Introduction to Antennas

Antenna
• A transmitting antenna converts a guided electromagnetic wave on a
transmission line/waveguide into a plane wave propagating in free space
• One side of an antenna appears as an electrical circuit element, while the other side
provides an interface with a propagating plane wave
• Antennas are inherently bidirectional (can transmit and receive)
• Antenna used for directional transmission or measurement is also required to
optimize (or maximize) its radiation in some directions while suppressing radiation
in others.
 Waysto obtain radiation from a Single Conductor
• To create radiation, there must be a time-varying current or an acceleration (or
deceleration) of charge

Iz- current through a thin wire vz – velocity of carriers

ql - line charge density az – acceleration of carriers

• If a charge is not moving, the current is not created and there is no radiation.
• If the charge is moving with a uniform velocity:
• There is no radiation if the wire is straight, and infinite in extent.
• There is radiation if the wire is curved, bent, discontinuous, terminated, or
truncated,
• If the charge is oscillating in a time-motion, it radiates even if the wire is straight.
• Stronger radiation with a more broad frequency spectrum occurs if the feed is a
short pulse.
• Continuous time-harmonic oscillating charge produces radiation of a single
frequency.
• Acceleration of the charges is accomplished by the external source
• Deceleration at the end is due to induced fields (stores energy)
 Radiation mechanism in small centre-fed dipole

