temperature set point, the heat generated causes the gas to be released from the element. Release of the gas causes
the pressure in the stainless steel tube to increase. This pressure rise mechanically actuates the diaphragm switch in
the responder unit, activating the warning lights and an alarm hell. A fire test switch is used to heat the sensors,
expanding the trapped gas. The pressure generated closes the diaphragm switch, activating the warning system.

B. FIRE EXTINGUISHING SYSTEMS

1. RECIPROCATING ENGINE CONVENTIONAL CO2 SYSTEM:

C02 is one of the earliest types of fire extinguisher systems for transport aircraft and is still used on many older
aircraft. This fire extinguisher system is designed around a cylinder (figure
10-11) that stores the flame-smothering C02 under pressure and a remote
control valve assembly in the cockpit to distribute the extinguishing agent
to the engines. The gas is distributed through tubing from the C02 cylinder
valve to the control valve assembly in the cockpit, and then to the engines
via tubing installed in the fuselage and wing tunnels. The tubing terminates
in perforated loops which encircle the engines (figure 10-12).

To operate this type of engine fire extinguisher system, the selector valve
must be set for the engine which is on fire. An upward pull on the T-shaped
control handle located adjacent to the engine selector valve actuates the
release lever in the C02 cylinder valve. The compressed liquid in the C02

S .P .C .E . T Department of Aeronautical Engineering

 Mr. Mohammed Haneef (Asst. Professor) AE 6402 – A. S. & I
cylinder flows in one rapid burst to the outlets in the distribution line (figure 10-12) of the affected engine. Contact
with the air converts the liquid into gas and "snow" which smothers the flame.

2. TURBOJET FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEM

A fire protection system for a large multi-engine turbojet aircraft is described in detail in the following paragraphs.
This system is typical of most turbojet transport aircraft and includes components and systems typically encountered
on all such aircraft.

The fire protection system of most large turbine engine aircraft consists of two subsystems:
2. (a). Fire Detection System
2. (b). Fire Extinguishing System

2. (a). Fire Detection System:

Each turbine engine installed in a pod and pylon configuration contains an automatic heat-sensing fire detection
circuit. This circuit consists of a heat-sensing unit, a control unit, a relay, and warning devices. The warning devices
normally include a warning light in the cockpit for each circuit and a common alarm bell used with all such circuits.

The heat-sensing unit of each circuit is a continuous loop routed around the areas to be protected. These areas are
the burner and tailpipe areas. Also included in most turbine engine aircraft are the compressor and accessory areas,
which in some installations may be protected by a separate fire protection circuit. Figure 10-13 illustrates the typical
routing of a continuous-loop fire detection circuit. A typical continuous loop is made up of sensing elements joined
to each other by moisture proof connectors, which are attached to the aircraft structure. In most installations, the
loop is supported by attachments or clamps every 10 to 12 in. of its length. Too great a distance between supports
may permit vibration or chafing of the unsupported section and become a source of false alarms.

S .P .C .E . T Department of Aeronautical Engineering

 Mr. Mohammed Haneef (Asst. Professor) AE 6402 – A. S. & I

In a typical turbine engine fire detection system, a separate control unit is provided for each sensing circuit. The
control unit contains an amplifier, usually a transistorized or magnetic amplifier, which produces an output when a
predetermined input current flow is detected from the sensing loop. Each control unit also contains a teat relay,
which is used to simulate a fire or overheat condition to test the circuit. All the control units are mounted in a relay
shield or junction box located in a radio compartment or in a special area of the cockpit.

The output of the control unit amplifier is used to energize a warning relay, often called a fire relay. Usually located
near the control units, these fire relays, when energized, complete the circuit to appropriate warning devices. The
warning devices for engine and nacelle fires and overheat conditions are located in the cockpit. A fire warning light
for each engine is usually located in a special fire switch handle on the instrument panel, light shield, or fire control
panel.

