Quantum Computing: Vision and Challenges

Sukhpal Singh Gilla , Oktay Cetinkayab , Stefano Marronec , Daniel Claudinod , David Haunschilde , Leon Schlotee , Huaming Wuf ,
Carlo Ottavianig , Xiaoyuan Liuh , Sree Pragna Machupallii , Kamalpreet Kaurj , Priyansh Arorak , Ji Liul , Ahmed Faroukm , Houbing
Herbert Songn , Steve Uhliga , Kotagiri Ramamohanaraoo
a School of Electronic Engineering and Computer Science, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK,
b Oxford e-Research Centre (OeRC), Department of Engineering Science, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK,
c Dipartimento di Matematica e Fisica, Università della Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, Italy,
d Quantum Information Science Section, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, USA,
e Detecon International GmbH, Munich, Germany,
f Center for Applied Mathematics, Tianjin University, Tianjin, China,
g Department of Computer Science and York Centre for Quantum Technologies, University of York, York, UK,
h Fujitsu Research of America, Inc., Santa Clara, CA, USA,
i Information Networking Institute, Carnegie Mellon University, USA,
j Cymax Group Technologies, British Columbia, Canada,
arXiv:2403.02240v3 [cs.DC] 5 Jun 2024

k Microsoft, Schiphol, Netherlands,

l Mathematics and Computational Research Division, Argonne National Laboratory, IL, USA,
m Department of Computer Science, Faculty of Computers and Artificial Intelligence, South Valley University, Hurghada, Egypt,
n Department of Information Systems University of Maryland, Baltimore County (UMBC), Baltimore, USA,
o Retired Professor, The University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia,

Abstract
The recent development of quantum computing, which uses entanglement, superposition, and other quantum fundamental concepts,
can provide substantial processing advantages over traditional computing. These quantum features help solve many complex prob-
lems that cannot be solved with conventional computing methods. These problems include modeling quantum mechanics, logis-
tics, chemical-based advances, drug design, statistical science, sustainable energy, banking, reliable communication, and quantum
chemical engineering. The last few years have witnessed remarkable advancements in quantum software and algorithm creation
and quantum hardware research, which has significantly advanced the prospect of realizing quantum computers. It would be help-
ful to have comprehensive literature research on this area to grasp the current status and find outstanding problems that require
considerable attention from the research community working in the quantum computing industry. To better understand quantum
computing, this paper examines the foundations and vision based on current research in this area. We discuss cutting-edge de-
velopments in quantum computer hardware advancement and subsequent advances in quantum cryptography, quantum software,
and high-scalability quantum computers. Many potential challenges and exciting new trends for quantum technology research and
development are highlighted in this paper for a broader debate.
Keywords: Quantum Computing, Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning, Cryptography, Cyber Security, Qubits

