Three Types of Communication Channel

1) Simplex
A simplex communication channel only sends information in one
direction. For example, a radio station usually sends signals to the
audience but never receives signals from them, thus a radio station is
a simplex channel. It is also common to use simplex channel in fiber
optic communication.
2) Half duplex
In half duplex mode, data can be transmitted in both directions on a
signal carrier except not at the same time. At a certain point, it is
actually a simplex channel whose transmission direction can be
switched. Walkie-talkie is a typical half duplex device. It has a “push-
to-talk” button which can be used to turn on the transmitter but turn
off the receiver. Therefore, once you push the button, you cannot
hear the person you are talking to but your partner can hear you. An
advantage of half-duplex is that the single track is cheaper than the
double tracks.
What are the Transmission Impairments in
computer networks?
Transmission impairment occurs when the
received signal is different from the transmitted
signal. As we know, a signal can be transmitted as
Analog signal or it can be transmitted as a digital
signal.
In Analog signals due to transmission impairment
the resulting received signal gets different
amplitude or the shape. In the case of digitally
transmitted signals at the receiver side we get
changes in bits (0's or 1's).
Causes
There are various causes of transmission
impairments −
 Noise
 Distortion
 Attenuation
Noise
Noise is the major factor for the transmission distortion
as any unwanted signal gets added to the transmitted
signal by which the resulting transmitted signal gets
modified and at the receiver side it is difficult to
remove the unwanted noise signal. These noises are
various kinds like shot noise, impulse noise, thermal
noise etc.
Noise is diagrammatically represented as follows −

Distortion
This kind of distortion is mainly appearing in case of
composite signals in which a composite signal has
various frequency components in it and each frequency
component has some time constraint which makes a
complete signal.
But while transmitting this composite signal, if a certain
delay happens between the frequencies components,
then there may be the chance that the frequency
component will reach the receiver end with a different
delay constraint from its original which leads to the
change in shape of the signal. The delay happens due
to environmental parameters or from the distance
between transmitter and receiver etc.
Distortion is diagrammatically represented as follows −

Attenuation
Attenuation is generally decreased in
signal strength, by which the received
signal will be difficult to receive at the
receiver end. This attenuation happens
due to the majority factor by environment
as environment imposes a lot of resistance
and the signal strength decreases as it
tries to overcome the resistance imposed.

The above picture shows that the signal loses power at its travels
time.
Attenuation is diagrammatically represented as follows −
OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model
that describes how information from a software application in
one computer moves through a physical medium to the software
application in another computer.
o OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a
particular network function.
o OSI model was developed by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) in 1984, and it is now considered as an
architectural model for the inter-computer communications.
o OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and
manageable tasks. Each layer is assigned a particular task.
o Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer
can be performed independently.

o Characteristics of OSI Model:

o
o

o The OSI model is divided into two layers: upper layers and lower
layers.
o The upper layer of the OSI model mainly deals with the
application related issues, and they are implemented only in
the software. The application layer is closest to the end user.
Both the end user and the application layer interact with the
software applications. An upper layer refers to the layer just
above another layer.
o The lower layer of the OSI model deals with the data transport
issues. The data link layer and the physical layer are
implemented in hardware and software. The physical layer is
the lowest layer of the OSI model and is closest to the physical
medium. The physical layer is mainly responsible for placing the
information on the physical medium.
7 Layers of OSI Model
There are the seven OSI layers. Each layer has different functions. A
list of seven layers are given below:
1. Physical Layer
2. Data-Link Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer

o The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the

individual bits from one node to another node.
o It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.
o It establishes, maintains and deactivates the physical
connection.
o It specifies the mechanical, electrical and procedural network
interface specifications.
Functions of a Physical layer:
o Line Configuration: It defines the way how two or more devices
can be connected physically.
o Data Transmission: It defines the transmission mode whether it
is simplex, half-duplex or full-duplex mode between the two
devices on the network.
o Topology: It defines the way how network devices are arranged.
o Signals: It determines the type of the signal used for
transmitting the information.
2) Data-Link Layer
o This layer is responsible for the error-free transfer of data
frames.
o It defines the format of the data on the network.
o It provides a reliable and efficient communication between two
or more devices.
o It is mainly responsible for the unique identification of each
device that resides on a local network.
o It contains two sub-layers:
o Logical Link Control Layer
o It is responsible for transferring the packets to the
Network layer of the receiver that is receiving.
o It identifies the address of the network layer
protocol from the header.
o It also provides flow control.
o Media Access Control Layer
o A Media access control layer is a link between the
Logical Link Control layer and the network's physical
layer.
o It is used for transferring the packets over the
network.
Functions of the Data-link layer
o Framing: The data link layer translates the physical's raw bit
stream into packets known as Frames. The Data link layer adds
the header and trailer to the frame. The header which is added
to the frame contains the hardware destination and source
address.

o Physical Addressing: The Data link layer adds a header to the

frame that contains a destination address. The frame is
transmitted to the destination address mentioned in the
header.
o Flow Control: Flow control is the main functionality of the Data-
link layer. It is the technique through which the constant data
rate is maintained on both the sides so that no data get
corrupted
o Error Control: Error control is achieved by adding a calculated
value CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check) that is placed to the Data
link layer's trailer which is added to the message frame before it
is sent to the physical layer
o Access Control: When two or more devices are connected to
the same communication channel, then the data link layer
protocols are used to determine which device has control over
the link at a given time.
o It is a layer 3 that manages device addressing, tracks the
location of devices on the network.(with the help of ip address)
o It determines the best path to move data from source to the
destination based on the network conditions, the priority of
service, and other factors.
o The Data link layer is responsible for routing and forwarding the
packets.
o Routers are the layer 3 devices, they are specified in this layer
and used to provide the routing services within an
internetwork.
o The protocols used to route the network traffic are known as
Network layer protocols. Examples of protocols are IP and Ipv6.
Functions of Network Layer:
o Internetworking: An internetworking is the main responsibility
of the network layer. It provides a logical connection between
different devices.
o ( The network layer creates a "logical connection" between
devices. This means it finds a way to connect devices that
might be on different networks (like different islands). This
connection is not physical but is made using addresses (like IP
addresses) that tell the network where each device is.
o  )
o Addressing: A Network layer adds the source and destination
address to the header of the frame. Addressing is used to
identify the device on the internet.
o Routing: Routing is the major component of the network layer,
and it determines the best optimal path out of the multiple
paths from source to the destination.(it’s like data for GPS)
o Packetizing: A Network Layer receives the packets from the
upper layer and converts them into packets. This process is
known as Packetizing. It is achieved by internet protocol (IP)
(Networks have size limits on how much data can be sent at
once. If you want to send a large file, it needs to be divided
into smaller pieces to fit within these limits. Packetizing makes
this possible and ensures efficient use of network resources.
4) Transport Layer

o The Transport layer is a Layer 4 ensures that messages are

transmitted in the order in which they are sent and there is no
duplication of data.
o The main responsibility of the transport layer is to transfer the
data completely.
(Imagine you’re sending a letter through a postal service. The
transport layer's job is like the postal service making sure that:
The letter is divided into smaller envelopes if it’s too big.
Each envelope reaches its destination without being lost or
damaged.
The letters are put back together in the right order at the
destination.
You get a confirmation that your friend received the letter.)

o It receives the data from the upper layer and converts them
into smaller units known as segments.
 o This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it provides a
point-to-point connection between source and destination to
deliver the data reliably.
(Point-to-Point Connection means that the transport layer creates
a direct, logical connection between the two devices that are
communicating. This connection is like a dedicated pathway that
allows the data to travel securely and reliably from one point (the
source) to another point (the destination).)

The two protocols used in this layer are:

o Transmission Control Protocol
o It is a standard protocol that allows the systems to
communicate over the internet.
o It establishes and maintains a connection between hosts.
o When data is sent over the TCP connection, then the TCP
protocol divides the data into smaller units known as
segments. Each segment travels over the internet using
multiple routes, and they arrive in different orders at the
destination. The transmission control protocol reorders
the packets in the correct order at the receiving end.
o User Datagram Protocol
o User Datagram Protocol is a transport layer protocol.
 o It is an unreliable transport protocol as in this case receiver
does not send any acknowledgment when the packet is
received, the sender does not wait for any
acknowledgment. Therefore, this makes a protocol
unreliable.

