S.

Page
Topic No.
No.

1. Integers 3

2. Fractions 7

3. Data Handling 12

4. Simple Equations 16

5. Lines And Angles 19

6. The Triangle And Its Properties 25

7. Congruence Of Triangle 30

8. Comparing Quantities 33

9. Rational Numbers 37

10. Practical Geometry 42

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 11. Perimeter and area 50

12. Algrabic expression 56

13. Exponents and powers 60

14. Symmetry 63

15. Visualising solid shapes 67

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 Chapter 1 Notes

Integers
Introduction to Integers
Natural Numbers : The collection of all the counting numbers is called set of
natural numbers. It is denoted by N = {1,2,3,4….}
Whole Numbers: The collection of natural numbers along with zero is called a set
of whole numbers. It is denoted by W = { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, … }

Properties of Addition and Subtraction of Integers

Closure under Addition and subtraction
For every integer a and b, a+b and a–b are integers.
Commutativity Property for addition
for every integer a and b, a+b=b+a
Associativity Property for addition
for every integer a,b and c, (a+b)+c=a+(b+c)

Additive Identity & Additive Inverse

Additive Identity
For every integer a, a+0=0+a=a here 0 is Additive Identity, since adding 0 to a
number leaves it unchanged.
Example : For an integer 2, 2+0 = 0+2 = 2.
Additive inverse
For every integer a, a+(−a)=0 Here, −a is additive inverse of a and a is the additive
inverse of-a.
Example : For an integer 2, (– 2) is additive inverse and for (– 2), additive inverse is
2. [Since + 2 – 2 = 0]

Properties of Multiplication of Integers

Closure under Multiplication
For every integer a and b, a×b=Integer
Commutative Property of Multiplication
For every integer a and b, a×b=b×a
Multiplication by Zero
For every integer a, a×0=0×a=0

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Multiplicative Identity
For every integer a, a×1=1×a=a. Here 1 is the multiplicative identity for integers.
Associative property of Multiplication
For every integer a, b and c, (a×b)×c=a×(b×c)
Distributive Property of Integers
Under addition and multiplication, integers show the distributive property.
i.e., For every integer a, b and c, a×(b+c)=a×b+a×c
These properties make calculations easier.

Division of Integers
When a positive integer is divided by a positive integer, the quotient obtained is
a positive integer.
Example: (+6) ÷ (+3) = +2
When a negative integer is divided by a negative integer, the quotient obtained is
a positive integer.
Example: (-6) ÷ (-3) = +2
When a positive integer is divided by a negative integer or negative integer is
divided by a positive integer, the quotient obtained is a negative integer.
Example: (-6) ÷ (+3) =−2 and Example: (+6) ÷ (-3) = −2

The Number Line

Number Line
Representation of integers on a number line

On a number line when we

(i) add a positive integer for a given integer, we move to the right.
Example : When we add +2 to +3, move 2 places from +3 towards right to get +5
(ii) add a negative integer for a given integer, we move to the left.
Example : When we add -2 to +3, move 2 places from +3 towards left to get +1
(iii) subtract a positive integer from a given integer, we move to the left.
Example: When we subtract +2 from -3, move 2 places from -3 towards left to get -5

4
(iv) subtract a negative integer from a given integer, we move to the right
Example: When we subtract -2 from -3, move 2 places from -3 towards right to get 1

Addition and Subtraction of Integers

The absolute value of +7 (a positive integer) is 7
The absolute value of -7 (negative integer) is 7 (its corresponding positive integer)
Addition of two positive integers gives a positive integer.
Example : (+3)+(+4) = +7
Addition of two negative integers gives a negative integer.
Example : (−3)+(−4) = −3−4=−7
When one positive and one negative integers are added, we take
their difference and place the sign of the bigger integer.
Example : (−7)+(2) = −5
For subtraction, we add the additive inverse of the integer that is being subtracted,
to the other integer.
Example : 56–(–73) = 56+73 = 129

Introduction to Zero

Integers
Integers are the collection of numbers which is formed by whole numbers and their
negatives.
The set of Integers is denoted by Z or I. I = { …, -4, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4,… }

Properties of Division of Integers

For every integer a,
(a) a÷0 is not defined
(b) a÷1 = a
Note: Integers are not closed under division
Example: (– 9) ÷ (– 3) = 2. Result is an integer.
and (−3)÷(−9)= 1/3. Result is not an integer.

Multiplication of Integers
Product of two positive integers is a positive integer.
Example : (+2)×(+3) = +6
Product of two negative integers is a positive integer.
Example :(−2)×(−3) = +6
Product of a positive and a negative integer is a negative integer.
Example :(+2)×(−3) = −6 and (−2)×(+3) = −6

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Product of even number of negative integers is positive and product of odd
number of negative integers is negative.
These properties make calculations easier.

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 Chapter 2 Notes
Fractions
Introduction
The word fraction derives from the Latin word “Fractus” meaning broken. It
represents a part of a whole, consisting of a number of equal parts out of a whole.
E.g : slices of a pizza.

Representation of Fractions
A fraction is represented by 2 numbers on top of each other, separated by a line.
The number on top is the numerator and the number below is the denominator.
Example : which basically means 3 parts out of 4 equal divisions.

Fractions on the Number Line

In order to represent a fraction on a number line, we divide the line segment
between two whole numbers into n equal parts, where n is the denominator.
Example: To represent 1/5 or 3/5, we divide the line between 0 and 1 in 5 equal
parts. Then the numerator gives the number of divisions to mark.

Multiplication of Fractions
Multiplication of a fraction by a whole number :
Example 1: 7×(1/3) = 7/3
Example 2 : 5×(7/45) = 35/45, Dividing numerator and denominator by 5, we get 7/9

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Multiplication of a fraction by a fraction is basically product of numerators/product
of denominators
Example 1: (3/5) × (12/13) = 36/65
Example 2 : Multiplication of mixed fractions

First convert mixed fractions to improper fractions and then multiply

Fraction as an Operator ‘Of’

The ‘of’ operator basically implies multiplication.
Example: 1/6 of 18 = (1/6)×18 = 18/6 = 3
or, 1/2 of 11 = (1/2) × 11 = 11/2

Division of Fractions

Reciprocal of a Fraction
Reciprocal of any number n is written as1n
Reciprocal of a fraction is obtained by interchanging the numerator and
denominator.
Example: Reciprocal of 2/5 is 5/2
Although zero divided by any number means zero itself, we cannot find reciprocals
for them, as a number divided by 0 is undefined.
Example : Reciprocal of 0/7 ≠ 7/0