2. (b). Fire Extinguishing System:

The typical fire extinguishing portion of a complete fire protection system includes a cylinder or container of
extinguishing agent for each engine and nacelle area. One type of installation provides for a container in each of four
pylons on a multi-engine aircraft. This type of system uses an extinguishing agent container similar to the type shown
in figure 10-15. This type of container is equipped with two discharge valves which are operated by electrically
discharged cartridges. These two valves are the main and the reserve controls which release and route the agent to
the pod and pylon in which the container is located or to the other engine on the same wing. This type of two-shot,
cross feed configuration permits the release of a second charge of fire extinguishing agent to the same engine if
another fire breaks out, without providing two containers for each engine area.

S .P .C .E . T Department of Aeronautical Engineering

 Mr. Mohammed Haneef (Asst. Professor) AE 6402 – A. S. & I

Figure 10-15

IX. DEICING AND ANTI-ICING SYSTEM.

Introduction:
Rain, snow, and ice are transportation's ancient enemies. Flying has added a new dimension, particularly with
respect to ice. Under certain atmospheric conditions, ice can build rapidly on airfoils and air inlets.

Types of Ice Formed:

The two types of ice encountered during flight are “Rime” and “Glaze”. Rime ice forms a rough surface on the
aircraft leading edges. It is rough because the temperature of the air is very low and freezes the water before it has
time to spread. Glaze ice forms a smooth, thick coating over the leading edges of the aircraft.

Effects of Icing:

S .P .C .E . T Department of Aeronautical Engineering

 Mr. Mohammed Haneef (Asst. Professor) AE 6402 – A. S. & I
Ice on an aircraft affects its performance and efficiency in many ways. Ice buildup increases drag and reduces lift. It
causes destructive vibration, and hampers true instrument readings. Control surfaces become unbalanced or frozen.
Fixed slots are filled and movable slots jammed. Radio reception is hampered and engine performance is affected
(figure 7-1).

Anti- Icing v.s. De-Icing:

All aircraft that operate in weather conditions where ice is likely to form must be provided with ice protection. This
protection may be in the form of anti-icing systems or deicing systems. An anti-icing system prevents the formation
of ice on the airplane, and a deicing system removes ice that has already formed. Among the parts of the airplane
where ice prevention or removal is essential are the windshields, wing leading edges, tail airfoil leading edges,
propellers, engine air inlets, pitot tubes, water drains, and any other part where the formation of ice can interfere
with the operation of the airplane or its systems.

On piston-engine airplanes, especially those equipped with float-type carburetors, carburetor anti-icing is
necessary, even in clear weather, when the temperature and humidity are conductive to the formation of ice in the
throat of the carburetor.

Ice Detection System:

Some method of ice detection is desirable for aircraft so that the ice-control systems are operated only when
necessary. If ice-control systems were operated continuously, there would be a significant increase in operational
expense due to increased wear and tear on equipment and the consumption of fluids and power unnecessarily.

There are two basic methods used for ice detection:

S .P .C .E . T Department of Aeronautical Engineering

 Mr. Mohammed Haneef (Asst. Professor) AE 6402 – A. S. & I
1. Visual and
2. Electronic.

1. Visual detection is achieved by the flight crew monitoring the aircraft structures that first start to accumulate ice
on their particular aircraft. This may involve no more than looking at the wing leading edge or checking the
windshield wiper for ice buildup. At night this visual checking is aided by the use of lights designed to shine on the
surface that accumulate ice. Many aircraft have ice lights mounted on the side of the fuselage or the side of the
engine nacelle. These lights are usually aimed to shine on the wing surface.

2. In an Electronic Detection method, Electronic instruments can be used to detect ice accumulation when there is
no surface easily seen by the flight crew. One such system is used on the Canadair Challenger 601 and is shown in
Fig. 18-25.

The ice detector consists of a microprocessor circuit with an aerodynamic strut and probe extending into the
slipstream. The probe vibrates at a frequency of 40 kHz. When ice starts to build on the probe, the frequency will
decrease. When the frequency has decreased to a preset value, the microprocessor will turn on a red annunciator
light to advise the flight crew that the aircraft is in icing conditions. If the flight crew then turns on the ice-control
systems, the red ICE light will go out and a white ICE light will illuminate. Once the probe detects ice, the
microprocessor will energize a heating element in the probe to remove all ice so that the probe can recheck for icing
conditions. As long as the probe continues to detect icing at each check, the ICE annunciator will remain on. When
ice is no longer detected, the light will go out. The 60 I has two of these detectors, one on each side of the forward
fuselage section.

