MOBILE COMMUNICATIONS (18CS886): Elective Course

MODULE #1.3
Wireless Transmission

MULTPLEXING
Multiplexing is not only a fundamental mechanism in communication systems but also in
everyday life. Multiplexing describes how several users can share a medium with minimum or
no interference. One example, is highways with several lanes. Many users (car drivers) use the
same medium (the highways) with hopefully no interference (i.e., accidents). This is possible
due to the provision of several lanes (space division multiplexing) separating the traffic. In
addition, different cars use the same medium (i.e., the same lane) at different points in time
(time division multiplexing).
Space division multiplexing
For wireless communication, multiplexing can be carried out in four dimensions: space, time,
frequency, and code. Assign space, time, frequency, and code to each communication channel
with a minimum of interference and a maximum of medium utilization.

Figure 16 shows six channels ki and introduces a three dimensional coordinate system. This
system shows the dimensions of code c, time t and frequency f. In space division multiplexing
(SDM), the (three dimensional) space si. The channels k1 to k3 can be mapped onto the three
‘spaces’ s1 to s3 which clearly separate the channels and prevent the interference ranges from
overlapping. The space between the interference ranges is sometimes called guard space.

Figure 16 Space division multiplexing (SDM)

For the remaining channels (k4 to k6) three additional spaces needed.
In wireless transmission, SDM implies a separate sender for each communication channel with
a wide enough distance between senders. This multiplexing scheme is used for FM radio
stations where the transmission range is limited to a certain region many radio stations around
the world can use the same frequency without interference.

Frequency division multiplexing

Subdivide the frequency dimension into several non-overlapping frequency bands as shown in
Figure 17. Each channel ki is now allotted its own frequency band as indicated. Senders using
a certain frequency band can use this band continuously. Guard spaces are needed to avoid
frequency band overlapping. This scheme is used for radio stations within the same region,
where each radio station has its own frequency. This very simple multiplexing scheme does
not need complex coordination between sender and receiver: the receiver only has to tune in to
the specific sender.
 Figure 17 Frequency Division Multiplexing
Time division multiplexing: A more flexible multiplexing scheme for typical mobile
communications is time division multiplexing (TDM). Here a channel ki is given the whole
bandwidth for a certain amount of time, i.e., all senders use the same frequency but at different
points in time (see Figure 18). Guard spaces, represent time gaps, have to separate the different
periods when the senders use the medium. If two transmissions overlap in time, this is called
co-channel interference.
To avoid interference, precise synchronization between different senders is necessary. This is
clearly a disadvantage, as all senders need precise clocks or, alternatively, a way has to be
found to distribute a synchronization signal to all senders. For a receiver tuning in to a sender
this does not just involve adjusting the frequency, but involves listening at exactly the right
point in time. However, this scheme is quite flexible as one can assign more sending time to
senders with a heavy load and less to those with a light load.

Figure 18 Time Division Multiplexing

Frequency and time division multiplexing can be combined, i.e., a channel ki can use a certain
frequency band for a certain amount of time as shown in Figure 19. Guard spaces are needed
both in the time and in the frequency dimension. This scheme is more robust against frequency
selective interference, i.e., interference in a certain small frequency band. A channel may use
this band only for a short period of time. Additionally, this scheme provides some (weak)
protection against tapping, as in this case the sequence of frequencies a sender uses has to be
known to listen in to a channel. The mobile phone standard GSM uses this combination of
frequency and time division multiplexing for transmission between a mobile phone and a so-
called base station.
A disadvantage of this scheme is again the necessary coordination between different senders.
One has to control the sequence of frequencies and the time of changing to another frequency.
Two senders will interfere as soon as they select the same frequency at the same time.
Figure 19 Frequency and time division multiplexing combined

Code division multiplexing

Code division multiplexing (CDM) is a relatively new scheme in commercial communication
systems. First used in military applications due to its inherent security features. Figure 20
shows how all channels ki use the same frequency at the same time for transmission. Separation
is now achieved by assigning each channel its own ‘code’, guard spaces are realized by using
codes with the necessary ‘distance’ in code space, e.g., orthogonal codes.

Figure 20 Code Division Multiplexing

The main advantage of CDM for wireless transmission is that it gives good protection against
interference and tapping. Different codes have to be assigned, but code space is huge compared
to the frequency space. Assigning individual codes to each sender does not usually cause
problems. The main disadvantage of this scheme is the relatively high complexity of the
receiver. A receiver has to know the code and must separate the channel with user data from
the background noise composed of other signals and environmental noise.

MODULATION
Changes an analog signal to digital data and vice versa ;The basic function of a sine wave,
indicates the three modulation schemes.
Sine function g(t)=AtSin(2Πftt + Ψt)
Cosine function: g(t)=AtCos(2Πftt + Ψt)
Here Three parameters Amplitude At, Frequency ft, and Phase Ψt
In wireless networks, however, digital transmission cannot be used. Here, the binary bit-stream
has to be translated into an analog signal first. The three basic methods for this translation are
amplitude shift keying (ASK), frequency shift keying (FSK), and phase shift keying
(PSK). Apart from the translation of digital data into analog signals, wireless transmission
requires an additional modulation, an analog modulation that shifts the center frequency of
the baseband signal generated by the digital modulation up to the radio carrier.

