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In this Engineering Tutorials

chapter, we will discuss how recursive techniques can derive sequences and be
used for solving counting problems. The procedure for finding the terms of a sequence in a
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recursive manner is called recurrence relation. We study the theory of linear recurrence
relations and their
Famous solutions. Finally, we introduce generating functions for solving
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recurrence relations.
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Definition
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A recurrence
Machinerelation is an equation that recursively defines a sequence where the next
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term is a function of the previous terms (Expressing Fn as some combination of Fi with
i < n).Mainframe Development

Example − FibonacciTutorials
Management series − Fn = Fn−1 + Fn−2 , Tower of Hanoi − Fn = 2Fn−1 + 1

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Linear Recurrence Relations
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A linear recurrence equation of degree k or order k is a recurrence equation which is in the
formatMisc
xn = A1 xn−1 + A2 xn−1 + A3 xn−1 + … Ak xn−k (An is a constant and
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 Ak ≠ 0 ) on a sequence of numbers as a first-degree polynomial.
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These are some examples of linear recurrence equations −
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Recurrence relations Initial values Solutions

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Fn = Fn-1 + Fn-2 a1 = a2 = 1 Fibonacci number
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Fn = Fn-1 + Fn-2 a1 = 1, a2 = 3 Lucas Number

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Fn = Fn-2 + Fn-3 a1 = a2 = a3 = 1 Padovan sequence

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Fn = 2F n-1 + Fn-2
Software Quality a1 = 0, a2 = 1 Pell number

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How to solve linear recurrence relation
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Suppose, a two ordered linear recurrence relation is − Fn = AFn−1 + BFn−2 where A
and B are
UPSCrealIAS
numbers.
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The characteristic equation for the above recurrence relation is −

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2
x − Ax − B = 0
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Three cases may occur while finding the roots −

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Case 1 − If this equation factors as (x − x1 )(x − x1 ) = 0 and it produces two distinct

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real roots x1 and x2 , then Fn n
= ax
1
+ bx
n
2
is the solution. [Here, a and b are constants]
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Case 2 − If this equation factors as (x and it produces single real root x1 ,
2
− x1 ) = 0

then Fn = ax
n
1
+ bnx
n
1
is the solution.

Case 3 − If the equation produces two distinct complex roots, x1 and x2 in polar form
x1 = r∠θ and x2 = r∠(−θ) , then Fn n
= r (acos(nθ) + bsin(nθ)) is the solution.

Problem 1
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Solve the recurrence relation Fn = 5Fn−1 − 6Fn−2 where F0 = 1 and F1 = 4

Solution

The characteristic equation of the recurrence relation is −

2
x − 5x + 6 = 0,
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So, (x − 3)(x − 2) = 0
 Hence, the roots are −

x1 = 3 and x2 = 2

The roots are real and distinct. So, this is in the form of case 1
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Hence, the solution is −

n n
Fn = ax + bx
1 2

Here, Fn = a3
n
+ b2
n
(As x1 = 3 and x2 = 2)

Therefore,
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0 0
1 = F0 = a3 + b2 = a + b

1 1
4 = F1 = a3 + b2 = 3a + 2b

Solving these two equations, we get a = 2 and b = −1

Hence, the final solution is −

n n n n
Fn = 2.3 + (−1). 2 = 2.3 − 2

Problem 2

Solve the recurrence relation − Fn = 10Fn−1 − 25Fn−2 where F0 = 3 and F1 = 17

Solution

The characteristic equation of the recurrence relation is −

2
x − 10x − 25 = 0

So (x − 5)2 = 0

Hence, there is single real root x1 = 5

As there is single real valued root, this is in the form of case 2

Hence, the solution is −

n n
Fn = ax + bnx
1 1

0 0
3 = F0 = a.5 + (b)(0.5) = a

1 1
17 = F1 = a.5 + b.1.5 = 5a + 5b
Solving these two equations, we get a = 3 and b = 2/5

Hence, the final solution is − Fn = 3.5

n
+ (2/5). n.2
n

Problem 3

Solve the recurrence relation Fn = 2Fn−1 − 2Fn−2 where F0 = 1 and F1 = 3

Solution

The characteristic equation of the recurrence relation is −

2
x − 2x − 2 = 0

Hence, the roots are −

x1 = 1 + i and x2 = 1 − i

In polar form,
–
x1 = r∠θ and x2 = r∠(−θ), where r = √2 and θ =
π

The roots are imaginary. So, this is in the form of case 3.

Hence, the solution is −

– n
Fn = (√2) (acos(n. ⊓/4) + bsin(n. ⊓/4))

– 0
1 = F0 = (√2) (acos(0. ⊓/4) + bsin(0. ⊓/4))

= a

– 1
3 = F1 = (√2) (acos(1. ⊓/4) + bsin(1. ⊓/4))
– – –
= √2(a/√2 + b/√2)

Solving these two equations we get a = 1 and b = 2

Hence, the final solution is −

– n
Fn = (√2) (cos(n. π/4) + 2sin(n. π/4))

Non-Homogeneous Recurrence Relation and Particular Solutions

A recurrence relation is called non-homogeneous if it is in the form

Fn = AFn−1 + BFn−2 + f (n) where f (n) ≠ 0

Its associated homogeneous recurrence relation is Fn = AFn–1 + BFn−2

The solution (an ) of a non-homogeneous recurrence relation has two parts.

