Introduction to Rational Numbers

Whole Numbers and Natural Numbers

Natural numbers are set of numbers starting from 1 counting up to infinity. The
set of natural numbers is denoted as ′N′.Whole numbers are set of numbers
starting from 0 and going up to infinity. So basically they are natural numbers
with the zero added to the set. The set of whole numbers is denoted as ′W
′Closure Property Closure property is applicable for whole numbers in the case
of addition and multiplication while it isn’t in the case for subtraction and
division. This applies to natural numbers as well. Commutative
Property Commutative property applies for whole numbers and natural numbers
in the case of addition and multiplication but not in the case of subtraction and
division. Associative Property Associative property applies for whole numbers
and natural numbers in the case of addition and multiplication but not in the case
of subtraction and division.

Integers
In simple terms Integers are natural numbers and their negatives. The set of
Integers is denoted as ′Z′ or ′I′Closure Property Closure property applies to
integers in the case of addition, subtraction and multiplication but not
division. Commutative Property Commutative property applies to integers in the
case of of addition and multiplication but not subtraction and
division. Associative Property Associative property applies to integers in the
case of addition and multiplication but not subtraction and division.

Rational Numbers
A rational number is a number that can be represented as a fraction of two
p
integers in the form of , where q must be non-zero. The set of rational numebrs
q
is denoted as Q.
−5
For example: is a rational number where -5 and 7 are integers. Even 2 is a
7
2
rational number since it can be written as where 2 and 1 are integers.
1

Properties of Rational Numbers

Closure Property of Rational Numbers
For two rational numbers say a and b the results of addition, subtraction and
multiplication operations gives a rational number. Since the sum of two numbers
ends up being a rational number, we can say that the closure property applies to
rational numbers in the case of addition.
2 3 (8+ 9) 17
For example : The sum of + = = is also a rational number where 17 and
3 4 12 12
12 are integers. The difference between two rational numbers result in a rational
number. Therefore, the closure property applies for rational numbers in the case
of subtraction.
4 3 (16−15)
For example : The difference between − = =120 is also a rational
5 4 20
number where 1 and 20 are integers. The multiplication of two rational numbers
results in a rational number. Therefore we can say that the closure property
applies to rational numbers in the case of multiplication as well.
1 4 −4 −2
For example : The product of ×− = = which is also a rational number
2 5 10 5
where -2 and 5 are integers. In the case with division of two rational numbers, we
see that for a rational number a, a÷0 is not defined. Hence we can say that
the closure property does not apply for rational numbers in the case of division.

Commutative Property of Rational Numbers

For any two rational numbers a and ba∗b=b∗a. i.e., Commutative property is one
where in the result of an equation must remain the same despite the change in
the order of operands. Given two rational numbers a and b, (a+b) is always going
to be equal to (b+a). Therefore addition is commutative for rational numbers.
For example: + = + ⇒ = Considering the difference between two
2 4 4 2 6 6
3 3 3 3 7 7
rational numbers a and b, (a−b) is never the same as (b−a).
Therefore subtraction is not commutative for rational numbers.
2 4 −2 4 2 2
For example: − = Whereas − = When we consider the product of two
3 3 3 3 3 3
rational numbers a and b, (a×b) is the same as (b×a).
Therefore multiplication is commutative for rational numbers.
2 4 8 4 2 8
For example: × = × = Considering the division of two numbers a and
3 3 9 3 3 9
b, (a÷b) is different from (b÷a). Therefore division is not commutative for rational
numbers.
3
For example: 2÷3=23 is definitely different from 3÷2= Associative Property of
2
Rational Numbers
For any three rational numbers a,b and c, (a∗b)∗c=a∗(b∗c). i.e., Associative
property is one where the result of an equation must remain the same despite a
change in the order of operators. Given three rational numbers a,b and c, it can
be said that : (a+b)+c = a+(b+c). Therefore addition is associative. (a−b)−c≠a−
(b−c). Because (a-b)-c = a-b-c whereas a-(b-c) = a-b+c. Therefore we can say
that subtraction is not associative. (a×b)×c=a×(b×c).
Therefore multiplication is associative.(a÷b)÷c≠(a÷b)÷c.
Therefore division is not associative.
Distributive Property of Rational Numbers
Given three rational numbers a,b and c,
the distributivity of multiplication over addition and subtraction is respectively
given as : a(b+c)=ab+aca(b−c)=ab−ac

Negatives and Reciprocals

Negation of a Number
a a a
For a rational number , + 0 = . i.e., when zero is added to any rational
b b b
number the result is the same rational number. Here ‘0' is known as additive
a −a −a a
identity for rational numbers. If ( )+ ( )=( )+( )=0, then it can be said that
b b b b
−a
the additive inverse or negative of a rational number ab is -ab. Also ( )
b
a
is the additive inverse or negative of .
b
−21 −21 21
For example : The additive inverse of ( ¿ is ( )=
8 8 8