Functions of Transport Layer:

o Service-point addressing: The transport layer adds the header
that contains the address known as a service-point address or
port address. The responsibility of the network layer is to
transmit the data from one computer to another computer and
the responsibility of the transport layer is to transmit the
message to the correct process.
o Segmentation and reassembly: When the transport layer
receives the message from the upper layer, it divides the
message into multiple segments, and each segment is assigned
with a sequence number that uniquely identifies each segment.
When the message has arrived at the destination, then the
transport layer reassembles the message based on their
sequence numbers.
o Connection control: Transport layer provides two services
Connection-oriented service and connectionless service. A
connectionless service treats each segment as an individual
packet, and they all travel in different routes to reach the
destination. A connection-oriented service makes a connection
with the transport layer at the destination machine before
delivering the packets
o Flow control: The transport layer also responsible for flow
control but it is performed end-to-end rather than across a
single link.
 o Error control: The transport layer is also responsible for Error
control. Error control is performed end-to-end rather than
across the single link. The sender transport layer ensures that
message reach at the destination without any error.

5) Session Layer
 o It is a layer 3 in the OSI model.
o The Session layer is used to establish, maintain and
synchronizes the interaction between communicating devices.
Functions of Session layer:
o Dialog control: Session layer acts as a dialog controller that
creates a dialog between two processes or we can say that it
allows the communication between two processes which can
be either half-duplex or full-duplex.
o Synchronization: Session layer adds some checkpoints when
transmitting the data in a sequence. If some error occurs in the
middle of the transmission of data, then the transmission will
take place again from the checkpoint. This process is known as
Synchronization and recovery.
6) Presentation Layer
o A Presentation layer is mainly concerned with the syntax and
semantics of the information exchanged between the two
systems.
o It acts as a data translator for a network.
o This layer is a part of the operating system that converts the
data from one presentation format to another format.
o The Presentation layer is also known as the syntax layer.
Functions of Presentation layer:
o Translation: The processes in two systems exchange the
information in the form of character strings, numbers and so
on. Different computers use different encoding methods, the
presentation layer handles the interoperability between the
different encoding methods. It converts the data from sender-
 dependent format into a common format and changes the
common format into receiver-dependent format at the
receiving end.
o Encryption: Encryption is needed to maintain privacy.
Encryption is a process of converting the sender-transmitted
information into another form and sends the resulting message
over the network.
o Compression: Data compression is a process of compressing
the data, i.e., it reduces the number of bits to be transmitted.
Data compression is very important in multimedia such as text,
audio, video.
7) Application Layer

o An application layer serves as a window for users and

application processes to access network service.
o It handles issues such as network transparency, resource
allocation, etc.
o An application layer is not an application, but it performs the
application layer functions.
o This layer provides the network services to the end-users.
Functions of Application layer:
o File transfer, access, and management (FTAM): An application
layer allows a user to access the files in a remote computer, to
retrieve the files from a computer and to manage the files in a
remote computer.
o Mail services: An application layer provides the facility for email
forwarding and storage.
o Directory services: An application provides the distributed
database sources and is used to provide that global information
about various objects.
 TCP/IP model
o The TCP/IP model was developed prior to the OSI model.
o The TCP/IP model is not exactly similar to the OSI model.
o The TCP/IP model consists of five layers: the application layer,
transport layer, network layer, data link layer and physical layer.
o The first four layers provide physical standards, network
interface, internetworking, and transport functions that
correspond to the first four layers of the OSI model and these
 four layers are represented in TCP/IP model by a single layer
called the application layer.
o TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive
modules, and each of them provides specific functionality.
TCP/IP Model
The TCP/IP model is a fundamental framework for computer
networking. It stands for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol, which are the core protocols of the Internet.
TCP/IP was designed and developed by the Department of Defense
(DoD) in the 1960s and is based on standard protocols
The TCP/IP model is a concise version of the OSI model. It contains
four layers, unlike the seven layers in the OSI model. In this article,
we are going to discuss the TCP/IP model in detail.
TCP/IP model was developed alongside the creation of the ARPANET,
which later became the foundation of the modern internet.
How IP and TCP Work Together:
 In the TCP/IP protocol suite, IP handles the actual delivery of
packets between devices, while TCP adds reliability by ensuring
that the data is delivered accurately and in the correct order.
 TCP/IP Together: When data is sent over a network using the
TCP/IP model, TCP first breaks the data into segments and
ensures reliable delivery. These segments are then
encapsulated into IP packets, which are sent across the network
using IP. Once they reach their destination, TCP reassembles the
segments and handles any retransmissions if necessary.
What is Network Topology?
Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the
components are interconnected to each other. There are two types
of topology: physical and logical topology.
BUS TOPOLOGY