• Time 0- T/4: Lines of force are created between the arms

during which time the charge has reached its maximum
value and lines have traveled outwardly a radial distance
λ/4
• Time T/4- T/2: Field lines travel an additional λ/4 and the
charge density on the conductors begins to diminish.
Opposite charges stored at the end of the first half of the
period neutralize the charges on the conductors. New field
lines in opposite directions travelλ/4
• Time at T/2: Charge on the line is completely neutralized
and the field lines detach and form loops
• Time T/2- T: The process is repeated in the opposite
direction
 Transmission line Thevenin equivalent of the antenna in transmitting mode
• The source is represented by an ideal generator
• Transmission line is represented by a line with characteristic impedance
Zc
• The antenna is represented by a load
ZA = (RL + R r ) + jXA ]
• RL is used to represent the conduction and dielectric losses in the
antenna
• Rr, referred to as the radiation resistance, is used to represent radiation
by the antenna
• Reactance XA is used to represent the imaginary part of the impedance
associated with radiation by the antenna
 Radiation mechanism in two wireantenna
• Applied voltage creates field lines between wires and that field moves
electrons in the metal wires
• Movement of charge (current) results in magnetic field loops around
the wire.
• Electric field lines can
• Start on a positive charge and end on a negative charge
• Start at infinity and terminate on a negative charge
• Start at a positive charge and end at infinity
• Form loops and require no charge to sustain the field
• Magnetic field lines always form loops since magnetic monopoles do not exist
• Sinusoidal voltage results in sinusoidally oscillating electric and magnetic fields which travel in
the transmission line as an electromagnetic wave
• The electromagnetic waves in transmission lines are associated with charges and the electric field
lines terminate on charges.
• But, the propagating field gets detached from charges and propagates as loops.
 Basic antenna system
• The transmitter can be modeled as a Thevenin source consisting of a voltage generator and
series impedance, delivering a power Pt to the transmitting antenna
• A transmitting antenna radiates a spherical wave that, at large distances, approximates a
plane wave over a localized area.
• A receiving antenna intercepts a portion of an incident plane wave and delivers a receive power Pr
to the receiver load impedance.
 Wire antennas
• Wire antennas are familiar to layman because they are seen virtually everywhere on
automobiles, buildings, ships, aircraft, spacecraft, and so on.
• There are various shapes of wire antennas such as a straight wire (dipole), loop, and helix
Aperture antennas
• Antennas of this type are very useful for aircraft and
spacecraft applications, because they can be very
conveniently flush-mounted on the skin of the aircraft or
spacecraft.
• In addition, they can be covered with a dielectric material
to protect them from hazardous conditions of the
environment.
 Microstrip antennas
• The microstrip antennas are low profile, conformable to planar
and nonplanar surfaces, simple and inexpensive to fabricate
using modern printed-circuit technology, mechanically robust
when mounted on rigid surfaces, compatible with MMIC
designs, and very versatile in terms of resonant frequency,
polarization, pattern, and impedance.
• These antennas can be mounted on the surface of high-
performance aircraft, spacecraft, satellites, missiles, cars, and
even handheld mobile telephones.
 Antenna arrays
• Many applications require radiation characteristics that may
not be achievable by a single element.
• It may, however, be possible that an aggregate of radiating
elements in an electrical and geometrical arrangement (an
array) will result in the desired radiation characteristics.
• The arrangement of the array may be such that the radiation
from the elements adds up to give a radiation maximum in a
particular direction or directions, minimum in others, or
otherwise as desired.
 Reflector Antenna
• To communicate over great distances, sophisticated forms of antennas had to be used in order
to transmit and receive signals that had to travel millions of miles.
• A very common antenna form for such an application is a parabolic reflector.
 Lens Antenna
• Lenses are primarily used to collimate incident divergent energy to prevent it from spreading
in undesired directions.
• By properly shaping the geometrical configuration and choosing the appropriate material of
the lenses, they can transform various forms of divergent energy into plane waves.
• They can be used in most of the same applications as are the parabolic reflectors, especially at
higher frequencies.
 Antenna fields and powers
• Consider an antenna located at the origin of a spherical
coordinate system
• At large distances, where the localized near-zone fields are
negligible
• The radiated electric field of an arbitrary antenna can be
expressed as
Inferences from above representation
• this electric field propagates in the radial direction
• the phase variation is 𝑒 −𝑗𝑘0 𝑟
• The amplitude variation with distance is 1 /r
• The electric/magnetic field may be polarized in either the 𝜃 or 𝜑 direction, but not in
the radial direction (as TEM)
 Field Regions
• In the reactive near field region the pattern is more spread out and nearly uniform, with
slight variations.
• As the observations moved to the radiating near-field region(Fresnel), the pattern begins
to smooth and form lobes.
• In the far-field region (Fraunhofer), the pattern is well formed, usually consisting of few
minor lobes and one, or more, major lobes.
2D polar, 3D polar and 2D rectangular radiation pattern plots
 Radiation Pattern Lobes
•A mathematical function or a graphical representation of the
radiation properties of the antenna as a function of space
coordinates.
• The radiation pattern is determined in the far-field region and is
represented as a function of the directional coordinates.
•A trace of the received electric (magnetic) field at a constant
radius is called the amplitude field pattern.
•On the other hand, a graph of the spatial variation of the power
density along a constant radius is called an amplitude power
pattern.
• Radiation lobe:- Portion of the radiation pattern bounded by regions of
relatively Peak radiation intensity.
• A major lobe (also called main beam) is defined as “the radiation lobe
containing the direction of maximum radiation.”
• A minor lobe is any lobe except a major lobe.
• A side lobe is a radiation lobe in any direction other than the intended lobe.”
Usually a side lobe is adjacent to the main lobe and occupies the hemisphere in
the direction of the main beam.
• A back lobe is a radiation lobe whose axis makes an angle of approximately
180 with respect to the beam of an antenna. Usually it refers to a minor lobe
that occupies the hemisphere in a direction opposite to that of the major (main)
lobe.
• A fundamental property of an antenna is its ability to focus power in a given direction, to the exclusion
of other directions.
• Antenna with a broad main beam can transmit (or receive) power over a wide angular region
• Antenna with a narrow main beam will transmit (or receive) power over a small angular region
• Beamwidth of a pattern is defined as the angular separation between two identical points on the
opposite side of the pattern maximum.
• One measure of this focusing effect is the 3 dB beam width or half-power beam width of the antenna.
• Half power beam width (HPBW): In a plane containing the direction of the maximum of a beam, the
angle between the two directions in which the radiation intensity is the one-half value of the beam.
• Angular separation between the first nulls of the pattern, is referred to as the First Null Beamwidth
• Generally, beamwidth => half power beamwidth
• As beamwidth decreases there is a tradeoff with increasing sidelobe level.
• Beamwidth defines the ability to resolve between points.
• Sidelobe level describes the ability to avoid false identification of the target.
• The resolution capability of an antenna to distinguish between two sources is equal to half the first null
• beamwidth (FNBW/2), which is usually used to approximate the half-power beamwidth
FNBW/2 ≈ HPBW
 Principal patterns (E and H plane)
• For a linearly polarized antenna , performance is often described in terms of its principal E and H
plane patterns.
• E plane is defined as “the plane containing the electric field vector and the direction of maximum
radiation”.
• H plane is “the plane containing the magnetic field vector and the direction of maximum radiation.”
• It is the usual practice to orient most antennas so that at least one of the principal plane patterns
coincides with one of the geometrical principal planes
The xz (elevation, φ = 0) plane; is the principal E plane.
The xy (azimuthal, θ = π/2 plane is the principal H plane