Reciprocal of a Number
a a a
For any rational number , ×1= . i.e., When any rational numbers is multiplied
b b b
by ‘1’ ,the result is same rational number. Therefore ‘1’ is called multiplicative
a c
identity for rational numbers. If × =1, then it can be said that the
b d
cd is reciprocal or the multiplicative inverse of a rational number ab.
Also ab is reciprocal or the multiplicative inverse of a rational number cd
2 3 2 3
For example : The reciprocal of is as × =1
3 2 3 2

Representation of Rational Numbers on the Number Line

In order to represent a given rational number an, where a and n are integers, on
the number line : Step 1 : Divide the distance between two consecutive integers
into ‘n' parts.
2
For example : If we are given a rational number , we divide the space between 0
3
and 1, 1 and 2 etc. into three parts.
Step 2: Label the rational numbers till the range includes the number you need to
mark
Similar steps can be followed for negative rational numbers by repeating the
steps towards negative direction.

Rational Numbers between Two Rational Numbers

The number of rational numbers between any two given rational numbers aren’t
definite, unlike that of whole numbers and natural numbers.
For example : Between natural numbers 2 and 10 there are exactly 7 numbers but
2 8
between and there are infinite numbers that could exist. Method 1 Given two
10 10
rational numbers, ensure both of them have the same denominators. Once there
is a common denominator, we can pick out any rational number that lies in
between. Method 2 Given two rational numbers, we can always find a rational
number between them by calculating their mean or midpoint.
Solving Linear Equations
Performing Mathematical Operations on Equations
When we are doing mathematical operations on a linear equation, we should do it
on both sides of the equality otherwise the equality won’t hold true.
Suppose, 4x + 3 = 3x +7 is a linear equation. If we want to subtract 3 from the
given equation, then we do it on both sides of the equality, so that the equality
holds true.
4x+3−3=3x+7−3 ⇒4x=3x+4
Similarly, if we want to multiply or divide the equation, we multiply or divide all
the terms on the left side of the equality and to the right side of the equality by
the given number.
Note: we can not multiply or divide the equation by 0.
Solving Equations with Linear Expression on one side and numbers on the other
Side
Suppose we have to find the solution of 2x−3=7, where the linear expression is on
the left-hand side, and numbers on the right-hand side.
Step 1: Transpose all the constant terms from the left-hand side to the right-hand
side.
2x=7+3=10⇒2x=10
Step 2: Divide both sides of the equation by the coefficient of the variable.
In the above equation 2x is on the left-hand side. The coefficient of 2x is 2.
On dividing the equation by two, We get:
12 × 2x = 12 × 10
⇒x=102 = 5, Which is the required solution.
Solving Equations with variables on both sides
Suppose we have to solve 3x – 3 = x + 2. In this equation, there are variables on
both sides of the equation.
Step 1: Transpose all the terms with a variable from the right-hand side to the left-
hand side of the equation and all the constants from the left-hand side to the
right-hand side of the equation.
3x−x=2+3
⇒2x=5
Step 2: Divide both sides of the equation by the coefficient of the variable.
12×2x=12×5
⇒x=52
Applications (Word Problems)
Sum of two numbers is 74. One of the numbers is 10 more than the other. What
are the numbers?
Let one of the numbers be x.
Then the other number is x + 10.
Given that the sum of the two numbers is 74.
So, x+(x+10)=74
⇒2x+10=74
⇒2x=74−10=64
⇒x=642=32
One of the number is 32 and the other number is 42.
Questions
Equations Reducible to the Linear Form
Solve: x+12x+3=38
Multiplying both sides with 2x + 3
⇒x+12x+3×(2x+3)=38×(2x+3)
⇒x+1=3(2x+3)8
Multiplying both sides with 8
⇒8(x+1)=3(2x+3)
⇒8x+8=6x+9
⇒8x=6x+9−8
⇒8x=6x+1
⇒8x−6x=1
⇒x=12
Reducing Equations to Simpler Form
Simplify the equation 6x+13+1=x−36.
6x+13+1=x−36
⇒6(6x+1)3+6×1=6(x−3)6 (Multiplying both sides by 6)
⇒2(6x+1)+6=(x−3)
⇒12x+2+6=x−3 (opening the brackets)
⇒12x+8=x−3
⇒12x−x+8=−3
⇒11x+8=−3
⇒11x=−3−8
⇒11x=−11
⇒x=−1 (required solution)
LHS: 6(−1)+13+1=−6+13+1=−53+33=−23
RHS: (−1)−36 =−46 =−23
LHS = RHS
Introduction to Linear Equations in One Variable
Variables and Constants
A constant is a value or number that never changes in an expression and it’s
constantly the same.
A variable is a letter representing some unknown value. Its value is not fixed, it
can take any value. On the other hand, the value of a constant is fixed.
For example, in the expression 4x+7, 4 and 7 are the constants and x is a variable.
Algebraic Equation
The statement of equality of two algebraic expressions is an algebraic equation. It
is of the form P=Q, where P and Q are algebraic expressions.
6x + 5 and 5x + 3 are algebraic expressions. On equating the algebraic
expressions we get an algebraic equation.
6x + 5 = 5x + 3 is an algebraic equation.
Linear Equations in One Variable
A linear equation is an algebraic equation in which each term is either
a constant or the product of a constant and a single variable, where the highest
power of the variable is one.
If the linear equation has only a single variable then it is called a linear
equation in one variable.
For example, 7x + 4 = 5x + 8 is a linear equation in one variable.
What are Quadrilaterals?
Quadrilaterals are one type of polygon which has four sides and four vertices and
four angles along with 2 diagonals. There are various types of quadrilaterals.
Types of Quadrilaterals
The classification of quadrilaterals are dependent on the nature of sides or angles
of a quadrilateral and they are as follows:

 Trapezium
 Kite
 Parallelogram
 Square
 Rectangle
 Rhombus
Trapezium
A trapezium is a quadrilateral with a pair of parallel sides.

Parallelogram
A parallelogram is a quadrilateral whose opposite sides are parallel and equal.

Rhombus

 A rhombus is a quadrilateral with sides of equal length.

 Since the opposite sides of a rhombus have the same length, it is also
a parallelogram.
 The diagonals of a rhombus are perpendicular bisectors of one another.
Introduction to Curves
A curve is a geometrical figure obtained when a number of points are joined
without lifting the pencil from the paper and without retracing any portion. It is
basically a line which need not be straight.
The various types of curves are:

 Open curve: An open curve is a curve in which there is no path from any of
its point to the same point.
 Closed curve: A closed curve is a curve that forms a path from any of its
point to the same point.
A curve can be :

 A closed curve

 an open curve

 A closed curve which is not simple

Polygons
A simple closed curve made up of only line segments is called a polygon.
Various examples of polygons are Squares, Rectangles, Pentagons etc.
Note:
The sides of a polygon do not cross each other.
For example, the figure given below is not a polygon because its sides cross
each other.
Classification of Polygons on the Basis of Number of Sides / Vertices
Polygons are classified according to the number of sides they have. The
following lists the different types of polygons based on the number of sides they
have:

 When there are three sides, it is triangle

 When there are four sides, it is quadrilateral
 When there are fives sides, it is pentagon
 When there are six sides, it is hexagon
 When there are seven sides, it is heptagon
 When there are eight sides, it is octagon
 When there are nine sides, it is nonagon
 When there are ten sides, it is decagon
Diagonals
A diagonal is a line segment connecting two non-consecutive vertices of
a polygon.

In the above figure, PR and QS are the diagonals.

Polygons on the Basis of Shape

Polygons can be classified as concave or convex based on their shape.

 A concave polygon is a polygon in which at least one of its interior

angles is greater than 90∘. Polygons that are concave have at
least some portions of their diagonals in their exterior.
 A convex polygon is a polygon with all its interior angle less than
180∘. Polygons that are convex have no portions of their diagonals in
their exterior.
What are Quadrilaterals?
Quadrilaterals are one type of polygon which has four sides and four vertices and
four angles along with 2 diagonals. There are various types of quadrilaterals.
Types of Quadrilaterals
The classification of quadrilaterals are dependent on the nature of sides or angles
of a quadrilateral and they are as follows:

 Trapezium
 Kite
 Parallelogram
 Square
 Rectangle
 Rhombus
Trapezium
A trapezium is a quadrilateral with a pair of parallel sides.

Parallelogram
A parallelogram is a quadrilateral whose opposite sides are parallel and equal.

Rhombus

 A rhombus is a quadrilateral with sides of equal length.

 Since the opposite sides of a rhombus have the same length, it is also
a parallelogram.
 The diagonals of a rhombus are perpendicular bisectors of one another.

Revisiting Geometry
Introduction to Curves
A curve is a geometrical figure obtained when a number of points are joined
without lifting the pencil from the paper and without retracing any portion. It is
basically a line which need not be straight.
The various types of curves are:

 Open curve: An open curve is a curve in which there is no path from any of
its point to the same point.
 Closed curve: A closed curve is a curve that forms a path from any of its
point to the same point.
A curve can be :

 A closed curve

 an open curve

 A closed curve which is not simple

Polygons
A simple closed curve made up of only line segments is called a polygon.
Various examples of polygons are Squares, Rectangles, Pentagons etc.
Note:
The sides of a polygon do not cross each other.
For example, the figure given below is not a polygon because its sides cross
each other.
Classification of Polygons on the Basis of Number of Sides / Vertices
Polygons are classified according to the number of sides they have. The
following lists the different types of polygons based on the number of sides they
have:

 When there are three sides, it is triangle

 When there are four sides, it is quadrilateral
 When there are fives sides, it is pentagon
 When there are six sides, it is hexagon
 When there are seven sides, it is heptagon
 When there are eight sides, it is octagon
 When there are nine sides, it is nonagon
 When there are ten sides, it is decagon
Diagonals
A diagonal is a line segment connecting two non-consecutive vertices of
a polygon.

In the above figure, PR and QS are the diagonals.

Polygons on the Basis of Shape

Polygons can be classified as concave or convex based on their shape.