o The bus topology is designed in such a way that all the stations
are connected through a single cable known as a backbone
cable.
o Each node is either connected to the backbone cable by drop
cable or directly connected to the backbone cable.
o When a node wants to send a message over the network, it
puts a message over the network. All the stations available in
the network will receive the message whether it has been
addressed or not.
o The bus topology is mainly used in 802.3 (ethernet) and 802.4
standard networks.
Advantages of Bus topology:
o Low-cost cable: In bus topology, nodes are directly connected
to the cable without passing through a hub. Therefore, the
initial cost of installation is low.
o Moderate data speeds: Coaxial or twisted pair cables are
mainly used in bus-based networks that support upto 10 Mbps.
o Familiar technology: Bus topology is a familiar technology as
the installation and troubleshooting techniques are well known,
and hardware components are easily available.
o Limited failure: A failure in one node will not have any effect on
other nodes.
Disadvantages of Bus topology:
o Extensive cabling: A bus topology is quite simpler, but still it
requires a lot of cabling.
o Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment
to determine the cable faults. If any fault occurs in the cable,
then it would disrupt the communication for all the nodes.
o Signal interference: If two nodes send the messages
simultaneously, then the signals of both the nodes collide with
each other.
o Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network
would slow down the network.(due to physical acess and
hardware changes)
o Attenuation: Attenuation is a loss of signal leads to
communication issues. Repeaters are used to regenerate the
signal.(due to more devices sharing the comm. Channel)
Ring Topology

A ring topology is a network configuration in which device

connections create a circular data path.
Each networked device is connected to two others, like points on a
circle. Together, devices in a ring topology are referred to as a ring
network.
In a ring network, packets of data travel from one device to the next
until they reach their destination
Most ring topologies allow packets to travel only in one direction,
called a unidirectional ring network
Others permit data to move in either direction, called bidirectional.
Working of Token passing
o A token moves around the network, and it is passed from
computer to computer until it reaches the destination.
o The sender modifies the token by putting the address along
with the data.
o The data is passed from one device to another device until the
destination address matches. Once the token received by the
destination device, then it sends the acknowledgment to the
sender.
Advantages of Ring topology:
o Network Management: Faulty devices can be removed from
the network without bringing the network down.
o Product availability: Many hardware and software tools for
network operation and monitoring are available.
o Cost: Twisted pair cabling is inexpensive and easily available.
Therefore, the installation cost is very low.
o Reliable: It is a more reliable network because the
communication system is not dependent on the single host
computer.
Disadvantages of Ring topology:
o Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment
to determine the cable faults. If any fault occurs in the cable,
then it would disrupt the communication for all the nodes.
o Failure: The breakdown in one station leads to the failure of the
overall network.
o Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network
would slow down the network.(as this will disrupt the network)
o Delay: Communication delay is directly proportional to the
number of nodes. Adding new devices increases the
communication delay.
Star Topology
o Star topology is an arrangement of the network in which every
node is connected to the central hub, switch or a central
computer.
o The central computer is known as a server, and the peripheral
devices attached to the server are known as clients.
o Coaxial cable or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the
computers.
o Hubs or Switches are mainly used as connection devices in
a physical star topology.
o Star topology is the most popular topology in network
implementation.
Advantages of Star topology
o Efficient troubleshooting: Troubleshooting is quite efficient in a
star topology as compared to bus topology. In a bus topology,
the manager has to inspect the kilometers of cable. In a star
topology, all the stations are connected to the centralized
network. Therefore, the network administrator has to go to the
single station to troubleshoot the problem.
o Network control: Complex network control features can be
easily implemented in the star topology. Any changes made in
the star topology are automatically accommodated.
o Limited failure: As each station is connected to the central hub
with its own cable, therefore failure in one cable will not affect
the entire network.
o Familiar technology: Star topology is a familiar technology as its
tools are cost-effective.
o Easily expandable: It is easily expandable as new stations can
be added to the open ports on the hub.
o Cost effective: Star topology networks are cost-effective as it
uses inexpensive coaxial cable.
o High data speeds: It supports a bandwidth of approx 100Mbps.
Ethernet 100BaseT is one of the most popular Star topology
networks.
Disadvantages of Star topology
o A Central point of failure: If the central hub or switch goes
down, then all the connected nodes will not be able to
communicate with each other.
o Cable: Sometimes cable routing becomes difficult when a
significant amount of routing is required.( In a star topology,
each device needs its own cable to connect to the central hub.
As the number of devices grows, the number of cables
increases, making it harder to manage, route, and organize
them—especially if devices are spread out over a large area.)
Tree Topology