First part is the solution (ah ) of the associated homogeneous recurrence relation and the
second part is the particular solution (at ).

an = ah + at

Solution to the first part is done using the procedures discussed in the previous section.

To find the particular solution, we find an appropriate trial solution.

Let f (n) = cxn ; let x2 = Ax + B be the characteristic equation of the associated

homogeneous recurrence relation and let x1 and x2 be its roots.

If x ≠ x1 and x ≠ x2 , then at = Ax
n

If x ,
= x1 x ≠ x2 , then at = Anx
n

If x = x1 = x2 , then at = An x
2 n

Example

Let a non-homogeneous recurrence relation be Fn = AFn–1 + BFn−2 + f (n) with

characteristic roots x1 = 2 and x2 = 5 . Trial solutions for different possible values of
f (n) are as follows −

f(n) Trial solutions

4 A

5.2n An2n

8.5n An5n

4n A4n

2n2+3n+1 An2+Bn+C

Problem

Solve the recurrence relation Fn = 3Fn−1 + 10Fn−2 + 7.5

n
where F0 = 4 and
F1 = 3
Solution

This is a linear non-homogeneous relation, where the associated homogeneous equation is

Fn = 3Fn−1 + 10Fn−2 and f (n) = 7.5
n

The characteristic equation of its associated homogeneous relation is −

2
x − 3x − 10 = 0

Or, (x − 5)(x + 2) = 0

Or, x1 = 5 and x2 = −2

Hence ah = a.5
n
+ b. (−2)
n
, where a and b are constants.

Since f (n) , i.e. of the form c. xn , a reasonable trial solution of at will be Anxn
n
= 7.5

n n
at = Anx = An5

After putting the solution in the recurrence relation, we get −

n n−1 n−2 n
An5 = 3A(n– 1)5 + 10A(n– 2)5 + 7.5

Dividing both sides by 5n−2 , we get

2 0 2
An5 = 3A(n − 1)5 + 10A(n − 2)5 + 7.5

Or, 25An = 15An − 15A + 10An − 20A + 175

Or, 35A = 175

Or, A = 5

So, Fn = An5
n
= 5n5
n
= n5
n+1

The solution of the recurrence relation can be written as −

Fn = ah + at

n n n+1
= a.5 + b. (−2) + n5

Putting values of F0 = 4 and F1 = 3 , in the above equation, we get a = −2 and b = 6

Hence, the solution is −

n+1 n n
Fn = n5 + 6.(−2) − 2.5
Generating Functions
Generating Functions represents sequences where each term of a sequence is expressed
as a coefficient of a variable x in a formal power series.

Mathematically, for an infinite sequence, say a0 , a1 , a2 , … , ak , … , the generating

function will be −

2 k
Gx = a0 + a1 x + a2 x + ⋯ + ak x + ⋯ =

k
∑ ak x

k=0

Some Areas of Application

Generating functions can be used for the following purposes −

For solving a variety of counting problems. For example, the number of ways to
make change for a Rs. 100 note with the notes of denominations Rs.1, Rs.2, Rs.5,
Rs.10, Rs.20 and Rs.50
For solving recurrence relations

For proving some of the combinatorial identities

For finding asymptotic formulae for terms of sequences

Problem 1

What are the generating functions for the sequences {ak } with ak = 2 and ak = 3k ?

Solution

∞
When ak = 2 , generating function, G(x) = ∑
k=0
k
2x = 2 + 2x + 2x
2
+ 2x
3
+ …

∞
When ak = 3k, G(x) = ∑
k=0
k
3kx = 0 + 3x + 6x
2

3
+ 9x + ……

Problem 2

What is the generating function of the infinite series; 1, 1, 1, 1, … ?

Solution

Here, ak = 1 , for 0 ≤ k ≤ ∞
Hence, G(x) 2 3 1
= 1 + x + x + x + …⋯ =
(1−x)

Some Useful Generating Functions

∞
For ak k
= a , G(x) = ∑
k=0
a x
k k
= 1 + ax

2 2
+ a x + … … ⋯ = 1/(1 − ax)

∞
For ak = (k + 1), G(x) = ∑
k=0
(k + 1)x
k
= 1

2 1
+ 2x + 3x ……⋯ =
2
(1−x)

∞
For ak n
= c , G(x) = ∑
k k=0
c x
n
k
k
= 1 + c x
n
1

n 2 2 n
+ c x + ……⋯ + x = (1 + x)
2

k 2
∞
For ak =
1
, G(x) = ∑
k=0
x
= 1 + x +
x

k! k! 2!

3
x x
+ ……⋯ = e
3!

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