 A concave polygon is a polygon in which at least one of its interior

angles is greater than 90∘. Polygons that are concave have at
least some portions of their diagonals in their exterior.
 A convex polygon is a polygon with all its interior angle less than
180∘. Polygons that are convex have no portions of their diagonals in
their exterior.
Classification of Polygons based on their shape.

Polygons on the Basis of Regularity

Polygons can also be classified as regular polygons and irregular polygons on
the basis of regularity.

 When a polygon is both equilateral and equiangular it is called as a regular

polygon. In a regular polygon, all the sides and all the angles are equal.
Example: Square
 A polygon which is not regular i.e. it is not equilateral and equiangular, is
an irregular polygon. Example: Rectangle

Introduction to Quadrilaterals
Angle Sum Property of a Polygon
According to the angle sum property of a polygon, the sum of all the interior
angles of a polygon is equal to (n−2)×180∘, where n is the number of sides of the
polygon.
Division of a quadrilateral into two triangles.

As we can see for the above quadrilateral, if we join one of the diagonals of the
quadrilateral, we get two triangles.
The sum of all the interior angles of the two triangles is equal to the sum of all the
interior angles of the quadrilateral, which is equal to 360∘ = (4−2)×180∘.
So, if there is a polygon which has n sides, we can make (n – 2) non-overlapping
triangles which will perfectly cover that polygon.

The sum of the interior angles of the polygon will be equal to the sum of the
interior angles of the triangles = (n−2)×180∘
Sum of Measures of Exterior Angles of a Polygon
The sum of the measures of the external angles of any polygon is 360∘.
Properties of Parallelograms
Elements of a Parallelogram

 There are four sides and four angles in a parallelogram.

 The opposite sides and opposite angles of a parallelogram are equal.
 In the parallelogram ABCD, the
sides ¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯AB and ¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯CD are opposite sides and the

Similarly, ∠ABC and ∠ADC are opposite angles and

sides ¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯AB and ¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯BC are adjacent sides.

∠ABC and ∠BCD are adjacent angles.



Angles of a Parallelogram

In the parallelogram ABCD, ∠ABC=∠ADC and ∠DAB=∠BCD.

The opposite angles of a parallelogram are equal.

∴ In the parallelogram ABCD, ∠ABC+∠BCD=∠ADC+∠DAB=180∘

The adjacent angles in a parallelogram are supplementary.

Diagonals of a Parallelogram
The diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other at the point of intersection.
In the parallelogram ABCD given below, OA = OC and OB = OD.

Properties of Special Parallelograms

Rectangle
A rectangle is a parallelogram with equal angles and each angle is equal to 90∘.
Properties:

 Opposite sides of a rectangle are parallel and equal.

  The length of diagonals of a rectangle is equal.
 All the interior angles of a rectangle are equal to 90∘.
 The diagonals of a rectangle bisect each other at the point of intersection.

Square
A square is a rectangle with equal sides. All the properties of a rectangle are also
true for a square.
In a square the diagonals:

 bisect one another

 are of equal length
 are perpendicular to one another
Construction of a Quadrilateral
It is very easy to construct a quadrilateral when its five measurements are
determined that is

 The length of the four sides and the length of its diagonal is known
 The length of the three sides and the length of the two diagonals are known
 If the three angles and two adjacent sides are given
 If the three sides and two angles are given
4 Sides and 1 Diagonal
Construction of a Quadrilateral when different measures of sides and angles are
given
A unique quadrilateral can be constructed when the following measurements are
given:

 Four sides and one diagonal.

 Two diagonals and three sides.
 Two adjacent sides and three angles.
 Three sides and two included angles.
 When other special properties are known.
SSS Construction
To construct a △ABC, the length of whose sides are, AB = x cm, BC = y cm, and
AC = z cm, we will do it in the following manner:

 Construct a line segment AB, whose length is x cm.

 With A as the center, draw an arc of radius z cm.
 With B as the center, draw an arc of radius y cm on the same side. The
point where the arcs intersect is the required point C.
 Join AC and BC.
△ ABC is the required triangle.
Construction of a Quadrilateral when four sides and one diagonal are given
Suppose we have to construct a quadrilateral PQRS, where PQ = 4 cm, QR = 6
cm, RS = 5 cm, PS = 5.5 cm and PR = 7 cm.
Step 1: Draw a rough sketch to visualize the quadrilateral.
Step 2: Draw △ PQR as it can be constructed using SSS construction condition.

Step 3: Now we have to locate S, which is at a distance of 5.5 cm from P and 5 cm

from R. Also it will be on the opposite side of Q.
With P as center draw an arc of radius 5.5 cm. With R as center draw an arc of
radius 5 cm.
S is the point of intersection of the two arcs.
Step 4: Join PS and RS. PQRS is the required quadrilateral.