Division of Fractions
Division of a whole number by a fraction : we multiply the whole number with the
reciprocal of the fraction.
Example: 63÷(7/5) = 63×(5/7) = 9×5 = 45
Division of a fraction by a whole number: we multiply the fraction with the reciprocal
of the whole number.
Example: (8/11)÷4 = (8/11)×(1/4) = 2/11
Division of a fraction by another fraction : We multiply the dividend with the
reciprocal of the divisor.
Example: (2/7) ÷ (5/21) = (2/7) × (21/5) = 6/5

Types of Fractions
Proper fractions represent a part of a whole. The numerator is smaller than the
denominator.
Example: 1/4, 7/9, 50/51. Proper fractions are greater than 0 and less than 1
Improper fractions have a numerator that is greater than or equal to the
denominator.
Example: 45/6, 6/5. Improper fractions are greater than 1 or equal to 1.
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Mixed fractions are a combination of a whole number and a proper fraction.
Example: 43/5 can be written as .
Conversion of fractions : An improper fraction can be represented as mixed fraction
and a mixed fraction can represented as improper.
In the above case, if you multiply the denominator 5 with the whole number 8 add
the numerator 3 to it, you get back 435
Like fractions : Fractions with the same denominator are called like fractions.
Example: 5/7, 3/7. Here we can compare them as (5/7) > (3/7)
Unlike fractions : Fractions with different denominators are called unlike fractions.
Example: 5/3, 9/2. To compare them, we find the L.C.M of the denominator.

⇒ 10/6, 27/6
Here the L.C.M is 6 So, (5/3)×(2/2) , (9/2)×(3/3)

⇒ 27/6 > 10/7

Decimals
Introduction: Decimal
Decimal numbers are used to represent numbers that are smaller than the unit
1. Decimal number system is also known as base 10 system since each place value
is denoted by a power of 10.

A decimal number refers to a number consisting of the following two parts:

(i) Integral part (before the decimal point)
(ii) Fractional Part (after the decimal point).
These both are separated by a decimal separator(.) called the decimal point.
A decimal number is written as follows: Example 564.8 or 23.97.
The numbers to the left of the decimal point increase with the order of 10, while the
numbers to the right of the point increase with the decrease order of 10.
The above example 564.8 can be read as ‘five hundred and sixty four and eight

⇒5×100 + 6×10 + 4×1 + 8×(1/10)

tenths’

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A fraction can be written as a decimal and vice-versa. Example 3/2 = 1.5 or 1.5 =
15/10 = 3/2

Multiplication of Decimals
Multiplication of decimal numbers with whole numbers :
Multiply them as whole numbers. The product will contain the same number of
digits after the decimal point as that of the decimal number.
E.g : 11.3×4 = 45.2
Multiplication of decimals with powers of 10 :
If a decimal is multiplied by a power of 10, then the decimal point shifts to the right
by the number of zeros in its power.
E.g : 45.678×10 = 456.78 (decimal point shifts by 1 place to the right)
or, 45.678×1000 = 45678 (decimal point shifts by 3 places to the right)
Multiplication of decimals with decimals :
Multiply the decimal numbers without decimal points and then give decimal point in
the answer as many places same as the total number of places right to the decimal
points in both numbers.
E.g :

Division of Decimals
Dividing a decimal number by a whole number:
Example: 45.2/55
Step 1. Convert the Decimal number into Fraction: 45.25= 4525/100
Step 2. Divide the fraction by the whole number: (4525/100)÷5 = (4525/100) ×
(1/5) = 9.05
Dividing a decimal number by a decimal number:
Example 1: 45.25/0.5
Step 1. Convert both the decimal numbers into fractions: 45.25 = 4525/100 and 0.5 =
5/10
Step 2. Divide the fractions: (4525/100)÷(5/10) = (4525/100)×(10/5) = 90.5
Example 2:

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Dividing a decimal number by powers of 10 :
If a decimal is divided by a power of 10, then the decimal point shifts to the left by
the number of zeros present in the power of 10.
Example: 98.765÷100=0.98765 Infinity
When the denominator in a fraction is very very small (almost tending to 0), then
the value of the fraction tends towards infinity.

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 Chapter 3 Notes
Data Handling
Double Bar Graphs
Double bar graphs are an effective tool to compare the values of two quantities for
the same observation. For example, consider the marks obtained by five students of
a class in two tests. Using a double bar graph, we can analyse which week students
had better marks.

Averages
Arithmetic Mean and Range
The average or arithmetic mean or mean of a given data is defined as :

Mean=Sum of all observations / Number of observations

The difference between the highest and the lowest observations in a given data is
called its Range.
Example: Ages of all 10 teachers in grade 7 are : 25, 43, 34, 55, 44, 60, 32, 29, 35, 40.
Mean = 43+34+55+44+60,+32+29+35+40 = 39.7 years
Range = Higest Observation – Lowest Observation = 60 – 25 = 35

Median
When a given data is arranged in ascending (or descending) order, then the
middlemost observation is called the median of the data.

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Example : Marks scored by seven students in a class are: 21, 32, 18 ,93, 21, 36, 50.
Observations in ascending order: 18, 21, 21, 32, 36, 50, 93.

∴ Median is 32.
Middle most value = 32

Mode
The mode of a set of observations is the observation that occurs most often.
Example: Given set of numbers: 1, 1, 2, 4, 3, 2, 1, 2, 2, 4

∴ Mode of this data is 2 because it occurs more frequently.

Ascending Order = 1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 2, 2, 3, 4, 4

Note: A data can have more than 1 mode.

Chance and Probability

Probability is the measure or the chance of occurrence of a particular event.
Experiments which do not have a fixed result are known as random experiments.
Number of outcomes or Sample Space The set of all the possible outcomes to
occur in any experiment is known as sample space.
Examples: Experiment : Tossing a coin, Sample Space (S) = {H,T}
Experiment : Rolling a die, Sample Space (S) = {1,2,3,4,5,6}
Favourable outcome – It is one of the possible result(s) of an experiment.
Examples : In an experiment of Tossing a coin, getting a head. Favourable outcome
= {H} In an experiment of Rolling a die, getting an even number Favourable
outcomes = {2,4,6} Probability of occurrence of any event,
P(E)= Number of favourable outcomesTotal Number of Outcomes
Example: Find the probability of getting an even number when a die is rolled.
Sample Space (S) = {1,2,3,4,5,6} , Favourable outcomes = {2,4,6} P(E)=Number of
favourable outcomes Total Number of Outcomes= 36 =12

The Scale
Large numbers cannot be represented in a bar graph, so the scaling factor is used
to reduce or scale down large numbers.

Bar graph showing the population in some villages

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Example: The scale on the y-axis is 1 unit = 200 people.

Basics: The Right Data in the Right Form

Introduction: Data
Data are individual pieces of information, information about a particular system.
They can be in the form of figures or numbers. Data is collected to analyse specific
information for a specific purpose.