For digital modulation, three different basic schemes are known for analog modulation:
amplitude modulation (AM), frequency modulation (FM), and phase modulation (PM).
.
Figure 21 shows a block diagram of a radio transmitter for digital data. The first step is the
digital modulation of data into the analog baseband signal using any one of
(ASK/FSK/PSK/MSK). The analog modulation then shifts the center frequency of the analog
signal up to the radio carrier. This signal is then transmitted via the antenna.

.
Figure 21 Modulation in a transmitter
The receiver (Figure 2.22) receives the analog radio signal via its antenna and demodulates the
signal into the analog baseband signal with the help of the known carrier. This is for all for
analog radio tuned in to a radio station. For digital data, another step is needed. Bits or frames
have to be detected, i.e., the receiver must synchronize with the sender. How synchronization
is achieved, depends on the digital modulation scheme. After synchronization, the receiver has
to decide if the signal represents a digital 1 or a 0, reconstructing the original data.

Figure 22 Demodulation and data reconstruction in a receiver

Amplitude shift keying: Figure 23 illustrates amplitude shift keying (ASK), the most simple
digital modulation scheme. The two binary values, 1 and 0, are represented by two different
amplitudes. In the example, one of the amplitudes is 0 (representing the binary 0). This simple
scheme requires low bandwidth, but is very susceptible to interference. Effects like multi-path
propagation, noise, or path loss heavily influence the amplitude. In a wireless environment, a
constant amplitude cannot be guaranteed, so ASK is typically not used for wireless radio
transmission. However, the wired transmission scheme with the highest performance, namely
optical transmission, uses ASK. Here, a light pulse may represent a 1, while the absence of
light represents a 0. The carrier frequency in optical systems is some hundred THz. ASK can
also be applied to wireless infra red transmission, using a directed beam or diffuse light.
 Figure 23 Amplitude shift keying

Frequency shift keying

A modulation scheme often used for wireless transmission is frequency shift keying (FSK)
(Figure 24). The simplest form of FSK, also called binary FSK (BFSK), assigns one frequency
f1 to the binary 1 and another frequency f2 to the binary 0. A very simple way to implement
FSK is to switch between two oscillators, one with the frequency f1 and the other with f2,
depending on the input.

Figure 24 Frequency shift keying

Phase shift keying

The phase shift keying (PSK) uses shifts in the phase of a signal to represent data. Figure 25
shows a phase shift of 180° or π as the 0 follows the 1 (the same happens as the 1 follows the
0). This simple scheme, shifting the phase by 180° each time the value of data changes, is also
called binary PSK (BPSK). A simple implementation of a BPSK modulator could multiply a
frequency f with +1 if the binary data is 1 and with –1 if the binary data is 0.

Figure 25 Phase shift keying

 Cellular systems
Cellular systems for mobile communications implement SDM. Each transmitter, typically
called a base station, covers a certain area, a cell. Cell radii can vary from tens of meters in
buildings, and hundreds of meters in cities, up to tens of kilometers in the countryside. The
shape of cells are never perfect circles or hexagons (as shown in Figure 41), but depend on the
environment (buildings, mountains, valleys etc.), on weather conditions, and sometimes even
on system load. Typical systems using this approach are mobile telecommunication systems,
where a mobile station within the cell around a base station communicates with this base station
and vice versa.

Figure 41 Cellular system with three and seven cell clusters

In this context, the question arises as to why mobile network providers install several thousands
of base stations throughout a country (which is quite expensive) and do not use powerful
transmitters with huge cells like, e.g., radio stations, use.
Advantages of cellular systems with small cells are the following:
● Higher capacity: Implementing SDM allows frequency reuse. If one transmitter is far away
from another, i.e., outside the interference range, it can reuse the same frequencies. As most
mobile phone systems assign frequencies to certain users (or certain hopping patterns), this
frequency is blocked for other users. But frequencies are a scarce resource and, the number of
concurrent users per cell is very limited. Huge cells do not allow for more users. On the
contrary, they are limited to less possible users per km2. This is also the reason for using very
small cells in cities where many more people use mobile phones.
● Less transmission power: While power aspects are not a big problem for base stations, they
are indeed problematic for mobile stations. A receiver far away from a base station would need
much more transmit power than the current few Watts. But energy is a serious problem for
mobile handheld devices.
● Local interference only: Having long distances between sender and receiver results in even
more interference problems. With small cells, mobile stations and base stations only have to
deal with ‘local’ interference.
● Robustness: Cellular systems are decentralized and so, more robust against the failure of
single components. If one antenna fails, this only influences communication within a small
area. Small cells also have some disadvantages:
● Infrastructure needed: Cellular systems need a complex infrastructure to connect all base
stations. This includes many antennas, switches for call forwarding, location registers to find a
mobile station etc, which makes the whole system quite expensive.
Handover needed: The mobile station has to perform a handover when changing from one
cell to another. Depending on the cell size and the speed of movement, this can happen quite
often.
● Frequency planning: To avoid interference between transmitters using the same
frequencies, frequencies have to be distributed carefully. On the one hand, interference should
be avoided, on the other, only a limited number of frequencies is available.
 Figure 42 Cellular system with three cell clusters and three sectors per cell

The higher the noise, the higher the path loss and the higher the transmission errors. Finally,
mobile stations further away from the base station drop out of the cell. (This is similar to trying
to talk to someone far away at a crowded party.) Figure.43 illustrates this phenomenon with a
user transmitting a high bit rate stream within a CDM cell. This additional user lets the cell
shrink with the result that two users drop out of the cell. In a real-life scenario this additional
user could request a video stream (high bit rate) while the others use standard voice
communication (low bit rate).

Figure 43 Cell breathing depending on the current load