Omnidirectional pattern has an infinite number

of principal E planes (elevation; φ = φc ) and
one principal H plane (azimuthal; θ = 90◦)
 Isotropic Radiator
A hypothetical lossless antenna having equal radiation in all directions.
• Not an actual realizable antenna
• Often taken as a reference for expressing the directive properties of actual antennas
 Omni directional Antenna
Having an essentially non-directional pattern in a given plane (in this case in azimuth) and a
directional pattern in any orthogonal plane (in this case in elevation).
An omnidirectional pattern is then a special type of a directional pattern
• Useful for broadcasting or for hand-held wireless devices, since they transmit uniformly in
horizontal
 Directional antenna
Directional antenna
The property of radiating or receiving electromagnetic waves more effectively in some
directions than in others.
This term is usually applied to an antenna whose maximum directivity is significantly greater
than that of a half wave dipole .”
 Radian Radian
𝐶 = 2𝜋𝑟

C
1 rads = = 2𝜋
r

Steradian Steradian
𝑑𝐴 𝑟2𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜑
𝑑Ω = =
𝑟2 𝑟2

𝑑Ω = 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜑
 Radiation Power Density(W)
The quantity used to describe the power associated with an electromagnetic wave is the
instantaneous Poynting vector (power density) defined as,
W= EH
W= instantaneous Poynting Vector
E = instantaneous Electric Field Intensity
H = instantaneous Electric Field Intensity

Instantaneous total power 𝑃 = ඾ 𝑊 • 𝑑𝑠 = ඾ 𝑊 • 𝑛ො dA

𝑠 𝑠
Elemental Area = 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑟 2 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜑
𝑑𝐴
Solid Angle = 𝑑Ω = 2 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜑
𝑟
 In the case of an Isotropic Radiator, the Total Power Radiated,
2 
Prad =  W0 •ds = 
 r 0
aˆ W (r ) • aˆ r r 2
sinθ dθ dφ  = 4r 2
W0
s 0 0

In the case of an Isotropic Radiator, Power Density

Prad
W0 = aˆ rW0 =
4r 2
which is uniformly distributed over the surface of a Sphere of radius ' r'.

For applications of time-varying fields, it is often more desirable to find the average power
density which is obtained by integrating the instantaneous Poynting vector over one period
and dividing by the period.
Average Radiated Power Prad = Pav = W
s
rad • ds

= W
s
av • nˆ da

1
=
2  Re( E  H *) • ds
s
 Radiation density and intensity

• Poynting vector for this wave 𝑆 = 𝐸 × 𝐻 ∗, and

• Time average Poynting vector or power density is
1 1
ҧ
𝑆𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑅𝑒 𝑆 = 𝑊𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝐸ത × 𝐻 ഥ ∗ 𝑊 Τ𝑚 2
2 2
• 𝐸ത × 𝐻
ഥ ∗ is predominantly real in far field and has imaginary components in near field which
represent stored energy.
• In far field region,
1
𝑊𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝜃, 𝜑 = 𝑅𝑒 𝐸ത × 𝐻 ഥ∗
2
radiation power density or radiation density
• Radiation intensity U in a direction is defined as the power radiated in a direction per unit
solid angle in the far field.
• Radiation intensity at a distance r from the antenna.

𝑈 𝜃, 𝜑 = 𝑟 2 𝑊𝑟𝑎𝑑
 Radiation Intensity(U)
• Radiation intensity in a given direction is defined as “the power radiated from an antenna
per unit solid angle.”
• The radiation intensity is a far-field parameter, and it can be obtained by simply
multiplying the radiation density by the square of the distance.
In mathematical form it is expressed as
𝑈 = 𝑟2𝑊𝑟𝑎𝑑

Total Power Radiated is 2 

Prad =  U dΩ =   U sinθ dθ dφ
 0 0

For an Isotropic Source, U will be independent of  and , so

Prad =  U

0 dΩ = U 0  d = 4 U

0 𝑑Ω = 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜑

Radiation Intensity of Isotropic Source is, U 0 = Prad

4
 Directivity(D)
Directivity of an antenna defined as “the ratio of the radiation intensity in a given direction
from the antenna to the radiation intensity averaged over all directions. The average radiation
intensity is equal to the total power radiated by the antenna divided by 4π. If the direction is
not specified, the direction of maximum radiation intensity is implied.”