o Tree topology combines the characteristics of bus topology and

star topology.
o A tree topology is a type of structure in which all the computers
are connected with each other in hierarchical fashion.
o The top-most node in tree topology is known as a root node,
and all other nodes are the descendants of the root node.
o There is only one path exists between two nodes for the data
transmission. Thus, it forms a parent-child hierarchy.
Advantages of Tree topology
o Support for broadband transmission: Tree topology is mainly
used to provide broadband transmission, i.e., signals are sent
over long distances without being attenuated.
o Easily expandable: We can add the new device to the existing
network. Therefore, we can say that tree topology is easily
expandable.
o Easily manageable: In tree topology, the whole network is
divided into segments known as star networks which can be
easily managed and maintained.
Limited failure: The breakdown in one station does not affect
the entire network.
o Point-to-point wiring: It has point-to-point wiring for individual
segments.
Disadvantages of Tree topology
o Difficult troubleshooting: If any fault occurs in the node, then it
becomes difficult to troubleshoot the problem.( A fault in an
upper-level node can affect all the nodes connected to it,
making it hard to pinpoint exactly where the problem is.)
o High cost: Devices required for broadband transmission are
very costly.
o Failure: A tree topology mainly relies on main bus cable and
failure in main bus cable will damage the overall network.
o Reconfiguration difficult: If new devices are added, then it
becomes difficult to reconfigure.( Devices and branches are
connected in a hierarchical manner, meaning that a change in
one part of the tree can affect other connected branches and
devices. This dependency chain makes it hard to modify one
part of the network without considering its impact on the rest.)
Mesh Topology
o Mesh technology is an arrangement of the network in which
computers are interconnected with each other through various
redundant connections.
o There are multiple paths from one computer to another
computer.
o It does not contain the switch, hub or any central computer
which acts as a central point of communication.
o The Internet is an example of the mesh topology.
o Mesh topology is mainly used for WAN implementations where
communication failures are a critical concern.
o Mesh topology is mainly used for wireless networks.
o Mesh topology can be formed by using the formula:
Number of cables = (n*(n-1))/2;
Advantages of Mesh topology:

Reliable: The mesh topology networks are very reliable as if any link
breakdown will not affect the communication between connected
computers.
Fast Communication: Communication is very fast between the
nodes.
Easier Reconfiguration: Adding new devices would not disrupt the
communication between other devices.
Disadvantages of Mesh topology
o Cost: A mesh topology contains a large number of connected
devices such as a router and more transmission media than
other topologies.
o Management: Mesh topology networks are very large and very
difficult to maintain and manage. If the network is not
monitored carefully, then the communication link failure goes
undetected.
o Efficiency: In this topology, redundant connections are high that
reduces the efficiency of the network.
Hybrid Topology
o The combination of various different topologies is known
as Hybrid topology.
o A Hybrid topology is a connection between different links and
nodes to transfer the data.
o When two or more different topologies are combined together
is termed as Hybrid topology and if similar topologies are
connected with each other will not result in Hybrid topology.
For example, if there exist a ring topology in one branch of ICICI
bank and bus topology in another branch of ICICI bank,
connecting these two topologies will result in Hybrid topology.
Advantages of Hybrid Topology
o Reliable: If a fault occurs in any part of the network will not
affect the functioning of the rest of the network.
o Scalable: Size of the network can be easily expanded by adding
new devices without affecting the functionality of the existing
network.
o Flexible: This topology is very flexible as it can be designed
according to the requirements of the organization.
o Effective: Hybrid topology is very effective as it can be designed
in such a way that the strength of the network is maximized and
weakness of the network is minimized.
Disadvantages of Hybrid topology
o Complex design: The major drawback of the Hybrid topology is
the design of the Hybrid network. It is very difficult to design
the architecture of the Hybrid network.
o Costly Hub: The Hubs used in the Hybrid topology are very
expensive as these hubs are different from usual Hubs used in
other topologies.
o Costly infrastructure: The infrastructure cost is very high as a
hybrid network requires a lot of cabling, network devices, etc.
Transmission methods
Circuit Switching
 In circuit switching, a dedicated communication path is
established between two devices for the duration of the
connection. This method was traditionally used in telephone
networks.
 Working: A physical path is reserved for the entire
communication session, ensuring that all data follows the same
route. The path remains open and unused bandwidth is wasted
when no data is transmitted.
 Pros: Consistent connection, low latency(Latency refers to the
time delay between the moment data is sent and the moment
it is received and processed.).
 Cons: Inefficient use of bandwidth, poor scalability.
Communication through circuit switching has 3 phases:
o Circuit establishment
o Data transfer
o Circuit Disconnect

1. Circuit Switching
 Example: Traditional Telephone Networks
  How It Works: Imagine making a phone call using a landline.
When you dial a number, the network establishes a direct
connection between your phone and the recipient's phone. This
connection, or "circuit," remains open for the entire duration of
the call. No other data can use this path until the call ends. If
you or the other party are silent, the path is still reserved but
unused.
Real-World Example: The old Public Switched Telephone Network
(PSTN) used circuit switching. Once a call was connected, the line
remained dedicated to that conversation until one of the parties
hung up.
 PACKET SWITCHING

Packet switching breaks data into smaller packets that are

transmitted independently over the network. Each packet may take a
different path to the destination.
 Data is divided into packets, each with a header containing
destination and sequencing information.
 These packets are routed through the network based on the
most efficient path available at the time.

 All the packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct

order.
 If any packet is missing or corrupted, then the message will be
sent to resend the message.
 If the correct order of the packets is reached, then the
acknowledgment message will be sent.
Pros: Efficient use of bandwidth, robust and scalable, supports
multiple connections simultaneously.
Cons: Potential for packet loss, latency may vary, reassembly of
packets required.
 Message Switching

