PHYS 131 PHYSICS FOR LIFE SCIENCE

THERMAL PHYSICS

Dr. Yaseera Ismail

School of Chemistry and Physics

Westville Campus
University of KwaZulu-Natal
H-Block, H3-084
email: [email protected]

PHYS 131
 Chapter 14: Heat
14-1 Heat as Energy Transfer
14-2 Internal Energy
14-3 Specific Heat
14-4 Calorimetry- Solving Problems
14-5 Latent Heat
14-6 Heat Trasfer: Conduction
14-7 Heat Trasfer: Convection
14-8 Heat Trasfer: Radiation

PHYS 131
 Heat
Transfer of thermal energy from one object or system to another.

Heat “flows” from the hot object to the cold object.

Heat flows spontaneously from an object at higher temperature to one

at lower temperature.

Spoon in hot coffee is hotter

to the end of the spoon

PHYS 131
 Heat as Transfer of Energy

• Heat can be describe as being a kind of work.

• Unit: calorie (cal).
• The calorie (cal) is defined as the amount of heat necessary to raise the temperature of
1gram of water by 1Celsius degree.

1 kcal is the heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water by 1C°.

(Note: In the food product Calorie (kilocalorie) is used to specify the energy.)

PHYS 131
Joule’s Experiment: Heat is Related to Energy Transfer

PHYS 131
 Joule’s Experiment: Heat is Related to Energy Transfer

The falling weight causes the paddle

wheel to turn.

The friction between the water and

the paddle wheel causes the
temperature of the water to rise
slightly (barely measurable).

PHYS 131
 Joule’s Experiment: Heat is Related to Energy Transfer
The same temperature rise could also be obtained by
heating the water on a hot stove.

A given amount of work done is equivalent to a

particular amount of heat input. Quantitatively,
4.186 joules (J) of work is equivalent to 1 calorie
(cal) of heat.
This is known as the mechanical equivalent of heat:
4.186 J = 1 cal; and 4.186 kJ = 1 kcal

PHYS 131
 Definition of Heat

Heat refers to a transfer of energy: when heat flows from a hot object to a
cooler one, it is energy that is being transferred from the hot to the cold
object.
Heat is energy transferred from one object to another because of a
difference in temperature.
SI unit: Joule (others are: calorie and kilocalorie)
1cal raises the temperature of 1g of water by 1C°, or 1kcal raises the
temperature of 1kg of water by 1C°.

PHYS 131
 Internal Energy

The sum total of all the energy of all the molecules in an object is called its internal energy.

Distinguishing Temperature, Heat, and Internal Energy (Kinetic Theory)

Temperature (in kelvins) is a measure of the average kinetic energy of individual
molecules.
Internal energy refers to the total energy of all the molecules within the object or system.
Heat refers to a transfer of energy from one object to another when there is a difference in
temperature.

PHYS 131
 Internal Energy of an Ideal Gas
Internal energy of n moles of an ideal monoatomic (one atom per molecule) gas:

The internal energy, U, is the sum of the translational kinetic energies of all the atoms:

 mv 2 
U = N 
 2 
 

we know that: Average Kinetic Energy

mv 2 3
= = kT
2 2

PHYS 131
 Internal Energy of an Ideal Gas

Hence,
3
U = N kT
2
or
3
U = n RT [Internal energy of ideal monoatomic gas]
2

where n is the number of moles. Thus, the internal energy of an ideal gas depends only on
temperature and the number of moles (or molecules) of gas.

PHYS 131
Internal Energy of a Gas Molecules Containing More Than One
Atom

Besides translational kinetic energy, molecules can have (a) rotational kinetic energy, and
(b) vibrational energy (both kinetic and potential).

PHYS 131
Internal Energy of a gas molecules containing more than one
atom

If the gas molecules contain more than one atom, then the rotational and vibrational
energy of the molecules also contributes.

The internal energy will be greater at a given temperature than for a monatomic gas, but
it will still be a function only of temperature for an ideal gas.

PHYS 131
Internal Energy of a gas molecules contain more than one atom

The internal energy of real gases depends on temperature, pressure and volume (due to
atomic potential energy).

The internal energy of liquids and solids is quite complicated, for it includes electrical
potential energy associated with the forces (or “chemical” bonds) between atoms and
molecules.

PHYS 131
 Specific Heat
The amount of heat Q required to change the temperature of a given material is proportional to
the mass m of the material present and to the temperature change DT.

Q = mc DT
where c is a quantity characteristic of the material called its specific heat.
Q
c=
m DT
SI Unit: J/kg-oC (or kcal/kg-oC)
Specific heat capacity: quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1kg of the gas by
1oC.
PHYS 131
 Specific Heats (at 1 atm constant pressure and 20oC)

Specific heat capacity: quantity of heat required to

raise the temperature of 1kg of the gas by 1oC

PHYS 131
 Exercise on Specific Heats

How heat transferred depends on specific heat.