Ice Prevention Techniques:

S .P .C .E . T Department of Aeronautical Engineering

 Mr. Mohammed Haneef (Asst. Professor) AE 6402 – A. S. & I
Ice prevention or elimination systems ensure safety of flight when icing conditions exist. Ice may he controlled on
aircraft structure by the following methods:

(1) Pneumatic De-icing systems

(2) Thermal anti-icing system,
2. (a). Anti-icing using combustion heaters
2. (b). Anti-icing using combustion
2. (c). Anti-icing using Engine Bleed air
(3) Ground de-Icing of Aircraft
3. (a). Fast Removal
3. (b). Removing ice and snow deposits
(4) Wind shield icing control system
(5) Window Defrosts
(6) Wind shield and carburetor alcohol deicing \System
(7) Pitot Tube anti-Icing
(8) Water and toilet drain heaters.

(1) Pneumatic De-icing systems

Pneumatic deicing systems use rubber deicers, called hoots or shoes, attached to the leading edge of the wing and
stabilizers. The deicers are composed of a series of inflatable tubes. During operation, the tubes are inflated with
pressurized air, and deflated in an alternating cycle as shown in figure 7-2. This inflation and deflation causes the ice
to crack and break oft. The ice is then carried away by the airstream.

S .P .C .E . T Department of Aeronautical Engineering

 Mr. Mohammed Haneef (Asst. Professor) AE 6402 – A. S. & I
Deicer tubes are inflated by an engine-driven air pump (vacuum pump), or by air bled from gas turbine engine
compressors. The inflation sequence is controlled by either a centrally located distributor valve or by solenoid
operated valves located adjacent to the deicer air inlets. · Deicers are installed in sections along the wing with the
different sections operating alternately and symmetrically about the fuselage. This is done so that any disturbance to
airflow caused by an inflated tube will be kept to a minimum by inflating only short sections on each wing at a time.

Deicer Boot Construction: Deicer boots are made of soft, pliable rubber or rubberized fabric and contain
tubular air cells. The outer ply of the deicer is of conductive neoprene to provide resistance to deterioration by the
elements and many chemicals. The neoprene also provides a conductive surface to dissipate static electricity
charges.

The new type deicer boots (figure 7-3) are completely bonded to the surface with cement. The trailing edges of this
type boot are tapered to provide a smooth airfoil. Deicer boots are attached to the leading edge of wing and tail
surfaces with cement or fairing strips and screws, or a combination of barb. The deicer boot air cells are connected
to system pressure and vacuum lines by non-kinking flexible hose.

In addition to the deicer boots, the major components of a representative pneumatic deicing system are a source of
pressurized air, an oil separator, air pressure and suction relief valves, a pressure regulator and shutoff valve, an
inflation timer, and a distributor valve or a control valve. A schematic of a typical system is shown in figure 7-4.

S .P .C .E . T Department of Aeronautical Engineering

 Mr. Mohammed Haneef (Asst. Professor) AE 6402 – A. S. & I

Components:

(i). The engine-driven air pump is of the rotary four vanes, positive displacement
type and is mounted on the accessory drive gear box of the engine. The compression side of each pump supplies air
pressure to inflate the wing and tail deicer boots. Suction is supplied from the inlet side of each pump to bold down
the boots, when not being inflated, while in flight.
(ii). An air pressure safety valve is installed on the pressure side of some types of
engine-driven air pumps. Schematically, this valve is placed on the air pressure side of the pump between the
primary oil separators and the pump. The safety valve exhaust excessive air at high pump r.p.m. when a
predetermined pressure is reached. The valve is preset and is not adjustable.
(iii). An oil separator is provided for each wet-type air pump. Each separator has an
air inlet port, an air outlet port, and an oil drain line which is routed back to the engine oil sump. Since the air pump
is internally lubricated, it is necessary to provide this means of separating oil from the pressurized air. The oil
separator removes approximately 75% of the oil from the air.
(iv). Suction Regulating Valve An adjustable suction regulating valve is installed in
each engine nacelle. One side of each valve is piped to the inlet (suction) side of the engine driven air pump and the