Organization of Data
Data is organised and represented graphically so that it becomes easy to
understand and interpret. This is called an organisation of data.

Pictographs and Bar Graphs

A pictograph is a pictorial representation of data. Here data is represented using
images of the objects.

Pictograph
The graphical representation of data using bars of uniform width drawn vertically or
horizontally with different lengths is called as bar graphs/bar diagrams. Bar
diagrams consist of two axes: X-axis and Y-axis. The following is a bar graph
showing the birthday of students in a class. Graph showing the birthday of students
in a class.

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Bar graph

15
 Chapter 4 Notes
Simple Equations

Introduction to Simple Equations

Variables and Expressions
Variable is a quantity that can take any value, its value is not fixed. It is a symbol for
a number whose value is unknown yet.
Expressions are formed by performing operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division on the variables.
Example: 6x – 3 is an expression in variable x.

Algebraic Equation
An equation is a condition on a variable such that two expressions in the variable
should have equal value.
Example: 8x−8=16 is an equation.
The value of the variable in an equation for which the equation is satisfied is called
the solution of the equation.
Example: The solution for the equation 2x−3=5 is x=4.

More about Equations

Mathematical Operations on Expressions

 Addition of variables: (3x+4z)+(5y+6)
 Subtraction of variables: (4x−7y)−(6y+5)
 Multiplication of variables: (5xy+6)×7x
 Division of variables: (8xz+5z)/(5x-6y)

Solving an Equation
Solving an equation involves performing the same operations on the expressions
on either side of the “=” sign so that the value of the variable is found without
disturbing the balance.
Example : Solve 2x+4=10

⇒2x+4−4=10−4 [Subtracting 4 from both LHS and RHS] ⇒2x=6

Consider 2x+4=10

⇒2x/2=6/2 [Dividing both LHS and RHS by 2] ⇒x=3

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Methods of Solving an Equation
Method 1: performing the same operations on the expressions on either side of
the “=” sign so that the value of the variable is found without disturbing the
balance.
Opertions involve Adding, subtracting, multipling or dividing on both sides.
Example: x+2=6

⇒ LHS: x+2−2=x
Subtract 2 from LHS and RHS

⇒ RHS: 6−2=4

⇒x=4
But LHS = RHS

Method 2: Transposing
It involves moving the terms to one side of the equation to find out the value of the
variable.
When terms move from one side to another they change their sign.
Example: x+2=6

⇒x=6−2
Transpose (+2) from LHS to RHS

⇒x=4

Applying Equations

Forming Equation from Solution

Given a solution, many equations can be constructed.
Example: Given solution: x = 3

⇒ 4x=4×3
Multiply both sides by 4,

⇒ 4x−5=12−5
Add -5 to both sides,

⇒ 4x−5=7
Similarly, more equations can be constructed.

Applications (Word problem)

Example: Ram’s father is 3 times as old as his son Ram. After 15 years, he will be
twice the age of his son. Form an equation and solve it.

⇒ His father’s age is 3x.

Solution: Let Ram’s age be x.

After 15 years:
3x+15=2(x+15)
On solving,

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3x+15=2x+30
3x−2x=30−15

∴ Ram’s age is 15 and his dad’s age is 45.

x=15

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 Chapter 5 Notes
Lines And Angles
Introduction to Geometry
Line, line segment and ray
 If we take a point and draw a straight path that extends endlessly on both the sides,
then the straight path is called as a line.
 A ray is a part of a line with one endpoint.
 A line segment is a part of a line with two endpoints.

Angles
 An angle is formed when two rays originate from the same end point.
 The rays making an angle are called the arms of the angle.
 The end point is called the vertex of the angle.

Complementary Angles
 Two angles whose sum is 900 are called complementary angles.
Example: 500 + 400 = 900

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 ∴ 500 and 400 angles are complementary angles.

Parallel Lines and a Transversal

Transversal intersecting two lines

 Transversal is a line that intersects two or more lines at different points.

(i) ∠1 and ∠5 (ii) ∠2 and ∠6

 Corresponding Angles:

(iii) ∠3 and ∠7 (iv) ∠4 and ∠8

 Alternate Interior Angles:
(i) ∠3 and ∠6 (ii) ∠4 and ∠5

(i) ∠1 and ∠8 (ii) ∠2 and ∠7

 Alternate Exterior Angles:

(i) ∠3 and ∠5 (ii) ∠4 and ∠6

 Interior angles on the same side of the transversal:

Transversal of Parallel Lines

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 If a transversal intersects two parallel lines, then each pair of corresponding angles

(i) ∠1=∠5 (ii) ∠2=∠6

is equal.

(iii) ∠3=∠7 (iv) ∠4=∠8

 If a transversal intersects two parallel lines, then each pair of alternate interior

(i) ∠3=∠6 (ii) ∠4=∠5

angles is equal.

 If a transversal intersects two parallel lines, then each pair of interior angles on the

(i) ∠3+∠5=1800 (ii) ∠4+∠6=1800

same side of the transversal is supplementary.

Checking if two or more lines are parallel

 There are three conditions to check whether the two lines are parallel. They are:
(i) If a transversal intersects two lines such that a pair of corresponding angles is
equal, then the two lines are parallel to each other.
(ii) If a transversal intersects two lines such that a pair of alternate interior angles is
equal, then the two lines are parallel.
(iii) If a transversal intersects two lines such that a pair of interior angles on the
same side of the transversal is supplementary, then the two lines are parallel.

Intersecting Lines and Pairs of Angles

Supplementary angles
 Two angles whose sum is 1800 are called supplementary angles.

∴ 1100 and 700 angles are supplementary angles.

Example: 1100+700=900

Adjacent Angles

 Two angles are adjacent, if they have

(i) A common vertex
(ii) A common arm
(iii) Their non-common arms on different sides of the common arm.

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 Here ∠ABD and ∠DBC are adjacent angles.

Linear Pair
 Linear pair of angles are adjacent angles whose sum is equal to 180∘.

Here, 1 and 2 are linear pair of angles.

Vertically Opposite Angles

 Vertically opposite angles are formed when two straight lines intersect each other at
a common point.
 Vertically opposite angles are equal.

Here, the following pairs of angles are vertically opposite angles.

(i) a and c
(ii) b and d

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 Intersecting and Non-Intersecting lines
 Intersecting lines are lines which intersect at a common point called the point of
intersection.

 Parallel lines are lines which do not intersect at any point. Parallel lines are also
known as non- intersecting lines.

Basic Properties of a Triangle

Sum of Interior Angles in a Triangle

 Angle sum property of a triangle: Sum of all interior angles of a triangle is 180 0.