(a) How much heat input is needed to raise the temperature of an empty 20-kg vat made of

iron from 10°C to 90°C?

(b) What if the vat is filled with 20 kg of water?

PHYS 131
 Solution to Exercise on Specific Heats

An empty 20-kg vat made of iron from 10°C to 90°C

Our system is the iron vat alone.The specific heat of iron is 450 J/kgC°

The change in temperature is

PHYS 131
 Solution to Exercise on Specific Heats

How heat transferred depends on specific heat.

(b) Our system is the vat plus the water. The water alone would require

The total, for the vat plus the water, is 720 kJ + 6700 kJ = 7400 kJ.

PHYS 131
 Specific Heat of Gases

Specific heat at constant volume: The specific heat at

constant volume (cV) is defined as the quantity of heat
required to raise the temperature of 1kg of the gas by
1oC if the volume of the gas remains constant.

Specific heat at constant pressure: The specific heat

at constant pressure (cP) is defined as the quantity of
heat required to raise the temperature of 1kg of the gas
by 1oC if the pressure of the gas remains constant.

PHYS 131
 Definitions

System: The part of the universe we choose to study

• Surroundings: The rest of the universe

• Boundary: The surface dividing the system from the

surroundings

PHYS 131
 Definitions
Systems can be:
i. Open: Mass and energy can transfer between the system and the
surroundings
ii. Closed: Energy can be transfer between the system and the
surroundings, but NOT mass
iii. Isolated: Neither mass nor energy can transfer between the
system and the surroundings.
Heat lost = Heat gained
“We can apply conservation of energy
to an isolated system.”

PHYS 131
 Exercise on heat flow

The cup cools the tea. If 200 cm3 of tea at 95°C is poured into a 150-g glass cup initially at
25°C. What will be the common final temperature T of the tea and cup when equilibrium is
reached, assuming no heat flows to the surroundings? The density of water is

PHYS 131
 Solution to Exercise on heat flow

We first determine the mass of the tea from the density and volume

PHYS 131
 Solution to Exercise on heat flow

The tea drops in temperature by 9 C° by coming into equilibrium with the cup.

PHYS 131
 Calorimetry
Calorimeter
Calorimetry is a quantitative measurement of heat
exchange.

Calorimeter is used for the measurement of specific heat of

substance.

The calorimeter must be well insulated so that almost no

heat is exchanged with the surroundings.

PHYS 131
 Calorimetry

Calorimeter

Use: Determination of specific heats of substances.

A sample of a substance is heated to a high temperature, and

then quickly placed in the cool water of the calorimeter.

PHYS 131
 Calorimetry

Calorimeter
The heat lost by the sample will be gained by the water and

the calorimeter cup.

Heat lost = Heat gained

By measuring the final temperature of the mixture, the

specific heat can be calculated

PHYS 131
 Bomb Calorimeter

Another type of calorimeter is called “Bomb

Calorimetry” which is used to measure the

thermal energy released when a substance

burns.

This is the way to measure the Calorie content

of food.

PHYS 131
 Exercise on Calorimeter

An engineer wishes to determine the specific heat of a new metal alloy. A 0.150-kg sample
of the alloy is heated to 540°C. It is then quickly placed in 0.400 kg of water at 10.0°C,
which is contained in a 0.200-kg aluminium calorimeter cup. The final temperature of the
system is 30.5°C. Calculate the specific heat of the alloy.

J J
(𝑐𝑤 = 4186 and 𝑐col = 900 )
KgC° KgC°

PHYS 131
 Solution to Exercise on Calorimeter

We apply conservation of energy to our system, which we take to be the alloy sample, the
water, and the calorimeter cup.

We assume this system is isolated, σ 𝑄 = 0

0.150-kg sample of the alloy is heated to 540°C.

0.400 kg of water at 10.0°C, 0.200-kg aluminium calorimeter cup

J J
Final temperature of the system is 30.5°C , 𝑐𝑤 = 4186 and 𝑐col = 900
KgC° KgC°

PHYS 131
Solution to Exercise on Calorimeter

PHYS 131
 Latent Heat
The heat (energy) required for a material to change its phase (solid into liquid or vapor, or

a liquid into a vapor) without change of temperature.

PHYS 131
 Types of Latent Heat

Heat of fusion (LF) is the heat required to change 1 kg of a substance from the

solid to the liquid state.

PHYS 131
 Types of Latent Heat

Heat of vaporization is (LV) is the heat required to change a substance from the

liquid to the vapour phase.