1. Promising Age of Quantum Computing interference, and entanglement [4]. Early efforts to build hard-
ware for quantum computers moved at a snail’s pace due to
Many experts regard Richard Feynman’s 1982 talk as among challenging technical problems, making it difficult to shield and
the first ideas for quantum computing [1, 2]. Feynman imag- coherently control the dynamics of quantum mechanical prop-
ined a quantum machine that could imitate quantum physics by erties present at the most essential scales of nature (e.g., elec-
using the principles of quantum mechanics. According to Feyn- tron spin or photon polarization) [5].
man’s view, a computer based on quantum mechanical funda-
mentals might be necessary to mimic natural occurrences, as However, quantum computing is one of the most talked-
Nature is fundamentally quantum mechanical [3]. The advent about fields right now (as of 2024), and it has been growing
of quantum computers has opened up new avenues for this kind at a tremendous pace in recent years [6]. There is a great
of thinking, since they can harness the incredible processing deal of enthusiasm among academics and businesses alike to
power required to model intricate quantum systems by mak- construct initial quantum computers due to their promise of
ing use of quantum mechanical features such as superposition, providing, for certain tasks, processing powers beyond those
of current most powerful supercomputers. Strong efforts to
build large-scale quantum computers are now underway with
⋆ Various leading academics and industry experts joined together to write several established corporations (Chinese companies like ZTE,
this technical report for knowledge sharing. QUDOOR and USA based companies such as Honeywell, In-
tel, Google, Microsoft, and IBM), growing small and medium- algorithms have performed very well in solving quantum me-
sized enterprises (e.g., D-Wave), and aspiring startups (e.g., chanical problems and Quantum Artificial Intelligence (QAI)
Rigetti, Xanadu, Infleqtion, Origin Quantum, and IonQ). There tasks [19]. While a large and resilient quantum computer is not
has been enormous advancement in quantum algorithms and available yet and will still require significant improvements be-
quantum software in recent years, which has occurred in tan- fore its full promise for practical applications can be realised,
dem with the development of quantum hardware. quantum computing is already available for research and pro-
It is well-known that traditional digital computing relies on totype scenarios with encouraging results on current NISQ-era
bits that are limited to two possible values—‘0’ or ‘1’—to equipment [20].
store and process data. In quantum computing, the correspond- When applied to classical data, QAI has the potential to
ing unit is the quantum bit (qubit) that, according to quantum greatly accelerate machine intelligence techniques [21, 22].
physics, may have either a value of ‘0’ or ‘1’ or exist on a su- Quantum neural networks, quantum support vector machines,
perposition of the two (functionally being in both states simul- and quantum principle component evaluation have been studied
taneously!) [7, 8, 9]. Because of this, quantum computers have [23, 24], and some recent research returned encouraging find-
access to a computational field (known as Hilbert space [10]) ings [25], although it is still not completely known if quantum
of huge dimension, where n qubits might be in a superposi- neural networks will provide better computing efficiency than
tion state with 2n potential values at any one moment. Due to traditional machine learning executions.
the exponential growth of the parameter space, problems on a There exist several different quantum computing paradigms.
large scale are expected to be easier to solve with the advent The most popular ones are measurement-based or one-way
of quantum computers. Nevertheless, developing a large-scale quantum computing [26], adiabatic quantum computing (usu-
quantum computer has its own set of specific challenges. The ally implemented in practice as quantum annealing) [27], and
most demanding to mitigate is the decoherence of the quan- the quantum circuit framework for gate-based general quan-