In △ABC, ∠1+∠2+∠3=1800

The exterior angle of a triangle = Sum of opposite internal angles

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 If a side of a triangle is produced, then the exterior angle so formed is equal to the
sum of the two interior opposite angles.

In △ABC, ∠CAB+∠ABC=∠ACD.

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 Chapter 6 Notes
The Triangles And Its properties

Introduction
Triangle
 A triangle is a closed curve made of three line segments.

 It has three:Sides:

(ii) Angles: ∠BAC, ∠ACB and ∠CBA

(i) Sides: ¯¯¯¯¯AB, ¯¯¯¯¯BC and ¯¯¯¯¯CA

(iii) Vertices: A, B and C

Important Lines in a Triangle

Median
 Median is the line that connects a vertex of a triangle to the mid-point of the
opposite side.
 In the given figure, ¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯AD is the median, joining the vertex A to the midpoint
of ¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯BC.

Altitude

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 An altitude is a line segment through a vertex of the triangle and perpendicular to a
line containing the opposite side.

Sides Also Have Constraints

Sum of the lengths of two sides of a triangle

 The sum of the lengths of any two sides of a triangle is greater than the third side.

In the above triangle,

9+11=20 >14
11+14=25 >9
9+14=23 >11

Difference between lengths of two sides of a triangle

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 The difference between lengths of any two sides is smaller than the length of the
third side.

 In the above triangle,

11 – 9 = 2 < 14
14 – 11 = 3 < 9
14 – 9 = 5 < 11
 Using the concept of sum of two sides and difference of two sides, it is possible to
determine the range of lengths that the third side can take.

Triangle Properties

Angle sum property of a triangle

 The total measure of the three angles of a triangle is 180 0.

In △PQR,
∠RPQ+∠PQR+∠QRP


=700 + 600 + 500 = 1800

For More Information On Angle Sum Property Of A Triangle, Watch The Below
Video.

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 Exterior angle of a triangle and its property
 An exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of its interior opposite angles.

In the given figure, ∠1+∠2=∠3.

Pythagoras Theorem
 The side opposite to the right angle in a right-angled triangle is called the
hypotenuse.
 The other two sides are known as legs of the right-angled triangle.
 In a right-angled triangle, square of hypotenuse is equal to the sum of squares
of legs.

⇒52=42+32
AC2=AB2+BC2

 If a triangle holds Pythagoras property, then it is a right-angled triangle.

Properties of isosceles and equilateral triangles

Properties of Isosceles Triangle
 Two sides are equal in length.
 Base angles opposite to the equal sides are equal.
Properties of Equilateral Triangle

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 All three sides are equal in length.
 Each angle equals to 600.

Classification of Triangles

Classification of triangles based on sides

 Equilateral triangle: A triangle in which all the three sides are of equal lengths.
 Isosceles triangle: A triangle in which two sides are of equal lengths.
 Scalene Triangle: A triangle in which all three sides are of different length.

Classification of triangles based on angles

 Acute-angled: A triangle with three acute angles.
 Right-angled: A triangle with one right angle.
 Obtuse-angled: A triangle with one obtuse angle.

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 Chapter 7 Notes
Congruence Of Triangle
Introduction to Congruent Triangles

Congruent Figures
 Congruent figures are exactly equal in size and shape.

Congruent Triangles
 If all the sides and angles of a triangle are equal to the corresponding sides and
angles of another triangle, then both the triangles are said to be congruent.

Here, △ABC≅△DEF

Criteria for Congruency

SSS Criteria for Congruency

 If under a given correspondence, the three sides of one triangle are equal to the
three corresponding sides of another triangle, then the triangles are congruent.

30
 SAS Criteria for Congruency

 If under a correspondence, two sides and the angle included between them of a
triangle are equal to two corresponding sides and the angle included between them
of another triangle, then the triangles are congruent.

ASA Criteria for Congruency

 If under a correspondence, two angles and the included side of a triangle are equal
to two corresponding angles and the included side of another triangle, then the
triangles are congruent.

AAS Criteria for Congruency

AAS Rule: Triangles are congruent if two pairs of corresponding angles and a pair
of opposite sides are equal in both triangles.

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 Why SSA and AAA congruency rules are not valid?

 Two triangles with equal corresponding angles need not be congruent. In such a
correspondence, one of them can be an enlarged copy of the other. Therefore AAA
congruency is not valid.

 If two triangles have two congruent sides and a congruent non included angle, then
triangles are not necessarily congruent. Therefore, SSA congruency is not valid.

RHS Criteria for Congruency

 If under a correspondence, the hypotenuse and one side of a right-angled triangle

are respectively equal to the hypotenuse and one side of another right-angled
triangle, then the triangles are congruent.

Criteria for Congruency

Criteria for Congruency of two triangles are:
(i) SSS Rule
(ii) SAS Rule
(iii) ASA Rule
(iv) RHS Rule

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 Chapter 8 Notes
Comparing Quantities
To compare quantities, there are multiple methods, such as ratio and proportion,
percentage, profit and loss, and simple interest.

The ratio of two quantities of the same kind and in the same unit is the fraction that
one quantity is of the other.

a
The ratio a is to b as is the fraction , and it is written as a : b.
b
In the ratio a : b, we call a as the first term or antecedent and b the second term or
consequent.

To compare different ratios, firstly convert fractions into like fractions. If like
fractions are equal, then the given ratios are said to be equivalent.
e.g. To check 1 : 2 and 2 : 3 are equivalent.

Therefore, the ratio 1 : 2 is not equivalent to the ratio 2 : 3.

To compare two quantities, units must be the same.

a : b = c : d ⇒ a : b :: c : d.
If the two ratios are equal, the four quantities are called in proportion.

Fractions are converted to percentages by multiply the fraction by 100 and write %
sign
e.g. 14 = 14 × 100 = 25%Decimals are converted to percentages by multiply the
decimal number by 100 and shift the decimal point two places to the right side and
write % sign.
e.g. 2.42 × 100 = 242 %

Profit = SP – CP [∵ SP > CP]

SP = Selling Price
CP = Cost Price

33
Loss = CP – SP [∵ CP > SP]
CP = Cost Price
SP = Selling Price

Profit
Profit % = × 100
CP
Loss
Loss % = × 100
CP

Equivalent Ratios
Different ratios are compared with each other to know whether they are equivalent
or not. For this, we write the ratios in the form of fractions and then compare them
by converting them into like fractions. If these like fractions are equal, we say that
the given ratios are equivalent. Equivalent ratios are very important. Two ratios are
said to be equivalent if when converted into like fractions, they are equal.

Unitary Method
In the unitary method, we first find the value of one unit and then the value of the
required number of units.