Message switching involves the entire message being stored and

then forwarded from one intermediate node to the next. It’s a
store-and-forward technique.
How It Works: The entire message is sent to an intermediate
node, stored there, and then forwarded to the next node or the
final destination. Each node stores the entire message until the
next node is ready to receive it.
Pros: Useful for large messages, more reliable.
Cons: High latency, requires large storage at each node.
 Cell Switching
 Description: Cell switching is a variation of packet switching
where data is divided into fixed-size cells rather than variable-
sized packets. This method is used in technologies like
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM).
 How It Works: Data is divided into small, fixed-size cells
(typically 53 bytes). These cells are then switched through the
network independently.
 Pros: Predictable performance, reduced latency.
 Cons: Overhead from fixed cell size, less efficient for small data
transfers.
 Virtual Circuit Switching
o Virtual Circuit Switching is also known as connection-oriented
switching.
o In the case of Virtual circuit switching, a preplanned route is
established before the messages are sent.
o Call request and call accept packets are used to establish the
connection between sender and receiver.
o In this case, the path is fixed for the duration of a logical
connection.
In the above diagram, A and B are the sender and receiver
respectively. 1 and 2 are the nodes.
Call request and call accept packets are used to establish a
connection between the sender and receiver.
When a route is established, data will be transferred.
After transmission of data, an acknowledgment signal is sent by
the receiver that the message has been received.
If the user wants to terminate the connection, a clear signal is sent
for the termination.
Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)
The Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) is a set of
communication protocols that enable the simultaneous digital
transmission of voice, video, data, and other network services
over traditional Public Switched Telephone Network(PSTN)
connections.
What is ISDN?
ISDN is a circuit-switched telephone network system, but it also
provides access to packet-switched networks that allow digital
transmission of voice and data. This results in potentially better
voice or data quality than an analog phone can provide.
History of ISDN
Before the Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN), the
telephone system was seen as a way to transmit voice, with some
special services available for data. The main feature of ISDN is that
it can integrate speech and data on the same lines, which were
not available in the classic telephone system.
Key Features of ISDN:
 Digital Transmission: Unlike traditional analog telephone
systems, ISDN transmits data digitally, which improves the
quality and speed of communications.
 Multiple Channels: ISDN lines provide multiple channels for
communication:
o Bearer Channels (B Channels): These are used to carry
voice or data. Each B channel provides a 64 kbps data
rate.
o Delta Channel (D Channel): This is used for signaling and
control information. In Basic Rate Interface (BRI) ISDN, the
D channel typically operates at 16 kbps.
Types of ISDN:
1. Basic Rate Interface (BRI):
o Structure: BRI typically consists of two B channels (each
64 kbps) and one D channel (16 kbps).
o Use Case: Commonly used in homes and small businesses.
It allows for two simultaneous connections (e.g., one for a
phone call and another for internet access).
2. Primary Rate Interface (PRI):
o Structure: PRI consists of 23 B channels and one D
channel in North America and Japan, or 30 B channels and
one D channel in Europe and Australia.
o Use Case: Used in larger organizations and enterprises
that require multiple simultaneous connections.
Benefits of ISDN:
 Simultaneous Services: ISDN allows for the simultaneous
transmission of voice, video, and data, making it possible to, for
example, make a phone call and use the internet at the same
time.
 Faster Setup: Call setup time is faster compared to older analog
systems.
 Improved Voice Quality: The digital nature of ISDN provides
clearer voice communications compared to analog systems.
 Flexibility: ISDN supports a variety of services, including voice,
video conferencing, fax, and data transmission.
 Real-World Applications:
 Teleconferencing: ISDN was widely used in video conferencing
systems before the advent of modern broadband and IP-based
technologies.
 Remote Work: In the early days of remote work, ISDN was used
to provide reliable internet connections for home offices.
 Business Communications: Many businesses used ISDN for
their phone systems and data services, benefiting from its
ability to handle multiple calls and data transmissions
simultaneously.
Decline of ISDN:
 With the rise of broadband internet technologies like DSL,
cable, and fiber optics, ISDN has largely been replaced due to
its lower data rates and higher costs compared to these newer
technologies. However, ISDN laid the groundwork for the
digital communication systems we use today, and it is still
used in some specialized applications where its reliability and
quality are required.
FDDI
Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) is a high-speed networking
standard designed for local area networks (LANs) that primarily uses
fiber optic cables. It operates at 100 Mbps and uses a dual-ring
topology for fault tolerance, with a primary ring for data transmission
and a secondary ring as a backup in case of failure. FDDI employs a
token-passing protocol to manage data transfer, reducing collisions
and ensuring reliable communication. It was commonly used for
backbone networks, high-performance computing, and long-distance
LANs. However, it has largely been replaced by faster, more cost-
effective technologies like Gigabit Ethernet.