3 Sides and 2 Diagonals

Construction of a Quadrilateral when two diagonals and three sides are given
Construct a quadrilateral ABCD given, AB = 7 cm, AD = 6 cm, AC = 7 cm, BD = 7.5
cm and BC = 4 cm.
[Make a rough figure for your reference]
Steps of construction of the quadrilateral:
Step 1: △ABC can be drawn by SSS construction condition since all its sides are
known.
Step 2: With A as center and radius 6 cm (AD), draw an arc.
Step 3: With B as center and radius 7.5 cm (BD) draw another arc to cut the
previous arc at D
Step 4: Join AD, BD, and CD.
ABCD is the required quadrilateral
2 Adjacent Sides and 3 Angles
Construction of a Quadrilateral when two adjacent sides and three angles are

Construct a quadrilateral ALPN, where AL = 6.5 cm, LP = 4 cm, ∠NAL =

given

110∘, ∠ALP = 75∘ and ∠LPN = 90∘.

[Draw a rough Sketch for your reference]:
Steps of construction of the quadrilateral:

Step 2: Make ∠ALY = 75 ∘ at L.

Step 1: Draw the line segment AL of length 6.5 cm.

Step 3: Make ∠LAX = 110∘ at A.

Step 5: Make ∠LPZ = 90∘ at P.

Step 4: With L as center and radius equal to 4 cm, cut an arc on the ray LY at P.

Step 6: Name the point of intersection of rays PZ and AX as N.

ALPN is the required quadrilateral.
3 Sides and 2 Included Angles
Construction of a Quadrilateral when three Sides and two included angles are
given

cm ∠ABC = 45∘, ∠BCD = 150∘

Construct a quadrilateral ABCD, Where AB = 4.5 cm; BC = 3.5 cm, CD = 5

[Make a rough figure for your reference]

Steps of construction of the quadrilateral:

Step 2: Make ∠LBC = 45∘.

Step 1: Draw a line segment BC of length 3.5 cm.

Step 3: Make ∠BCM = 150∘.

Step 4: With B as center and radius equal to 4.5 cm, cut an arc on the ray LB at A.
Step 5: With C as the center and radius equal to 5 cm, cut an arc on the ray CM at
D.
Step 6: Join AD.
ABCD is the required quadrilateral.
Special Quadrilaterals
Construction of a Quadrilateral When Other Special Properties Are Known
Construct a rhombus PQRS with diagonals PR = 5.2 cm and QS = 6.4 cm
[Make a rough figure for your reference]
Note: Diagonals of a rhombus are perpendicular bisectors of each other.

Steps of construction of the Rhombus:

Step 1: Draw a line segment PR of length 5.2 cm.
Step 2: Draw the perpendicular bisector of PR. Name the point O, where the
perpendicular bisector of PR and PR intersect.
Step 3: With O as center and radius equal to 3.2 cm cut arcs on both sides of the
perpendicular bisector. Name them as Q and S.
Step 4: Join, PQ, QR, RS, and PS.
PQRS is the required rhombus.
Introduction to Practical Geometry
Number of measurements necessary for construction of a unique Quadrilateral
To draw a unique quadrilateral we need at least five measurements of sides and
angles. However, it is not necessary that we will get a unique quadrilateral if we
have the measurements of any five combinations of sides and angles.
For example, a unique quadrilateral can be drawn if we are given the
measurement of four sides and one diagonal of a quadrilateral.
However, a unique quadrilateral will not be drawn if we are given the
measurement of two diagonals and three angles of a quadrilateral.
What is Data handling?
Data handling is referred to the procedure done to organize the information
provided in order to perform mathematical operations on them.
Pie Charts
A pie chart shows the relationship between a whole circle and its parts. The circle
is divided into sectors. The size of each sector is proportional to
the information it represents. Pie charts are also known as circle graphs.

The above pie chart shows the composition of milk.

Creating Different Pie Charts
For creating a pie chart the following steps needs to be followed:

 For each list of item or activity calculate the fraction or part which it
represents.
 Convert each fraction into degrees by multiplying it with 360∘.
 Draw a circle and divide it into sectors. The central angle of each sector is
equal to the fraction of 360∘ as calculated above.
 Item Amount Fraction Angle

Movie Rs. 30 30120=14 30120×360=90∘

Book Rs. 50 50120=512 50120×360=150∘

Food Rs. 40 40120=13 40120×360=120∘

Each sector in the pie chart is proportional to the amount spent for that particular
activity or item.
Introduction to Data Handling
Raw Data
Raw data is also known as primary data which is available in an unorganized
form.
Pictographs and Bar Graphs
Organisation of Raw Data
Raw data is unorganised. To draw meaningful inferences we organise data. There
are various ways in which we can organise data. For example, we can organise
raw data using Frequency distribution table, Bar graphs etc.
Pictographs
A pictograph is the pictorial representation of data using symbols.
For example, If 10 Apples were sold in January, 40 were sold in February, 25 were
sold in March, and 20 were sold in April. We can represent the given data as a
pictograph as given below:
Scale Factor
The scale factor is the ratio of the length of a side of one figure to the length of
the corresponding side of the other figure. The scale factor is used in making
maps. The scale of a map is the ratio of a distance on the map to
the corresponding distance on the ground.
Bar Graphs
A bar graph is a representation of data using a rectangular bars that are having
heights that are proportional to the values that are represented by them.
For example, the bar graph below shows the sale of cars of various brands in the
month of April:
Multiple Bar Graphs
Multiple bar graphs is a bar graph which is used for comparing more than one
kind of information.
Example:

The above figure is a double bar graph. It shows the number of cup of coffees
sold in cafes and canteens for the months January, February, March, April and
May, June and July.
Grouped Data
Frequency
Frequency is the number of times that a particular observation/event occurs.
Grouped Frequency Distribution
In a grouped frequency distribution a large amount of raw data is represented by
making groups or class intervals and obtain a frequency distribution of
the number of observations falling in each group.
The marks scored(out of 100) by the students of class 10th are given below:
93,98,87,65,75,77,67,88,67,97,72,73,75,90.
The above data can be represented as a frequency distribution table as:
Marks Frequency
 60-70 3

70-80 5

80-90 2

90-100 4

Here, 60-70, 70-80, 80-90, 90-100 are the class intervals.

In the class interval 60-70, 60 is the lower limit and 70 is the upper limit.
Class width or size = upper limit – lower limit
Note:

 The value equal to the upper limit is not included in that class interval. It is
included in the next higher class interval. For example, here in the case of
90, it is not included in the class interval 80-90, it is included in the class
interval 90-100.
Tally Marks
Tally marks are used to represent and count data. In tally marks, one vertical line
is made for each count for the first four numbers and the fifth number is
represented by a diagonal line across the previous four. The table below shows
the tally marks for the numbers 1 to 10.

Tally marks representation for 1 to 10

Histogram
A Histogram is a type of bar diagram, where:

 The horizontal axis represent the class intervals.

 The frequency of the class interval is represented by the height of the bars.
 Since there is no gap between the class intervals, there is no gap between
the bars.
 Below is the Histogram representing the distribution of marks scored out
of 20 by 24 students.
Equally Likely Outcomes
Random Experiment
A random experiment is an experiment for which the outcome cannot be
predicted with certainty. Example: Rolling a dice.
Experiment and Outcomes
An Experiment is any procedure that can be infinitely repeated and has a well-
defined set of possible outcomes, known as the sample space.
Each outcome of an experiment or a collection of outcomes make an event.
For example, rolling of a die is an experiment. Getting 1, 2, 3, or getting even
numbers when a die is rolled is an event.
Equally Likely Outcomes
Equally likely outcomes are those which have the same chance of occurring.
Example: Tossing a coin – the probability of getting a head and probability of
getting a tail is equal.
Probability of an Event
Probability is the likelihood of occurrence of an event. An event is a set of
outcomes of an experiment.
When the outcomes of an experiment are equally likely, the probability of an
event is given by:
(number of outcomes that make an event )
P(E)=
(total number of out comes of the experiment )
Outcomes of an experiment are equally likely if each has the same chance of
occurring.
Experimental Probability
When we toss a coin we get only one outcome either a head or a tail. The
probability of getting a head or a tail is 0.5.
However, if a coin is tossed ten times its not necessary that we will get a head
five times and a tail five times.
So, based on what we observe as the outcomes of our trials, we find
the experimental or empirical probability.
(number of trials where the event occurred )
Experimental or empirical probability: P(E)=
(total number of trials)
where E is any event.
Properties of Square Numbers
Properties of square numbers are:

 If a number has 0, 1, 4, 5, 6 or 9 in the unit’s place, then it may or may not be a square
number. If a number has 2, 3, 7 or 8 in its units place then it is not a square number.
 If a number has 1 or 9 in unit’s place, then it’s square ends in 1.
 If a square number ends in 6, the number whose square it is, will have either 4 or 6 in
unit’s place.

Square Root of a Number

Finding the number whose square is known is known as finding the square root. Finding
square root is inverse operation of finding the square of a number.
For example:
2
1 =1, square root of 1 is 1.
2
2 =4, square root of 4 is 2.
2
3 =9, square root of 9 is 3.

Estimating the number of digits in the square root of a number

n (n+1)
If a perfect square has n digits, then its square root will have digits if n is even and
2 2
digits if n is odd.
(3+1)
For example: 100 has 3 digits, and its square root(10) has
2
=2 digits.

Introduction to Square Numbers

If a natural number m can be expressed as n2 , where n is also a natural number, then m is a
square number.
Example: 1, 4, 9, 16 and 25.

Finding the Square of a Number

If n is a number, then its square is given as n×n=n2 .
For example: Square of 5 is equal to 5×5=25

Interesting Patterns
There exists interesting patterns in:

 Adding triangular numbers

 Numbers between square numbers
 Adding odd numbers
 A sum of consecutive natural numbers
 Product of two consecutive even or odd natural numbers
Adding Triangular Numbers
Triangular numbers: It is a sequence of the numbers 1, 3, 6, 10, 15 etc. It is obtained by
continued summation of the natural numbers. The dot pattern of a triangular number can be
arranged as triangles.
If we add two consecutive triangular numbers, we get a square number.
Example: 1+3=4=22 and 3+6=9=32.