tum states on which qubits are encoded. Decoherence happens tum computing [7]. Since it is possible to re-program quantum
when qubits interact with their surroundings and lose their co- computers according to particular issues, the quantum circuit
herent features. For that it represents one of the biggest obsta- model stands out as an especially feasible option. Currently,
cles to developing large-scale quantum devices [11]. Assuming some high-level programming languages specific to quantum
the unavoidable presence of environmental noise, “Noisy In- computing, such as Qiskit [28], Cirq [29], PennyLane [30], and
termediate Scale Quantum (NISQ)” devices, try to deal with other libraries and packages, are available to program quantum
imperfections and losses driven by decoherence. Reducing the computers; however, circuits specified with these languages
probability of decoherence and creating effective error correc- need to be “translated” to fit the actual quantum topology, build-
tion procedures to overcome defects in NISQ devices are impor- ing the quantum circuits by organising the necessary quan-
tant goals of current studies in quantum computing [12]. The tum gates (these are just “instructions” that are executed in se-
second big problem with modern quantum devices is to iden- quence) and operations according to a pre-designed architec-
tify approaches to effectively engineer and interconnect qubits ture.
[13]. At the moment of writing current quantum devices are 1.2 Applications and Benefits: Research on quantum com-
able to deal with relatively sparsely connected qubits, making it puting is blossoming, with regular exciting new advances in
difficult to map deep quantum circuits with multiple two-qubit several areas of application and quantum engineering such as
gates that necessitate strong couplings between qubits [14]. hardware, software, algorithms, error correction on NISQ de-
1.1 Quantum Supremacy: Regardless of technological hur- vices. Academic scientists first, but now also industry ex-
dles, NISQ quantum computers have shown promising com- perts are investigating on problems that may find applications
puting capability in their early stages. Google’s recent proof to solve practical problems. In Fig. 1, we summarize some ben-
of quantum supremacy is a major step forward for quantum efits that quantum computing may have for common users, pro-
computing [15]. There is currently a worldwide race to be the grammers, and various business sectors by delegating key tasks.
first to implement quantum computing in order to tackle a prac- 1.3 Quantum Computing in a nutshell: A binary bit that
tical problem that a conventional computer cannot solve in a may take on values ‘0’ or ‘1’ is the basic unit of information of
reasonable time — also known as “quantum advantage”. To conventional computing. Quantum Computation and Informa-
reach this desired level of quantum computing, it is necessary tion uses qubits as fundamental unit of information and, differ-
to reduce the probability of the decoherence of qubits drasti- ently from classical bits, they can not only acquire either value
cally through improvements in quantum hardware, quantum al- ‘0’ or ‘1’, but even ‘0’ and ‘1’ at the same time. A simple math-
gorithms, and error correction during the upcoming years. A lot ematical representation of a qubit, in the computational basis
of work is being put into developing and benchmarking quan- {|0⟩, |1⟩}, is conventionally given as:
tum algorithms using NISQ devices. While Grover’s and Shor’s
quantum algorithms were among the first that stood out in the a|0⟩ + b|1⟩, (1)
early 1990s, hundreds of other algorithms have been invented
since then. Variational Quantum Eigensolver (VQE) [16, 17] where a and b are complex amplitudes (a, b ∈ C) superimpos-
and other variational quantum algorithms [18] are a popular ing the states ‘0’ and ‘1’ [2], and preserving probability inter-
kind of hybrid quantum-classical algorithm that combines the pretation of quantum state, i.e., they need to verify the condi-
advantages of the two technologies. On NISQ devices, VQE tion |a|2 + |b|2 = 1. The symbol |⟩ (ket) indicates that the bit
2
 Businesses Applications