PHYS 131
Latent Heats of Different Substance (at 1 atm)

PHYS 131
 Latent Heat

Heat of veporization and fusion also

refer to the

amount of heat released by a substance

when it changes :

• from vapour to liquid,

• from liquid to solid.

PHYS 131
 Latent Heat
The heat involved in change of phase depends on latent heat as well as on the mass of the

substance.

Q = mL,
L is the latent heat of the particular process and substance

m is the mass of the substance

Q is the heat added or released during the phase change.

PHYS 131
 Exercise on Latent heat

Making ice. How much energy does a freezer have to remove from 1.5 kg of water at 20°C

J
to make ice at -12°C? (𝑐𝑤 = 4186 )
KgC°

APPROACH: We need to calculate the total energy removed by adding the heat outflow
(1) to reduce the water temperature from 20°C to 0°C,
(2) to change the liquid water to solid ice at 0°C,
(3) to lower the ice temperature from 0°C to -12°C

PHYS 131
 Solution to Exercise on Latent heat
SOLUTION The heat Q that needs to be removed from the 1.5 kg of water

PHYS 131
 Problem solving (Calorimetry)

• Is the system isolated?

• Are all significant sources of energy transfer known or calculable?

• Apply conservation of energy. Heat gained = heat lost

• If no phase changes occur, the heat transferred will depend on the mass, specific heat,
and temperature change.

PHYS 131
 Problem solving (Calorimetry)

• If there are, or may be, phase changes, terms that depend on the mass and the latent heat
may also be present. Determine or estimate what phase the final system will be in.

• When the system reaches thermal equilibrium, the final temperature of each substance
will have the same value.

• Solve energy equation for the unknown.

PHYS 131
 Heat Transfer

Heat is transferred from one place or object to another in three different ways:

1. Conduction

2. Convection

3. Radiation

PHYS 131
 Heat Transfer-Conduction

The process in which heat is directly transmitted through the material of a substance (due to

molecular collision)

This occurs when there is a

temperature difference

without the movement of the material.

Heat conduction between regions at temperatures T1 and T2.
Example: heat transfer in metals. If T1 is greater than T2, the heat flows to the right

PHYS 131
 Heat Transfer-Conduction
The heat flow Q over a time interval t is given by the relation :

Q T1 - T2
= kA
t l
A is the cross-sectional area of the object,
l is the distance between the two ends,
which are at temperatures T1 and T2
k is a called the thermal conductivity which is characteristic of the
material.

PHYS 131
 Heat Transfer-Conduction

Thermal conductors: substances for which k is large conduct heat rapidly.

Example: gold, silver etc

Thermal insulators: substances for which k is small are poor conductor of heat.
Example: wool, fiberglass etc.

Q T1 - T2
= kA
t l

PHYS 131
Thermal conductivities of different substances

PHYS 131
 Exercise on Conduction

Heat loss through windows. A major source of heat loss

from a house in cold weather is through the windows.

Calculate the rate of heat flow through a glass window,

2.0 m x 1.0 m, in area and 3.2 mm thick, if the

temperatures at the inner and outer surfaces are 15.0°C

and 14.0°C. (Glass, k = )

PHYS 131
 Solutions to Exercise on Conduction

APPROACH Heat flows by conduction through the 3.2-mm

thickness of glass from the higher inside temperature to the lower
outside temperature

Temperatures at the inner and outer surfaces are 15.0°C and 14.0°C

Q T1 - T2
= kA
t l
PHYS 131
Solutions to Exercise on Conduction

PHYS 131
 R-values for Building Materials

The insulating properties of building materials are specified by R-values (or “thermal
resistance”), defined for a given thickness l of material as:

l R-values

R=
k
PHYS 131
 Heat Transfer- Convection
The process in which the transfer of heat from one place to another occurs by the
movement of fluids.
Example: heat transfer in liquid and gases.
Cooler water

Convection currents in a
pot of water being heated
on a stove
Convection plays a role in heating a
Hotter water house. The circular arrows show
convective air currents in the rooms.

PHYS 131
 Heat Transfer- Convection

Note: In human body the heat is carried out to the skin by the blood.

Blood acts as a convective fluid to transfer heat beneath the surface of the skin.

It is then conducted to the surface.

Once at the surface, the heat is transferred to the environment by convection,

evaporation and radiation.

PHYS 131
 Heat Transfer-Radiation
Heat transfer occurs without any medium.

Heat transfer due to emission of electromagnetic waves

is known as thermal radiation.

Heat transfer through radiation takes place in the form of

electromagnetic waves mainly in the infrared region.