If the direction is not specified, it implies the direction of maximum radiation intensity
(maximum directivity) expressed as

Directivity is a dimensionless ratio of power, and is usually expressed in dB as

D (dB) = 10 log (D)
• The isotropic antenna radiates equally in all directions and U(θ,φ)/U max =1
• And the directivity is 1, since

• Since the minimum directivity of any antenna is unity, directivity is sometimes stated as relative to
the directivity of an isotropic radiator, and written as dBi
• Typical directivity values
• 2.2 dB for a wire dipole
• 7.0 dB for a microstrip patch antenna
• 23 dB for a waveguide horn antenna
• 35 dB for a parabolic reflector antenna
 Beamwidth and directivity
• Beamwidth and directivity are both measures of the focusing ability
• An antenna pattern with a narrow main beam will have a high directivity, while a pattern with a
wide beam will have a lower directivity.
• But, this relationship between these two quantities is not exact.
• This is because beamwidth is only dependent on the size and shape of the main beam, whereas
directivity involves the integration of the entire radiation pattern.
• However, it is possible to develop approximate relations between beamwidth and directivity with
reasonable accuracy for a large number of practical antennas.
• One such approximation valid for pencil beam antennas is

• This approximation does not work well for omnidirectional patterns

 Antenna Radiation Efficiency(e)
The total antenna efficiency e0 is used to take into account losses at the input terminals and
within the structure of the antenna. Such losses may be due,
1. reflections because of the mismatch between the transmission line and the antenna
2. I 2R losses (conduction and dielectric).
In general, the overall efficiency can be written as, e0 = e r e c e d = erecd
 Gain(G)
Gain of an antenna (in a given direction) is defined as “the ratio of the intensity, in a given
direction, to the radiation intensity that would be obtained if the power accepted by the
antenna were radiated isotropically. The radiation intensity corresponding to the isotropically
radiated power is equal to the power accepted (input) by the antenna divided by 4π.”
Radiation Intensity 𝑈(𝜃, 𝜑)
Gain = 4𝜋 = 4𝜋
Total Input(accepted) Power 𝑃𝑖𝑛
𝑈(𝜃, 𝜑)
G = 4𝜋
𝑃𝑖𝑛(lossless isotropic source)

𝑈(𝜃, 𝜑)
We know that, 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝑒𝑐𝑑𝑃𝑖𝑛 Therefore, 𝐺(𝜃, 𝜑) = 𝑒𝑐𝑑 4𝜋 = 𝑒𝑐𝑑 𝐷(𝜃, 𝜑)
𝑃𝑟 𝑎 𝑑
30,000
𝐺0 =
Θ1𝑑 Θ2𝑑
 Antenna impedance and radiation resistance
• Input impedance is defined as “the impedance presented by an antenna at its terminals or the ratio of
the voltage to current at a pair of terminals or the ratio of the appropriate components of the electric
to magnetic fields at a point.”

𝑍𝑔 = 𝑅𝑔 + 𝑗𝑋𝑔

𝑍𝐴 = 𝑅𝐴 + 𝑗𝑋𝐴 = (𝑅𝑟 + 𝑅𝐿) + 𝑗𝑋𝐴

• From power that is provided by the generator, half is dissipated as heat in the internal resistance Rg of
the generator, and the other half is delivered to the antenna.

• From the part of the power delivered to the antenna

• Half is radiated through the mechanism provided by the radiation resistance, and
• the other part is dissipated as heat in the antenna which influences part of the overall
efficiency of the antenna
Effective area of receiving antenna
• Received power will be proportional to the power density, or Poynting vector, of the incident wave. S
• Since the Poynting vector has dimensions of W/m2, and the received power, Pr, has dimensions of W,
the proportionality constant must have units of area
• This area is called effective area 𝐴𝑒
• The effective area is used to determine the power delivered to the load, which under conjugate
matching is only one-half of that intercepted
• The other half is scattered and dissipated as heat.
• For a lossless antenna (RL = 0 ) under conjugate matching, the maximum value of the effective area is
equal to the physical area.
• The scattering area is also equal to the physical area.

• Maximum effective area is,

RT = Rr + RL
Under Conjugate Matching
X A = −XT
 Directivity and Effective Area
• The maximum directivity is proportional to the maximum effective aperture area,

• The maximum effective aperture (Aem) of any antenna is related to its maximum directivity
(D0) by,
𝜆2
𝐴 𝑒𝑚 = 𝐷
4𝜋 0
• For a rectangular horn antenna having an aperture 2 λ × 3 λ has a maximum directivity of 24
π , or about 19 dB.
• Aperture efficiency 𝜂𝑎𝑝 of an antenna, is defined as the ratio of the maximum effective
area Aem of the antenna to its physical area A