Percentage-Another way of Comparing Quantities

Percentages are numerators of fractions with denominator 100. They are used for
comparisons.

Meaning of Percentage
Percent means ‘per hundred’. It is represented by the symbol % and means
hundredths too.
Thus, 1% means 1 out of hundred or one-hundredths. It can be written as:
1% = 1100 = 0.01
Converting Fractional Numbers to Percentage
Fractional numbers can have different denominators. To compare fractional
numbers we need a common denominator and it is more convenient to compare if
the denominator is 100. So, we convert the fraction to percentages.
Percentages related to proper fractions are less than 100 whereas percentages
related to improper fractions are more than 100.

34
Converting Decimals to Percentage
We multiply the decimal by 100 and affix percentage symbol.

Ratios to Percents
Sometimes, parts are given to us in the form of ratios and we need to convert those
to percentage.

Increase or Decrease as Percent

There are times when we need to know what the increase in a certain quantity or
decrease in it is as percent.
For example, if the population of a state is increased from 5,50,000 to 6,05,000, this
could more clearly be understood if written as:
The population is increased by 10%.

Prices Related to an Item on Buying and Selling

The buying price of an item is known as its Cost Price (CP).
The price at which we sell an item is known as its Selling Price (SP).

Profit or Loss as a Percentage

Cost Price: The buying price of an item is known as its cost price written in short as
CP.
Selling Price: The price at which we sell an item is known as the selling price or in
short SP.
Naturally, it is better if we sell the item at a higher price than our buying price.
Profit or Loss: We can decide whether the sale was profitable or not depending
on the CP and SP.

If CP < SP then we have gained some amount, that is, we made a profit, profit = SP –
CP
If CP = SP then we are in a no profit no loss situation
If CP > SP then we have lost some amount, Loss = CP – SP.
The profit or loss we find can be converted to a percentage. It is always calculated
on the CP.
Note. If we are given any two of the three quantities related to price, that is, CP, SP,
and Profit or Loss percent, we can find the third.

Charge has given on Borrowed Money or Simple Interest

Principal: The money borrowed is known as sum borrowed or principal.

35
Interest: We have to pay some extra money (or charge) to the bank for the money
being used by us for some time. This is known as interest.

Amount: We can find the amount we have to pay at the end of the year by adding
the above two. That is.
Amount = Principal + Interest.

Note: Interest is generally given in per cents for a period of one year. It is written as
x percent per year or per annum or in short as x% p.a. (say 10 percent per year)
10% p.a. means on every ₹ 100 borrowed, ₹ 10 is the interest we have to pay for one
year.

36
 Chapter 9 Notes
Rational Numbers
The numbers used for counting objects are called counting numbers or natural
numbers. These are: 1, 2, 3, 4, ………

If we include 0 to natural numbers, we get whole numbers. Thus, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, …..

are whole numbers.

If we include the negatives of natural numbers to the whole numbers, we get

integers. Thus, ….., -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …… are integers.
We see that we have extended the number system from natural numbers to whole
numbers and then from whole numbers to integers.

numerator
The numbers of the form where the numerator is either 0 or a positive
denominator
integer and the denominator is a positive integer, are called fractions.
We compare two fractions by finding their equivalent forms. We have studied all
the four basic operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division on
them. In this chapter, we shall further extend the number system by
introducing rational numbers.

Need for Rational Numbers

There are many situations which involve fractional numbers. To include such
numbers, we need to extend our number system by introducing rational numbers.

What are Rational Numbers?

A number of the form pq where p and q (≠0) are integers, is called a rational
number.

Numerator and Denominator

In pq, the integer p is the numerator, and the integer q (≠0) is the denominator.
Thus in −37, the numerator is -3 and the denominator is 7.

Equivalent Rational Numbers

If we multiply the numerator and denominator of a rational number by the same
non-zero integer, we obtain another rational number equivalent to the given
rational number.

37
Positive and Negative Rational Numbers
A rational number whose numerator and denominator both are positive integers
is called a positive rational number.
A rational number, whose numerator is a negative integer and denominator is a
positive integer, is called a negative rational number. Similarly, if the numerator is
positive integer and denominator is a negative integer; is also a negative rational
number.

Rational Numbers on a Number Line

Positive rational numbers are marked on the right of 0 on the number line
whereas negative rational numbers are marked on the left of 0 on the number line.
The method of representation is the same as the method of representation of
fractions on the number line.

Rational Numbers in Standard Form

A rational number is said to be in the standard form if its denominator is a
positive integer and the numerator and the denominator have no common factor
other than 1. Note that the negative sign occurs only in the numerator.
A rational number in standard form is said to be in its lowest form.

Reduction of a Rational Number to its Lowest Form

To reduce a rational number to its standard form (or lowest form), we divide its
numerator and denominator by their HCF ignoring the negative sign, if any.
However, if there is a negative sign in the denominator, we divide by -HCF’.

Comparison of Rational Numbers

Two positive rational numbers can be compared exactly as we compare two
fractions.
Two negative rational numbers can be compared by ignoring their negative signs
and then reversing the order.
Comparison of a negative and a positive rational number is obvious as a negative
rational number is always less than a positive rational number.

Rational Numbers Between Two Rational Numbers

There exist an unlimited number of rational numbers between any two rational
numbers.

Operations on Rational Numbers

Addition
Addition of two rational numbers with same denominators: Two rational numbers

38
with the same denominators can be added by adding their numerators, keeping
the denominator same.

Addition of two rational numbers with different denominators: As in the case of

fractions, we first find the LCM of the two denominators. Then we find the rational
numbers equivalent to the given rational numbers with this LCM as the
denominator. Now, we add the two rational numbers as in (A).

Additive Inverse
p p
The additive inverse of the rational number is –
q q

Subtraction
While subtracting two rational numbers, we add the additive inverse of the
rational number to be subtracted to the other rational number.

Multiplication
Multiplication of a rational number by a positive integer:
While multiplying a rational number by a positive integer, we multiply the
numerator by that integer, keeping the denominator unchanged.

Multiplication of rational number by a negative integer:

While multiplying a rational number by a negative integer, we multiply the
numerator by that integer, keeping the denominator unchanged.

Multiplication of two rational numbers (none of which is an

integer):
Based on the above observations,
So, as done in fractions we multiply two rational numbers as follows:

 Step 1. Multiply the numerators of the two rational numbers.

 Step 2. Multiply the denominators of the two rational numbers.
Result of Step1
 Step 3. Write the product as
Result of Step2

Division
p q
The reciprocal of the rational number is
q p
To divide one rational number by other rational number, we multiply one rational
number by the reciprocal of the other.

39
Product of Reciprocals
The product of a rational number with its reciprocal is always 1. A rational number
p
is defined as a number that can be expressed in the form , where p and q are integers
q
and q ≠ 0.