Example: energy transfer from the sun to the earth The Sun’s surface radiates at 6000K,
much higher the earth’s surface.
surface
PHYS 131
 Heat Transfer-Radiation

The rate at which an object radiates energy is proportional to the fourth power of the Kelvin

temperature, T, and the area, A, of the emitting object:

Q
= es AT 4

t
This is called Stefan-Boltzmann equation,

s is a constant called the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, s = 5.67  10 −8

W/m2.K4

e is the emissivity, for black body e =1 and for shiny surface e=0.

PHYS 131
 Heat Transfer-Radiation

Any object not only emits energy by radiation but also absorbs energy radiated by other
objects.

If an object of emissivity e and area A is at a temperature T1 it radiates energy at a rate.

es AT 1
4

PHYS 131
 Heat Transfer-Radiation

If the object is surrounded by an environment at temperature T2 the rate at which the

4
surroundings radiate energy is proportional to T2 then the rate that energy is absorbed by
4
the object is proportional to T2.

The net rate of radiant heat flow from the object is:

Q
= es A(T1 − T2 )
4 4

t
PHYS 131
 Exercise on Heat Transfer-Radiation

Cooling by radiation. An athlete is sitting unclothed in a locker room whose dark walls

are at a temperature of 15°C. Estimate the body’s rate of heat loss by radiation, assuming a

skin temperature of 34°C and ε = 0,70. Take the surface area of the body not in contact

with the chair to be 1.5 m2.

Q
= es A(T1 − T2 )
4 4

PHYS 131
Solution to Exercise on Heat Transfer-Radiation

PHYS 131
 Radiant energy striking a body at an angle q

An object of emissivity e with area A facing the Sun absorbs energy from the Sun at a rate,

in watts, is
Q
= (1000 W / m 2 )e Acosq
t

where q is the angle between the Sun’s rays and a line

perpendicular to the area A. That is Acosq, is the

“effective area”, at right angles to the Sun’s rays.

PHYS 131
 Earth Seasons
The explanation for the seasons and the polar ice caps depends on this factor cosq.

The seasons are not a result of how close the

Earth is to the Sun.
In fact, in the Northern Hemisphere, summer
occurs when the Earth is farthest from the Sun.

(a) Earth’s seasons arise from the tilt of

Earth’s axis relative to its orbit around the
Sun.

PHYS 131
 Earth Seasons

Furthermore, the reason the Sun heats the Earth more at midday than at sunrise or sunset is
also related to this cosq factor.

(a) Earth’s seasons arise from the tilt of Earth’s axis relative to its orbit around the Sun.

PHYS 131
 Earth Seasons
June sunlight makes an angle of about 23.5° with the equator.

Thus q in the southern U.S.(label A) is near 0°

(direct summer sunlight)

In the Southern Hemisphere (B), is 50°or 60°, and

less heat can be absorbed—hence it is winter.

Q
= (1000 W / m 2 )e Acosq
t
PHYS 131
 Earth Seasons

Near the poles (C), there is never strong direct

sunlight:

cosq varies from about 0.5 in summer to 0 in winter;

so with little heating, ice can form.

Q
= (1000 W / m 2 )e Acosq
t

PHYS 131
 Thermography

Thermograph, scans the body, measuring the

intensity of infrared radiation from many points
and forming a picture that resembles an X-ray.

Areas where metabolic activity is high, such as

in tumors, can often be detected on a
thermograph as a result of their higher Thermographs of a healthy person’s
arms and hands (a) before and (b) after
temperature and consequent increased radiation. smoking a cigarette

PHYS 131
 Summary of Chapter 14
• Internal energy U refers to the total energy of all molecules in an object. For an ideal
monoatomic gas,
3 3
U = N k T = n RT
2 2

• Heat is the transfer of energy from one object to another due to a temperature
difference. Heat can be measured in joules or in calories.

• Specific heat of a substance is the energy required to change the temperature of a

fixed amount of matter by 1° C.

PHYS 131
 Summary of Chapter 14

• In an isolated system, heat gained by one part of the system must be lost by another.

• Calorimetry measures heat exchange quantitatively

• Phase changes require energy even though the temperature does not change.

• Heat of fusion: amount of energy required to melt 1 kg of material.

PHYS 131
 Summary of Chapter 14

• Heat of vaporization: amount of energy required to change 1 kg of material from liquid

to vapor.
• Heat transfer takes place by conduction, convection, and radiation.
• In conduction, energy is transferred through the collisions of molecules in the
substance.
• In convection, bulk quantities of molecules of the substance flow to areas of different
temperature.
• Radiation is the transfer of energy by electromagnetic waves.

PHYS 131
PHYS 131 PHYSICS FOR LIFE SCIENCE
THERMAL PHYSICS

Dr. Yaseera Ismail

School of Chemistry and Physics

Westville Campus
University of KwaZulu-Natal
H-Block, H3-084
email: [email protected]

PHYS 131