S .P .C .E . T Department of Aeronautical Engineering

 Mr. Mohammed Haneef (Asst. Professor) AE 6402 – A. S. & I
other side to the main suction manifold line. The purpose of the suction valve is to maintain the deicer system
suction automatically.
(v). The solenoid distributor valve is normally located near the group of deicer
boots which it serves. Each distributor valve incorporates a pressure inlet port, suction outlet port, two to the boots,
and a port piped overboard to a low pressure area. The suction port is connected to the main suction line.
(vi). An electronic timer is used to control the operating sequence and the time
intervals of the deicing system. When the deicing system is turned on, the electronic timer energizes a solenoid in
the unloading valve. The solenoid closes a servo valve, thereby directing air pressure to the unloading valve and
closing it until the regulator valve of the combination unit takes over.

Operation / Working: As shown in figure 7-5, the deicer boots are arranged in sections. The right-hand wing boots
include two sections:
(1) An inboard and
(2) An outboard section.

A distributor valve serves each wing boot section and another distributor valve serves both horizontal stabilizer boot
sections. Notice that each distributor valve has a pressure inlet port, a suction outlet port, a dump port, and two
additional ports. Pressure and suction can be alternated through ports by the movement of a distributor valve
solenoid servo valve. Note also that each distributor valve is connected to a common pressure manifold and a
common suction manifold. When the pneumatic deicing system is on, pressure or suction is applied by either or both
engine-driven air (vacuum) pumps. The suction side of each pump is connected to the suction manifold. The
pressure side of each pump is connected through a pressure relief valve to the pressure manifold. When the
pneumatic deicing system is off, Air suction pump holds the deicing boots deflated. Air pump pressure is then
directed overboard by the combination unit.

(2) Thermal anti-icing system,

Thermal systems used for the purpose of preventing the formation of ice or for deicing airfoil leading
edges, usually are heated air ducted span wise along the inside of the leading edge of the airfoil and
distributed around its inner surface. However, electrically heated elements are also used for anti-icing and
deicing airfoil leading edges. There are several methods used to provide heated air, these include bleeding
hot air from the turbine compressor, engine exhaust heat exchangers, and ram air heated by a combustion
heater. In installations where protection is provided by preventing the formation of ice, heated air is
supplied continuously to the leading edges as long as the anti-icing system is "on." When a system is
designed to de-ice the leading edges, much hotter air is supplied for shorter periods on a cyclic system. The
systems incorporated in some aircraft include an automatic temperature control. The temperature is
maintained within a predetermined range by mixing heated air with cold air. The portions of the airfoils

S .P .C .E . T Department of Aeronautical Engineering

 Mr. Mohammed Haneef (Asst. Professor) AE 6402 – A. S. & I

which must be protected from ice formation are usually provided with a closely spaced double skin (see
figure 7-8).

The heated air carried through the ducting is passed into the gap. This provides sufficient heat to the outer
skin to melt the layer of ice next to the skin or to prevent its formation. The air is then exhausted to the
atmosphere at the wing tip or at points where ice formation could be critical. Another heater is located in
the tail area to provide hot air for the leading edges of the vertical and horizontal stabilizers. When the
engine is the source of heat, the air is routed to the empennage through ducting which is usually located
under the floor.

2. (a). Anti-icing using combustion heaters

Anti-icing systems using combustion heaters usually have a separate system for each wing and the empennage. A
typical system of this type has the required number of· combustion heaters located in each wing and in the
empennage. A system of ducting and valves controls the airflow. The anti-icing system is automatically controlled by
overheat switches, thermal cycling switches, a balance control, and a duct pressure safety switch. The overheat and
cycling switches allow the heaters to operate at periodic intervals, and they also stop heater operation completely if
overheating occurs.