Rational Numbers include integers and fractions.

In pq, p is the numerator and q is the denominator.

Zero is a rational number. We can write 01.
By multiplying the numerator and denominator of a rational number by the same
non – zero integer, we obtained another rational number equivalent to the given
rational number.

If both the numerator and denominator are either positive or negative integers,
then they are said to be a positive rational number.

A rational number is said to be negative if its numerator and denominator are

such that one of them is a positive integer and the other is a negative integer.

Zero is neither positive nor negative rational numbers.

Representation of Rational Numbers on a Number line

To reduce the rational number to its standard form, we divide its numerator and
denominator by their HCF ignoring the negative sign.

40
To compare two negative rational numbers, we compare them ignoring their
negative signs and then reverse the order.

We can find an unlimited number of rational numbers between any two rational
numbers.
While adding rational numbers with same denominators, we add the numerators
keeping the denominators same.

While subtracting two rational numbers, we add the additive inverse of the
rational, number that is being Subtracted, to the other rational number.

While multiplying a rational number by a positive integer, we multiply the

numerator by that integer, keeping the denominator unchanged.

Product of reciprocals is always equal to 1.

To divide one rational number by the other non – zero rational number, we
multiply the rational number by the reciprocal of the other.

41
 Chapter 10 Notes
Practical Geometry

Lines That Don’t Meet

Method of construction of a line parallel to a given line, using
only a sheet of paper
1. Take a piece of paper.
2. Fold it in half and unfold the line l. Mark a point A on paper outside l.
3. Fold the paper perpendicular to the line such that this perpendicular
passes through A. Name the perpendicular AN.
4. Make a fold perpendicular to AN through point A. Name the new
perpendicular line as m.
5. Now, l || m.

Steps of construction of a line parallel to a given line

1. Take a line l and a point A outside l.
2. Take any point B on l and join it to A.

42
3. With B as the centre and a convenient radius, cut an arc on l at C and BA at D.

4. With A as the centre and same radius as in Step 3, cut an arc EF to

cut AB at G.

5. Measure the arc length CD by placing pointed tip of the compass at C and
pencil tip opening at D.
6. With this opening, keep G as centre and draw an arc to cut arc EF at H

43
7. Join AH to draw a line m

∠ABC and ∠BAH are alternate interior angles. Therefore, m || l

Let’s Build Triangles

Classification of triangles based on sides and angles

Triangles can be classified based on their:

1. SIDES:

 Equilateral triangle: All three sides are equal in measure.

 Isosceles triangle: Two sides have equal measure.
 Scalene triangle: All three sides have different measures.
ANGLES:
 Acute triangle: All angles measure less than 900.
 Obtuse triangle: One angle is greater than 900.
 Right triangle: One angle is 900.

Important properties of triangles

1. The exterior angle is equal to the sum of interior opposite angles.
2. The sum of all interior angles is 180°
3. Sum of the lengths of any two sides is greater than the length of the third
side.
4. Pythagoras theorem: In any right-angled triangle, the square of the
hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides.

44
Triangles can be constructed if any of the following measurements
are given

1. Three sides.
2. Two sides and an angle between them.
3. Two angles and a side between them.
4. The hypotenuse and a leg in case of a right-angled triangle.

Construction of triangles given a criterion are listed below:

 Construction of a triangle with SSS criterion.

 Construct a triangle ABC, given that AB = 4.5 cm, BC = 5 cm and AC = 6 cm.

Steps:
1. Make a rough sketch for your reference
2. Draw a line segment BC = 5 cm

3. With B as centre, draw an arc of radius 4.5 cm

45
4. With C as centre, draw an arc of radius 6 cm and cut the previous arc

5. Mark the point of intersection of arcs as A. Join AB and AC. ΔABC is now
ready

 Note: SSS congruency rule:- If three sides of one triangle are equal to the
corresponding three sides of another triangle, then the two triangles are
congruent

Construction of a triangle with SAS criterion

 Construct ΔPQR with QR = 7.5 cm, PQ = 5 cm and ∠Q = 600.
Steps:
1. Make a rough sketch for your reference
2. Draw a line segment QR = 7.5 cm

46
3. At Q, draw QX making 600 with QR

4. With Q as centre, draw an arc of radius 5 cm. It cuts QX at P.

5. Join AB. ΔPQR is now ready

Construction of a triangle with ASA criterion

 Construct ΔXYZ with ∠X = 300, ∠Y = 1000 and XY = 5.8 cm.
Steps:
1. Make a rough sketch for your reference
2. Draw XY = 5.8cm

47
3. At X, draw a ray XP making an angle of 300 with AB.

4. At Y, draw a ray YQ making an angle of 1000 with XY.

5. The point of intersection of the two rays is Z.

6. ΔXYZ is now completed

Construction of a triangle with RHS criterion

 Construct ΔLMN, where ∠M = 900, MN = 8cm and LN = 10 cm.
Steps:
1. Make a rough sketch for your reference
2. Draw MN = 8 cm

48
3. At M, draw MX ⊥ MN.

4. With N as centre, draw an arc of radius 10 cm to cut MX at L

5. Join LN.
6. ΔLMN is now completed

Basics of Practical Geometry

Introduction to Constructions of basic figures

Basic constructions:

49
– To draw a line segment of given length
– a line perpendicular to a given line segment
– an angle
– an angle bisector
– a circle

 In geometry, you have already studied basic constructions.

 To recap, some of them are:

 Drawing a line segment of given length

 Drawing a line perpendicular to a given line segment.
 Angles
 Angle bisectors
 Circles
Tools used for simple constructions are ruler, protractor and a compass.

50
 Chapter 11 Notes
Perimeter And Area
Perimeter
 Perimeter is the total length or total distance covered along the boundary of a
closed shape.

 The perimeter of a Quadrilateral

Area
 The area is the total amount of surface enclosed by a closed figure.

 Areas of a closed figure

The perimeter of Square and Rectangle

 Perimeter of a square = a + a + a + a = 4a, where a is the length of each side.

51
Square with side length ‘a’ units

 Perimeter of a rectangle = l + l + b + b = 2(l + b), where l and b are length and

breadth, respectively.

Rectangle with length ‘l’ units and breadth ‘b’ units

Area of Square & Rectangle

Area of square = 4a2

Here a is the length of each side

Square with the length of each side ‘a’ units

Area of rectangle = Length(l) × Breadth(b) = l×b

Rectangle with length ‘a’ units and breadth ‘b’ units

52
Area of a Parallelogram

 Area of parallelogram ABCD = (base×height)

Area of parallelogram ABCD = (b×h)

Triangle as Part of Rectangle

 The rectangle can be considered as a combination of two congruent
triangles.
 Consider a rectangle ABCD, it is divided into 2 triangles ACD and ABD.