Numbers between Square Numbers

There are 2n non-perfect square numbers between squares of the numbers n and (n + 1),
where n is any natural number.
Example:

 There are two non-perfect square numbers (2, 3) between12=1 and 22=4.
 There are four non-perfect square numbers (5, 6, 7, 8) between 22=4 and 32=9.

Addition of Odd Numbers

The sum of first n odd natural numbers is n2 .
Example:
1+3=4=22
1+3+5=9=32

Square of an odd number as a sum

Square of an odd number n can be expressed as sum of two consecutive positive
2
(n −1) (n¿ ¿ 2+1)
integers and ¿.
2 2
2 2
(3 −1) (3 +1)
For example: 32=9=4+5= +
2 2
2 2
Similarly, 52=25=12+13=(
5 −1 ) + ( 5 + 1 )
2 2

Product of Two Consecutive Even or Odd Natural Numbers

The product of two even or odd natural number can be calculated as, (a+1)×(a−1)=(a2−1),
where a is a natural number, and a−1, a+1, are the consecutive odd or even numbers.
For example:
11×13=(12−1)×(12+1)=122−1=144−1=143

Random Interesting Patterns Followed by Square Numbers

Patterns in numbers like 1, 11, 111, … :
2
1= 1
2
11 = 121
2
111 = 12321
2
1111 = 1234321
 2
11111 = 123454321
2
11111111 = 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Patterns in numbers like 6, 67, 667, … :
2
7= 49
2
67 = 4489
2
667 = 444889
2
6667 = 44448889
2
66667 = 4444488889
2
666667 = 444444888889

Pythagorean Triplets
For any natural number m>1, we have (2 m)2+(m 2−1 ¿ ¿2=(m 2+ 1)2.
2m, (m 2−1) and (m 2+1) forms a Pythagorean triplet.
For m=2, 2m=4, m 2−1=3 and m 2+1=5.
So, 3, 4, 5 is the required Pythagorean triplet.

Square Roots of Perfect Squares

Finding square root through repeated subtraction
Every square number can be expressed as a sum of successive odd natural numbers starting
from one.
The square root can be found through repeated subtraction. To find the square root of a
number n:
Step 1: subtract successive odd numbers starting from one.
Step 2: stop when you get zero.
The number of successive odd numbers that are subtracted gives the square root of that
number. Suppose we want to find the square root of 36.

 36−1=35
 35−3=32
 32−5=27
 27−7=20
 20−9=11
 11−11=0
Here 6 odd numbers (1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11) are subtracted to from 36 to get 0.
So, the square root of 36 is 6.

Square Roots – Generalised

Finding Square Root by Long Division Method
Steps involved in finding the square root of 484 by Long division method:
Step 1: Place a bar over every pair of numbers starting from the digit at units place. If the
number of digits in it is odd, then the left-most single-digit too will have a bar.
Step 2: Take the largest number as divisor whose square is less than or equal to the number
on the extreme left. Divide and write quotient.
Step 3: Bring down the number which is under the next bar to the right side of the remainder.

Step 4: Double the value of the quotient and enter it with a blank on the right side.

Step 5: Guess the largest possible digit to fill the blank which will also become the new digit
in the quotient, such that when the new divisor is multiplied to the new
quotient the product is less than or equal to the dividend.

The remainder is 0, therefore, √ 484 =22.

Be More Curious!
Finding Pythagorean Triplets for Any Given Number
If we are given any member of a Pythagorean triplet, then we can find the Pythagorean triplet
by using general form 2m, m 2–1, m 2+1.
For example, If we want to find the Pythagorean triplet whose smallest number is 8.
Let, m 2−1=8⇒m=3
2m=6 and m 2+1=10
The triplet is 6, 8 and 10.
But 8 is not the smallest number of this triplet.
So, we substitute 2m=8⇒m=4
2 2
m −1=15 and m +1=17.
Therefore, 8, 15, 17 is the required triplet.
Cube Numbers
If a natural number m can be expressed as n3, where n is also a natural number, then m is
called the cube number of n.
Numbers like 1, 8, 27 are cube number of the numbers 1, 2, and 3 respectively.
All perfect cube numbers are obtained by multiplying a number by itself three times.

Cubes Relation with Cube Numbers

In geometry, a cube is a solid figure where all edges are equal and are perpendicular to each
other.
For example, take a cube of unit side. If we arrange these cubes to form a bigger cube of side
3 units, we find that there are a total of 27 such unit cubes that make up a cube of 3 units.
Similarly, a cube of 4 units will have 64 such unit cubes.

Units Digits in Cube Numbers

Depending on whether a number is odd or even, its cube number is also odd or even
respectively.
This is determined by the nature of the cube numbers’ unit digit.

 If a number is odd, its cube numbers’ unit digit is also odd.

 If a number is even, its cube numbers’ unit digit is also even.

Inside Cube Numbers

Adding Consecutive Odd Numbers
1 = 1 = 13
3 + 5 = 8 = 23
7 + 9 + 11 = 27 = 33
13 + 15 + 17 + 19 = 64 = 4 3
21 + 23 + 25 + 27 + 29 = 125 = 53
We can see from the above pattern, if we need to find the n3 , n consective odd numbers will
be needed, such that their sum is equal to n3.
This pattern holds true for all natural numbers.
Also, if we need to find n3 then we should add n consecutive natural numbers starting
from ((n−1)(n)21)th odd natural number.