The balance control is used to maintain equal heating in both wings. The duct pressure safety switch interrupts the
heater ignition circuits if ram air pressure falls below a specified amount. This protects the heaters from overheating
when not enough ram air is passing through. An airflow diagram of a typical wing and empennage anti-icing system
using combustion heaters is shown in figure 7-9.

S .P .C .E . T Department of Aeronautical Engineering

 Mr. Mohammed Haneef (Asst. Professor) AE 6402 – A. S. & I

2. (b). Anti-icing using combustion

Anti-icing of the wing and tail leading edges is accomplished by a controlled flow of heated air from heat muffs
around a reciprocating engine's tail pipe. In some installations this assembly is called an augmentor. As illustrated in
figure 7.10, an adjustable vane in each augmentor aft section can be controlled through a range of positions from

S .P .C .E . T Department of Aeronautical Engineering

 Mr. Mohammed Haneef (Asst. Professor) AE 6402 – A. S. & I
closed to open. Partially closing each vane restricts the flow of cooling air and exhaust gases. This causes the
temperature to rise in the heat muff forward of the vane. This provides a source of heat for the anti-icing system.

Normally, heated air from either engine supplies the wing leading edge anti-icing system in the same wing section.
During single engine operation, a crossover duct system interconnects the left and right wing leading edge ducts.

2. (c). Anti-icing using Engine Bleed air

Heated air for anti-icing is obtained by bleeding air from the engine compressor. The reason for the use of such a
system is that relatively large amounts of very hot air can be tapped aft the compressor, providing a satisfactory
source of anti-icing and deicing heat.

S .P .C .E . T Department of Aeronautical Engineering

 Mr. Mohammed Haneef (Asst. Professor) AE 6402 – A. S. & I
The wing anti-ice system provides Bleed Air to the three outboard Leading Edge Slats on each wing. Wing anti-ice can
be operated in flight only. It is inhibited on the ground by the Air/Ground Logic System. In flight, pushing the WING
ANTI-ICE switch ON opens the wing anti-ice valve in each wing, allowing bleed air to flow from the bleed air manifold
to the affected Slats. Pushing the WING ANTI-ICE switch again commands the wing anti-ice valve in each wing to
close, stopping bleed air from flowing from the bleed air manifold to the affected Slats. If a landing is made with the
switch ON, the Air/Ground Logic System automatically closes the wing anti-ice valves. The VALVE light illuminates
and the EICAS advisory message L/R WING ANTI-ICE displays if the Wing Anti-Ice valve disagrees with the switch
position. Maximum EPR (Engine Pressure Ratio i.e. the pressure between the inlet and outlet of the engine) is
automatically reduced when wing anti-ice is in use. (Note: The adjustment is based on switch position, not the
position of the valve.)

(3) Ground de-Icing of Aircraft

The operation of an aircraft may also be seriously affected by the freezing of moisture in controls, hinges, valves,
microswitches, or by the ingestion of ice into the engine. When aircraft are hangared (meaning kept inside a hangar /
shed) to melt snow or frost, any melted snow or ice may freeze again if the aircraft is subsequently moved into
subzero temperatures. Any measures taken to remove frozen deposits while the aircraft is on the ground must also
prevent the possible re-freezing of the liquid.

3. (a). Frost Removal

Frost deposits can he removed by placing the aircraft in a warm hangar or by using a frost remover or deicing fluid.
These fluids normally contain ethylene glycol and isopropyl 'alcohol and can be applied either by spray or by hand. It
should he applied within 2hrs of flight. Deicing fluids may adversely affect windows or the exterior finish of the
aircraft. Therefore, only the type of fluid recommended by the aircraft manufacturer should he used.