• Logistics, Telecommuting, Electrical Power, Banking (for rapid Risk Estimation, Commerce, Shaky Markets
Portfolios Improvement) and Design Robotics.
• Digital Privacy, Medical Services (for Rapid Radiation Treatments, Accurate Diagnoses, and Solid Evidence) and
Automotive Industry

Advancements

• Pharmaceuticals, Computer Vision, Speedy Computations, Life Sciences, and Climate Prediction.
• Resilience in Computing Systems, Quantum Algorithms and Networks, Quantum Confidentiality and Security

Fundamental Operations

• Confidential Data Processing, Encrypted Data Transmission, Connectivity, Detection of Attacks.

• Surveillance, Telecommunications, Networked Quantum Technology, Safe Credentials.

Gadget Assistances

• Predictive Analytics Anticipating Trends

• Find Soutions for Complex Problems
• Quantum Skills to Diagnose Diseases

Figure 1: Applications and Benefits of Quantum Computing.

of information is encoded in a quantum state, exploiting one of its type, an industrial-scale quantum computer would cer-
of its physical degree of freedom. Using quantum superposi- tainly have ramifications in several domains, including cyber-
tion, a vast computational space becomes available allowing to security and others. Daniel Simon presented the first quantum
solve problems of extreme complexity [INCLUDE A REFER- method to beat classical algorithms in terms of performance
ENCE HERE on quanutm computing basics]. Even a very lim- [32]. Deutsch-Jozsa Algorithm, Bernstein-Vazirani Algorithm,
ited number of qubits, N can be used to solve problems that are Simon’s Algorithm, and Shor’s Algorithm were introduced to
intractable with classical computers, thanks to the rapidly ex- focus on problems that require exponential queries (i.e. cut-
panding computational domain as an exponential function (2N ) ting down on the amount of computing power required to exam-
of the total number of qubits. ine algorithms and assess their balance or robustness with cer-
Another fundamental quantum property exploited in quan- tainty), efficient solutions of black-box problems, faster com-
tum algorithms is Entanglement [7]. While classical bits are putation, speedup, and integer factorisation, and discrete loga-
independent of each other when setting bit values, qubits allow rithm problems, respectively [4]. These algorithms were based
for the placement of bits in an entangled state. When entan- on the quantum Fourier transform. Furthermore, Grover’s algo-
gled qubits can persist in a correlated global state, even if phys- rithm and quantum counting were developed to concentrate on
ically apart. As a result, all qubits in an entangled state can searching unstructured databases for marked entries and gener-
have their characteristics changed even if only one of them is alised searches, respectively. Both of these algorithms were cre-
probed. When used for dense coding or quantum simulation of ated based on amplitude amplification, which is a robust strat-
linked networks, entanglement becomes a valuable asset [31]. egy to make quantum computers capable of solving challenges
Measurement is the last stage of a quantum computation; it quickly and effectively that might be impossible to solve with
collapses the stochastic quantum state into a deterministic state. traditional approaches. Numerous quantum algorithms rely on
Although quantum algorithms typically guarantee that the cor- this, such as those for quantum machine learning, quantum sim-
rect outcome has the highest likelihood, the stochastic nature of ulation, and quantum search. Finally, a quantum approximate
the process cannot guarantee that the correct outcome is actu- optimisation approach centered on the solution of graph the-
ally sampled. Therefore, some classical post-processing (such ory issues has been recently proposed [33]. This approach is
as majority voting or statistical estimation) is usually needed to built on a hybrid quantum/classical scheme. From a founda-
produce a final output from the raw results obtained with the tional point of view, all software-related aspects are based on
quantum computer. two different computational models, which determine some dif-
ferences in the programming paradigms as well as in applica-
tions and technical aspects: the quantum gate [34] and quantum
2. Quantum Algorithms annealing models [35]. The gate model uses quantum gates to
perform operations on qubits. These gates manipulate qubits
A quantum computer is based on the principles of quantum in a manner similar to classical logic gates, with the ability to
mechanics and uses these principles to its advantage. From their exploit quantum-related features such as entanglement and su-
origins in quantum physics models to many modern computer perposition. This is a universal computational model in which
science uses, quantum algorithms have come a long way [2]. the above-mentioned Shor’s and Grover’s algorithms can be im-
A highly coveted step towards attaining the processing capacity
3
plemented; hence, the applications based on this model have puting3 . To push their solutions, quantum developers often re-
the widest range. From a technical point of view, decoherence lease these frameworks with open-source licenses and with an
is the main problem, and error correction is the most required Application Programming Interface (API) in Python, which is
practice. On the other hand, quantum annealing is an approx- a language that is straightforward to learn. Quantum Anneal-
imate implementation of adiabatic quantum computing, which ing is following the same path, with a couple of “program-
is itself equivalent to the digital model, which seems to be a ming frameworks” — i.e., D-Wave Ocean Software and Leap