Prime Factorisation Method to Find a Cube

In the prime factorisation of any number, if each prime factor appears three times, then the
number is a perfect cube.
Consider, the number 216. By prime factorisation,
216=2×2×2×3×3×3=23×33 =63
Hence, 216 is a perfect cube.
Consider, the number 500. By prime factorisation,
500=2×2×5×5×5=22×53
In the above prime factorisation 2 appears twice.
Hence, 500 is not a perfect cube.

Fractions and Ratios

A fraction represents a part of a whole which consists of numerators and denominators and it is
the division of two same quantities.
3
Eg:
5
Ratio is the comparison of one value to the other or the comparison of two different quantities.
Eg:3:5

Finding the Increase or Decrease in Percent

Finding Increase or Decrease Percentage in Situations
Finding new number, when there is increase in percentage.
New number = original number + (increase in percentage × number)
Ex : The Cost of a mobile phone is Rs 15,000. Find the new price if there is a increaseof 5%
New price = original price + 5% of original price
New price = 15,000+5100
×15,000
New price = 15,000+750 = 15,750
Here Rs 750 is increase in the price.
The new number can be found out using,
New number = original number × percentage increase
Ex : New price = 15,000×105÷100=15,000×1.05=15,750
Finding new number, when there is decrease in percentage.
New number = original number – (decrease in percentage × number)
Also, New number = original number × percentage decrease
Ex : The Cost of a mobile phone is Rs 15,000. Find the new price if there is a decrease of 5%
New price = 15,000×95÷100=15,000×0.95=14,250

Finding Discounts
Finding SP without Finding Discount Percentage
A reduction (decrease) on the marked price is known as discount.
If the discount is given in numbers then it is calculated by
Discount = Marked price – Sale price
If the discount is given in percentage then it is calculated by
Discount = Discount % of Marked price

Finding Discounts
If the discount is given in numbers.
Example : Marked price of a shirt is Rs 535. Its selling price is Rs 495. Find the discount.
Solution : Discount = Marked price – Sale price
Discount = Rs 535 – Rs 495 = Rs 40
If the discount is given in percentage.
Example : A toy priced Rs 500 is available at a discount of 5%. Find the discount.
Solution : Discount = Discount % of Marked price
Discount = 5% of 500=5100 × 500
Discount = Rs 25

Estimation of Amounts (In Percentages)

Estimating amounts when there is a discount or hike on the marked price.
Example : Anil bought a pair of shoes priced Rs 650, at a discount of 10%. Find the billing amount.
Solution : Billing amount = Marked price – discount
Billing amount = Rs 650−10100
×650
Billing amount = Rs 650−Rs 65=Rs 585
Example : Shilpa bought a new mobile for Rs 15,000. She has to pay 2% as delivery charges.
Find the billing amount.
Solution : Billing amount = Marked price + Hike
Billing amount = Rs 15,000+2100 × 15000
Billing amount = Rs 15,000+Rs 300=Rs 15,300

Prices Related to Buying and Selling

Prices / Charges Related to Buying and Selling
Profit = Selling price – Cost price
Profit % =ProfitCostprice×100
Loss = Cost price – Selling price
Loss % =LossCostprice×100

Finding Prices / Charges Related to Buying and Selling

Example : A shopkeeper sold a T.V priced Rs 12,000 at Rs 13,500. Find his profit percentage.
Profit = Selling price – Cost price
Profit = Rs 13,500−Rs 12,000=Rs 1,500
Profit % =ProfitCostprice×100
Profit % = 150012000×100=12.5%
Example : Amit sold his laptop, priced Rs 20,000 at Rs 18,000. Find his loss percentage.
Loss = Cost price – Selling price
Loss = Rs 20,000−Rs 18,000=Rs 2000
Loss % =LossCostprice×100
Loss% = 200020,000×100=10%

Sales Tax and Value Added Tax

Sales Tax / VAT
Sales tax or value added tax(VAT) is the tax that should be paid to the government on sale of an
item
and it is added to the bill amount.
Normally, VAT is included in the price of items like groceries.
Finding Sales Tax / VAT
Sales tax or VAT = Tax % of Selling price
Billing Amount = Selling price + VAT
Example : Megha bought a wrist watch for Rs 1,200 and VAT is charged at 8%. Calculate the VAT
and billing amount.
Solution : VAT = Tax % of selling price
VAT = 8% of 1,200=8100×1200=Rs 96
Billing amount = S.P + VAT = Rs 1,200 + Rs 96 = Rs 1296.

Simple and Compound Interest

SI
Simple interest is the extra money charged on a loan where the principal amount will be
fixed for a particular time period.
Interest is the extra money that a bank gives for saving or depositing money with them.
Similarly, when anybody borrow money, they pay interest.
Simple interest =P.T.R100, where
P is the principal amount
T is the number of years.
R is the interest rate