3. (b). Removing ice and snow deposits

Probably the most difficult deposit to deal with is deep, wet snow when ambient temperatures are slightly above the
freezing point. This type of deposit should he removed with a brush or squeegee. Use care to avoid damage to
antennas, vents, stall warning devices, vortex generators, etc., which may be concealed by the snow. Light, dry snow
in subzero temperatures should be blown off whenever possible; the use of hot air is not recommended, since this
would melt the snow, which would then freeze and require further treatment. Moderate or heavy ice and residual
snow deposits should be removed with a deicing fluid. No attempt should be made to remove ice deposits or break
an ice bond by force. Snow or ice can enter turbine engine intakes and freeze in the compressor. If the compressor
cannot he turned by hand for this reason, hot air should be blown through the engine until the rotating parts are
free.

(4) Wind shield icing control system

S .P .C .E . T Department of Aeronautical Engineering

 Mr. Mohammed Haneef (Asst. Professor) AE 6402 – A. S. & I
One of the more common methods for controlling ice formation and fog on modern aircraft windows is the use of an
electrical heating element built into the window. When this method is used with pressurized aircraft, a layer of
tempered glass gives strength to withstand pressurization. A layer of transparent conductive material (stannic oxide)
is the heating element and a layer of transparent vinyl plastic adds a non-shattering quality to the window. The vinyl
and glass plies (figure 7-13) are bonded by the application of pressure and heat. The bond is achieved without the
use of cement as vinyl has a natural affinity for glass. The conductive coating dissipates static electricity from the
windshield in addition to providing the heating element.

(5) Window Defrosts

The window defrost system directs heated air from the cabin heating system (or from an auxiliary heater, depending
on the aircraft) to the pilot's and copilot's windshield and side windows by means of a series of ducts and outlets. In
warm weather when heated air is not needed for defrosting, the system can be used to defog the windows. This is
done by blowing ambient air on the windows using the blowers.

(6) Wind shield and carburetor alcohol deicing \ System

An alcohol deicing system is provided on some aircraft to remove ice from the windshield and the carburetor. Figure
7-15 illustrates a typical two-engine system in which three deicing pumps (one for each carburetor and one for the
windshield) are used. Fluid from the alcohol supply tank is controlled by a solenoid valve which is energized when
any of the alcohol pumps are on. Alcohol flow from the solenoid valve is filtered and directed to the alcohol pumps
and distributed through a system of plumbing lines to the carburetors and windshield.

Toggle switches control the operation of the carburetor alcohol pumps. When the switches are placed in the "on"
position, the alcohol pumps are turned on and the solenoid-operated alcohol shutoff valve is opened. Operation of
the windshield deicer pump and the solenoid-operated alcohol shutoff valve is controlled by a rheostat-type switch,
located in the pilot's station.

S .P .C .E . T Department of Aeronautical Engineering

 Mr. Mohammed Haneef (Asst. Professor) AE 6402 – A. S. & I

When the rheostat is moved away from the "off" position, the shutoff valve is opened and the alcohol pump will
pump fluid to the windshield at the rate selected by the rheostat. When the rheostat is returned to the "oft"
position, the shutoff valve closes and the pump stops operating.

(7) Pitot Tube anti-Icing

To prevent the formation of ice over the opening in the pitot tube, a built-in electric heating element is provided. A
switch located in the cockpit, controls power to the heater. Use caution when ground checking the pitot tube since
the heater must not be operated for long periods unless the aircraft is in flight. Heating elements should be checked
for functioning by ensuring that the pitot head begins to warm up when power is applied. If an ammeter or load
meter is installed in the circuit, the heater operation can be verified by noting the current consumption when the
heater is turned on.

(8) Water and toilet drain heaters.

Heaters are provided for toilet drain lines, water lines, drain masts, and waste water drains when they are located in
an area that is subjected to f1eezing temperatures in flight. The types of heaters used are integrally heated hoses,
ribbon, blanket, or patch heaters that wrap around the lines, and gasket heaters (see figure 7-16).

S .P .C .E . T Department of Aeronautical Engineering

 Mr. Mohammed Haneef (Asst. Professor) AE 6402 – A. S. & I

Thermostats are provided in heater circuits where excessive heating is undesirable or to reduce power consumption.
The heaters have a low voltage output and continuous operation will not cause overheating.