promising alternative to the gate model for solving large opti- — both provided by D-Wave. Recently, Fujitsu’s Digital An-
misation problems. This paradigm is based on the natural ten- nealer has been promising to bring quantum-inspired technol-
dency of quantum systems to find low-energy states. It relies ogy using traditional computing platforms [40].
on the natural quantum mechanical process of tunneling and
requires maintaining a coherent quantum state over the anneal- 4. Modern Cryptography: From Quantum to Post-
ing process. It is somewhat less sensitive to errors compared to Quantum
the gate model because it exploits the quantum system’s natu-
ral tendency to find a low-energy state, making it robust against The advent of quantum computers heralds the ground-
certain types of computational errors. breaking era within the realm of data integrity and cybersecu-
rity. With scalable computing power, quantum computers can
effortlessly break the security of traditional cryptosystems. Tra-
3. Technological Advances and Software Tools
ditional cryptosystems rely on factorization and discrete loga-
The invention of quantum software is an emerging yet rela- rithms, both of which are considered hard problems for classical
tively less developed subject compared to quantum modelling computers. However, quantum computers have efficient pro-
and quantum technology [36]. Several quantum applications cessing capabilities to solve these hard problems within poly-
are already accessible from various platforms/sources, includ- nomial time [41]. For example, an adversary can easily break
ing Google, IBM, Microsoft, and D-Wave. Quantum program- the RSA (Rivest-Shamir-Adleman) security in polynomial time
ming tools have been produced at an increasing pace; however, by exploiting Shor’s algorithm for factoring large numbers on
there is a lack of excellent programming tools, similar to con- a quantum computer, posing potential threats to the integrity
ventional programming languages like C++ and Java, and these of communication networks [42]. This potential breakthrough
applications are still rather low-level, like assembly-level lan- has led to the development of quantum cryptography based on
guages. A number of important areas have been identified in re- the principles of quantum physics. Quantum cryptography uses
cent research pertaining to software programs that use quantum polarization and bits designations methods to exchange data,
computing, including coding languages, programmers, error- where it first converts the data into bits and transfers the con-
correction firmware, physical level schedulers and optimisers, verted data into photons. Transmission of quantum keys, en-
logical level schedulers and optimisation techniques, and hard- cryption/decryption, signatures, authentication, and hashing are
ware control of software updates. Most important topics to all examples of cryptographic operations that fall under the um-
study in the field are [37, 38, 39]: (i) frameworks, semantics brella term “quantum cryptography” [41, 43]. Instead of us-
and compilation of programming language; (ii) workflows, con- ing conventional algorithms founded on arithmetic that uses
trolled and adjoint operations & clean and borrowed qubits and fewer resources and is easier to use, quantum security makes
(iii) simulators. Integrating quantum algorithms with defective use of the basic quantum principles (entanglement) [44]. Fur-
equipment effectively is the goal of powerful quantum error- thermore, since it is impossible to recreate the exact quantum
correcting firmware [37]. Located at the very bottom of the state of a set of qubits and the information encoded within it,
quantum computing stack, error-correcting quantum firmware it is significantly more difficult for an adversary to develop an
aids in lowering the error rate due to flawed hardware, as well attack since they would require continuous access [45]. This
as the intricacy and resource consumption of the system [38]. It also simplifies the implementation of snooping detection. Fur-
is envisaged that software managing quantum hardware would ther, quantum-based principles make novel approaches to net-
have outstanding performance, be able to use sophisticated work design and architecture possible. This approach, known
quantum management techniques, have top-quality effects at as quantum internet, promises security improvements through
the system level, be able to regulate for both global and local quantum authenticity, long- and short-distance entanglement,
optimal outcomes through simulation, and have adequate phys- improved data analysis driven by quantum computing acceler-
ical schedules [39]. At this date, notwithstanding the absence ated machine learning (ML), and quantum-specific anomaly de-
of a single programming framework/model able to overcome tection. Some of the methods used for anomaly detection focus
the others, there are different platforms for quantum computer on recognizing efficiency mismatches, detector blinding, detec-
programming, often provided and “tied” to the provided hard- tion system dead-time, beam-splitter, spatial mode, and eaves-
ware solutions. Among the most famous are: Qiskit (Quantum dropping [46].
Information Science Kit) — developed by IBM1 ; Cirq — de- 4.1 Quantum Key Distribution: Since quantum algorithms
veloped by Google2 ; and PyQuil — developed by Rigetti Com- (e.g., Shor’s) endanger the classical cryptographic key ex-
change techniques (e.g., Diffie–Hellman key exchange), the
1 https://www.ibm.com/quantum/qiskit
2 https://quantumai.google/cirq 3 https://github.com/rigetti/pyquil