Triangles as parts of Rectangle

 Area of each triangle = 12 (Area of the rectangle).
= 12(length×breadth)
= 12(10cm×5cm)
= 25cm2

Area of a Triangle
 Consider a parallelogram ABCD.
 Draw a diagonal BD to divide the parallelogram into two congruent
triangles.

Area of Triangle = 1/2 (base×height)

53
  Area of triangle ABD = 1/2 (Area of parallelogram ABCD)
Area of triangle ABD = 1/2 (b×h)

Conversion of Units
 Kilometres, metres, centimetres, millimetres are units of length.
 10 millimetres = 1 centimetre
 100 centimetres = 1 metre
 1000 metres = 1 kilometre

Story of Pi

Terms Related to Circle

 A circle is a simple closed curve which is not a polygon.
 A circle is a collection of points which are equidistant from a fixed point.

 The fixed point in the middle is called the centre.

 The fixed distance is known as radius.
 The perimeter of a circle is also called as the circumference of the circle.

Circumference of a Circle
 The circumference of a circle ( C ) is the total path or total
distance covered by the circle. It is also called a perimeter of the circle.
Circumference of a circle = 2×π×r,
where r is the radius of the circle.

54
Visualizing Area of a Circle

Area of Circle
 Area of a circle is the total region enclosed by the circle.
Area of a circle = π×r2, where r is the radius of the circle.

Introduction and Value of Pi

 Pi (π) is the constant which is defined as the ratio of a
circle’s circumference (2πr) to its diameter(2r).
π= Circumference (2πr)/Diameter (2r)

 The value of pi is approximately equal to 3.14159 or 22/7.

Problem Solving

Cost of Framing, Fencing

 Cost of framing or fencing a land is calculated by finding its perimeter.
 Example: A square-shaped land has length of its side 10m.
Perimeter of the land = 4 × 10 = 40m
Cost of fencing 1m = Rs 10
Cost of fencing the land = 40 m × Rs 10 = Rs 400

Cost of Painting, Laminating

 Cost of painting a surface depends on the area of the surface.
 Example: A wall has dimensions 5m×4m.
Area of the wall = 5m×4m=20m2
Cost of painting 1m2 of area is Rs 20.
Cost of painting the wall =20m2×Rs 20=Rs 400

Area of Mixed Shapes

 Find the area of the shaded portion using the given information.

55
Area of the shaded portion
Solution: Diameter of the semicircle = 10cm
Radius of semicircle = 5cm
Area of the shaded portion = Area of rectangle ABCD – Area of semicircle
Area of the shaded portion = (l×b) − (πr /2)
2

= 30×10 − (π×5 /2)

2

= 300 − (π×25/2)
= (600 – 25π)/2
= (600 – 78.5)/2
= 260.7 cm2

56
 Chapter 12 Notes
Algebraic Expressions

Introduction to Algebraic Expressions

Constant
Constant is a quantity which has a fixed value.

Terms of Expression
Parts of an expression which are formed separately first and then added are
known as terms. They are added to form expressions.
Example: Terms 4x and 5 are added to form the expression (4x +5).

Coefficient of a term
The numerical factor of a term is called coefficient of the term.
Example: 10 is the coefficient of the term 10xy in the expression 10xy+4y.

Algebra as Patterns
Writing Number patterns and rules related to them

 If a natural number is denoted by n, its successor is (n + 1).

Example: Successor of n=10 is n+1 =11.
 If a natural number is denoted by n, 2n is an even number and (2n+1) an
odd number.
Example: If n=10, then 2n = 20 is an even number and 2n+1 = 21 is an odd
number.

Writing Patterns in Geometry

 Algebraic expressions are used in writing patterns followed by geometrical
figures.
Example: Number of diagonals we can draw from one vertex of a polygon
of n sides is (n – 3).

57
Definition of Variables
 Any algebraic expression can have any number of variables and
constants.

 Variable

 A variable is a quantity that is prone to change with the context of the

situation.
 a,x,p,… are used to denote variables.

 Constant

 It is a quantity which has a fixed value.

 In the expression 5x+4, the variable here is x and the constant is 4.
 The value 5x and 4 are also called terms of expression.
 In the term 5x, 5 is called the coefficient of x. Coefficients are any
numerical factor of a term.

Factors of a term
Factors of a term are quantities which can not be further factorised. A term is a
product of its factors.
Example: The term –3xy is a product of the factors –3, x and y.

Formation of Algebraic Expressions

 Variables and numbers are used to construct terms.
 These terms along with a combination of operators constitute an algebraic
expression.
 The algebraic expression has a value that depends on the values of the
variables.

58
  For example, let 6p2−3p+5 be an algebraic expression with variable p
The value of the expression when p=2 is,

⇒ 6(4) − 6 + 5 = 23
6(2)2 − 3(2) + 5

The value of the expression when p=1 is,

⇒6−3+5=8
6(1)2 − 3(1) + 5

Like and Unlike Terms

Like terms
 Terms having same algebraic factors are like terms.
Example: 8xy and 3xy are like terms.

Unlike terms
 Terms having different algebraic factors are unlike terms.
Example: 7xy and −3x are unlike terms.

Monomial, Binomial, Trinomial and Polynomial Terms

Types of expressions based on the number of terms

Based on the number of terms present, algebraic expressions are classified as:

 Monomial: An expression with only one term.

Example: 7xy, −5m, etc.
 Binomial: An expression which contains two, unlike terms.
Example: 5mn+4, x+y, etc
 Trinomial: An expression which contains three terms.
Example: x+y+5, a+b+ab, etc.

Polynomials
 An expression with one or more terms.
Example: x+y, 3xy+6+y, etc.

Addition and Subtraction of Algebraic Equations

 Mathematical operations like addition and subtraction can be applied to
algebraic terms.

59
  For adding or subtracting two or more algebraic expression, like terms of
both the expressions are grouped together and unlike terms are retained as
it is.
 Sum of two or more like terms is a like term with a numerical coefficient
equal to the sum of the numerical coefficients of all like terms.
 Difference between two like terms is a like term with a numerical coefficient
equal to the difference between the numerical coefficients of the two like
terms.

⇒ x(3−2) + y(2+4)
 For example, 2y + 3x − 2x + 4y

⇒ x+6y

Solving an Equation

Use of algebraic expressions in the formula of the perimeter

of figures
Algebraic expressions can be used in formulating perimeter of figures.
Example: Let l be the length of one side then the perimeter of:
Equilateral triangle = 3l
Square = 4l
Regular pentagon = 5l

Use of algebraic expressions in formula of area of figures

Algebraic expressions can be used in formulation area of figures.
Example: Let l be the length and b be the breadth then the area of:
Square = l2
Rectangle = l×b = lb
Triangle = where b and h are base and height, respectively.