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

-------------------------------------------------------- End of Unit ----------------------------------------------------------------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

S .P .C .E . T Department of Aeronautical Engineering

 Mr. Mohammed Haneef (Asst. Professor) AE 6402 – A. S. & I

ADDITIONAL MATERIALS FOR PROBLEMS ON REFRIGERATION / COOLING SYSTEMS

II. BASIC (or) SIMPLE AIR CYCLE COOLING SYSTEMS

S .P .C .E . T Department of Aeronautical Engineering

 Mr. Mohammed Haneef (Asst. Professor) AE 6402 – A. S. & I

S .P .C .E . T Department of Aeronautical Engineering

 Mr. Mohammed Haneef (Asst. Professor) AE 6402 – A. S. & I

S .P .C .E . T Department of Aeronautical Engineering

 Mr. Mohammed Haneef (Asst. Professor) AE 6402 – A. S. & I

S .P .C .E . T Department of Aeronautical Engineering

 Mr. Mohammed Haneef (Asst. Professor) AE 6402 – A. S. & I

S .P .C .E . T Department of Aeronautical Engineering

 Mr. Mohammed Haneef (Asst. Professor) AE 6402 – A. S. & I

S .P .C .E . T Department of Aeronautical Engineering

 Mr. Mohammed Haneef (Asst. Professor) AE 6402 – A. S. & I

S .P .C .E . T Department of Aeronautical Engineering

 Mr. Mohammed Haneef (Asst. Professor) AE 6402 – A. S. & I

S .P .C .E . T Department of Aeronautical Engineering

 Mr. Mohammed Haneef (Asst. Professor) AE 6402 – A. S. & I

S .P .C .E . T Department of Aeronautical Engineering

 Mr. Mohammed Haneef (Asst. Professor) AE 6402 – A. S. & I

S .P .C .E . T Department of Aeronautical Engineering

 Mr. Mohammed Haneef (Asst. Professor) AE 6402 – A. S. & I

S .P .C .E . T Department of Aeronautical Engineering

 Mr. Mohammed Haneef (Asst. Professor) AE 6402 – A. S. & I

S .P .C .E . T Department of Aeronautical Engineering

 Mr. Mohammed Haneef (Asst. Professor) AE 6402 – A. S. & I

S .P .C .E . T Department of Aeronautical Engineering

 Mr. Mohammed Haneef (Asst. Professor) AE 6402 – A. S. & I

S .P .C .E . T Department of Aeronautical Engineering

 Mr. Mohammed Haneef (Asst. Professor) AE 6402 – A. S. & I

S .P .C .E . T Department of Aeronautical Engineering

 Mr. Mohammed Haneef (Asst. Professor) AE 6402 – A. S. & I

S .P .C .E . T Department of Aeronautical Engineering

 Mr. Mohammed Haneef (Asst. Professor) AE 6402 – A. S. & I

S .P .C .E . T Department of Aeronautical Engineering

 Mr. Mohammed Haneef (Asst. Professor) AE 6402 – A. S. & I

S .P .C .E . T Department of Aeronautical Engineering

 Mr. Mohammed Haneef (Asst. Professor) AE 6402 – A. S. & I

S .P .C .E . T Department of Aeronautical Engineering

 Mr. Mohammed Haneef (Asst. Professor) AE 6402 – A. S. & I

S .P .C .E . T Department of Aeronautical Engineering

 Mr. Mohammed Haneef (Asst. Professor) AE 6402 – A. S. & I

S .P .C .E . T Department of Aeronautical Engineering

 Mr. Mohammed Haneef (Asst. Professor) AE 6402 – A. S. & I

S .P .C .E . T Department of Aeronautical Engineering

 Mr. Mohammed Haneef (Asst. Professor) AE 6402 – A. S. & I

S .P .C .E . T Department of Aeronautical Engineering

 Mr. Mohammed Haneef (Asst. Professor) AE 6402 – A. S. & I

S .P .C .E . T Department of Aeronautical Engineering

 Mr. Mohammed Haneef (Asst. Professor) AE 6402 – A. S. & I

S .P .C .E . T Department of Aeronautical Engineering