60
 chapter 13 notes
Exponents And Powers

Introduction

Powers and Exponents

Powers with negative exponents

Visualising Exponents

Visualising powers and exponents

61
Laws of Exponents

Powers with like bases

Power of a Power

Exponent Zero

Powers with unlike bases and same exponent

62
Uses of Exponents

Expanding a rational number using powers

Inter conversion between standard and normal forms

63
Comparision of quantities using exponents

64
 Chapter 14 Notes
Symmetry
Basics of Symmetry
 Symmetry is a geometrical concept that is found in most cases including
nature.
 Any geometric shape can be said to be symmetric or asymmetric
 A shape is said to be symmetric if there exists an imaginary line passing
through that divides the shape into halves and that these halves overlap
each other completely.
 In other words, fold the shape about the imaginary line to check if the two
halves completely overlap each other or not. If they overlap each other
completely the shape is symmetric, if not, then it is asymmetric.
 The imaginary line is called as the line of symmetry.
 The symmetry observed in the above example is called as a line or bilateral
symmetry.

Reflection Symmetry
 There exists at least one line that divides a figure into two halves such that
one-half is the mirror image of the other half.
 Reflection symmetry is a unique case of line symmetry as there exists
lateral inversion in the two halves.
 Lateral inversion signifies that left side of one half is the right side of its
mirror half.

Point Symmetry
 If a shape has point symmetry, then any point on the shape has a matching
point which is exactly at the same distance from the point of symmetry but
in the opposite direction.

65
Lines of Symmetry for Regular Polygons
 Regular polygons are closed shapes that have equal sides and equal
angles.
 Such polygons have multiple lines of symmetry.
Some regular polygons with their line of symmetry are shown below:

66
Rotational Symmetry
 There exists another concept of symmetry that does not involve folding the
figure to check if they coincide.
 Rotational symmetry is one where when a figure is rotated about a centre
point, the figure looks exactly the same before rotation.
 The particular centre for which rotational symmetry is observed is called
the centre of rotation.
 The angle of turning during rotation is called angle of rotation.
 The number of positions in which a figure can be rotated and still appears
exactly like it did before the rotation is called order of symmetry.
Rotational symmetry: A figure is rotated around a center point and it still
appears exactly like it did before the rotation
Centre of rotation: Fixed point around which the rotation occurs
Angle of rotation: Angle of turning during rotation
Order of symmetry: number of positions in which a figure can be rotated and
still appears exactly like it did before the rotation
Example: A star can be rotated 5 times along its tip and looks same every time.
Hence, its order of symmetry is 5.

Geometry in rotational symmetry

Rotational symmetry in triangle and square:

67
Summary of Symmetry
Figures having both line symmetry and rotational symmetry:

Most regular polygons have both line and rotational symmetry.

68
 Chapter 15 Notes
Visualising solid shapes

What are Solids in Maths?

Dimensions

 Dimension is a measurable length along a direction.

 Dimensions are length, breadth (or width) or height (or depth).
 A point is dimensionless.
 Based on the number of dimensions a figure has, there are one-
dimensional, two-dimensional and three-dimensional figures.

You Already Know These Shapes!!

1D and 2D figures

 One-dimensional figures do not enclose any area and have only one
direction.
Example: A ray or a line segment.
 Two-dimensional figures have an area associated with them.
They have length and breadth or width.
They are usually plane figures, like squares, rectangles and circles.

Solid Shapes
 Solid shapes have length, breadth or width and depth or height.
 They are called 3D or three-dimensional shapes.

69
  Example: Cuboids, Cylinders, Spheres and Pyramids.

Perspectives of a Solid Shape

Visualising solid shapes
 Solid shapes can be visualised in different ways.
 Solid shapes can be formed by placing some solid shapes side by side to
form a new solid shape.
 Example: (i) A cylinder is formed by stacking up circles vertically.
(ii) Cubes can be formed by placing cubes side by side.

Visualising solid objects by viewing the smallest unit

 A solid can be visualised by breaking it down to the smallest unit.

 For example, a cube of dimensions (3cm x 3cm x 3cm) can be made up of
27 small cubes of dimensions (1cm x 1cm x 1cm).

70
Viewing sections of a solid by slicing or cutting

 If you cut or slice a solid we get to view the cross-section.

Example: If a loaf of bread is cut vertically, then the crosssection is almost
a square. But if it is cut or sliced horizontally, the cross-section is a
rectangle.
 Similarly, other solid shapes can be sliced in order to find their 2D cross-
sectional shapes.
Example: A cucumber cut vertically gives a circle.

Viewing sections of a solid by using shadows

 Shadows can be used to view 3D objects as 2D shapes.
 Example: The shadows of a cylinder are shown below.

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Different views of a Solid
 A solid can be visualised by looking at it from different angles, namely: (i)
Front view (ii) Top view (iii) Side view.
 Example: The different views of a figure are shown below.

Quantities Associated with a Solid

Faces, edges and vertices

 The corners of a solid shape are called its vertices.

 The line segment joining two vertices is called an edge, or when two planes
of a solid meet it forms an edge.
 The surfaces of a solid shape are called as its face.

The table below shows the number of faces, edges and vertices some solid
shapes have.

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Nets of Solid Shapes
Building 3-D objects
A net is a flattened out skeletal outline or a blueprint of a solid which can be
folded along the edges to create solid.The same solid can have multiple nets.
Example: A net for a cube box.

Representing 3D Shapes on a Paper

Drawing solids on a flat surface

 Solid shapes can be represented on a 2D flat surface like paper.

 This is done by drawing oblique sketches, to make it appear 3D. This is
called as 2D representation of a 3D solid.
Obliques sketches

 Oblique sketches do not have the exact length of a solid shape but appears
exactly like the solid shape.
 Example: Drawing an oblique sketch of a cube:
Step 1: Draw the front and the opposite faces.
Step 2: Join the corresponding corners. (Figure 1)
Step 3: Redraw using dotted lines for hidden edges. (Figure 2)
This gives the oblique sketch of the cube.

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Isometric sketches
 Isometric sketches have measurements equal to that of the solid.
 They are usually drawn on an isometric dotted paper.
 Example: Drawing an isometric sketch of a cuboid of dimensions 4 × 3 × 3:
Step 1: Draw a rectangle to show the front face of the cuboid.

Step 2: Draw four parallel line segments of length three starting from the
four corners of the rectangle.

Step 3: Connect the corresponding corners using appropriate line

segments.

Step 4: The figure thus obtained is the isometric sketch of the cuboid.

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