4
Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) has been developed as a po- are being researched to design and implement quantum bits and
tential remedy to resist quantum attacks. QKDs protocols are gates. Analog and digital methods are the two most common
always hybrid, i.e., they rely on both quantum and classical ways to physically build a quantum computer. The preservation
communications to implement a virtually impenetrable crypto- of qubit states owing to decoherence is a major obstacle to the
system that promises to protect the privacy of communication building of error-free large quantum computers. The complex-
even against attacks conducted by quantum computers. An es- ity of quantum circuits needed to tackle real-world issues could
sential tenet of such an approach to encryption is roothed in be substantial, leading to deleterious cumulative error rates, re-
quantum physics and takes the shape of the no-cloning theo- gardless of error rates attained below 1% [50]. For this rea-
rem [47], which asserts that a flawless replica of arbitrary (i.e. son, the correction of quantum errors is currently a hot topic
non-orthogonal) quantum states cannot be created without cor- of academic interest. On October 23, 2019, Google Quantum
rupting the probed quantum states. That means that any effort AI and NASA announced a demonstration of quantum com-
to gain insight into such non-orthogonal quantum states, used to putation that would take a long time on any typical traditional
encode information, would results in the introduction of noise computer [15]. The successful resolution of a realistic everyday
that can be readily identified by either the key distributor or the issue on a quantum computer is anticipated to necessitate much
recipient (the parties, conventionally Alice and Bob). Such a more research, despite the fact that this study accomplished an
mechanism allows the parties to quantify the amount of infor- important step for the current batch of quantum computers. Im-
mation potentially eavesdropped during the quantum communi- portantly, IBM scientists demonstrated that identical computa-
cation, and then apply classical protocols of error correction and tion can be executed far more efficiently on a conventional su-
privacy amplification that can reduce the eavesdropper’s knowl- percomputer [51].
edge on the shared key to a negligible amount. This second part 5.1 Super-fast Quantum Machines: The “quantum
of the cryptosystem is usually called classical communication supremacy” of quantum machines over conventional comput-
phase phase. ers proves that the former can do very computationally inten-
4.2 Post-Quantum Cryptography: Conventionally, the sive jobs on a conventional computer far more quickly. In the
security of classical cryptographic primitives (e.g., RSA, quantum world, “quantum advantage” is an additional impor-
Diffie–Hellman, etc.) depends on the hard problems of dis- tant phrase. A more realistic concept would be “quantum ad-
crete arithmetic, prime factorization of integers, and elliptic- vantage”, which deals with solving a practical, real-world issue
curve discrete logarithms. Sadly, these present-day crypto- that cannot be effectively addressed on a traditional computer,
graphic primitives based on such hard problems might theo- as opposed to the theoretical “quantum supremacy” that would
retically be solvable in a brief span of time using the possible imply resolving a challenging issue on any conventional proces-
applications of quantum computers. The imminent attacks of sor [2]. Quantum superiority has been shown, but finding real-
quantum algorithms posed on conventional cryptographic pro- world problems that quantum computers can effectively tackle
tocols have promoted a sense of urgency in designing alterna- remains an unexplored field of study mainly due to the decoher-
tive schemes to mitigate quantum attacks. Such alternatives are ence of quantum bits. Most of the current generation of quan-
generally characterized as post-quantum cryptography (PQC). tum computers is cumbersome and underpowered due to the
These schemes can effectively deal with prevalent challenges materials used, which must be maintained at superconducting
triggered by quantum adversaries. This leads many to wonder (extremely low) temperatures; yet, the promise of prospective
about post-quantum cryptography [48]. The protocols used in commercial quantum computers is undeniable [52]. The cur-
post-quantum cryptography may generally be grouped into five rent popularity of traditional computers and their meteoric rise
types: code-based, hash-based, lattice-based, multifaceted, and in the 1950s provide the impetus for the possible advantages of
supersingular curve-elliptic isogeny schemes [11]. industrial quantum computers. Older classical computers were
Threatening the security of encrypted defense data, quantum cumbersome and required constant cooling, just like modern
computing’s greater processing capabilities expose prospective quantum computers. We may theoretically expect strong com-
shortcomings in present encryption techniques. The “harvest mercial quantum systems to attain “quantum advantage” in the
now, decrypt later” approach is authentic since it allows attack- not-too-distant future, much as the Artificial Intelligence (AI)
ers to store encrypted material until decryption technology is concept began to take shape during the initial stages of tradi-
more advanced [49]. Since the seriousness of its failures de- tional computing devices, even though these machines couldn’t
termines how willing it is to take risks, the military industry have possibly handled the computations needed for AI [53].
cannot afford to ignore or minimize risk. 5.2 Quantum Computers for Business World: The goal
of cryptanalysis is to uncover the hidden features of a database.
5. High-Scalability Quantum Computers To decipher encrypted messages, it is necessary to bypass their
cryptographic safeguards [11]. To encrypt data transmission
Although quantum technology as a whole began in the 1980s, with banking as well as additional network nodes, one com-
most scientists didn’t see industrial quantum computers as fea- mon method is the RSA algorithm [54]. If a massively error-
sible until the end of the 1990s [31]. Several competitors, in- corrected quantum machine could be built, the quantum tech-
cluding academics and industrial engineers from throughout the nique that Shor created in 1994 might theoretically crack the
world, have worked individually to construct the components of operational RSA encryption. This highlights the necessity
a robust quantum computer. Various potential material systems for the development of post-quantum algorithms for encryp-
5
tion that are resilient against commercial quantum computers. utilised, its starting state must be established, and gates and
These days, many major companies place a premium on effec- networks must also be developed. Even though photons main-
tive search strategies and the ability to effectively filter through tain their coherent state for an extended period of time, it is
massive datasets. When compared to conventional algorithms difficult to construct quantum circuits using them. Companies
in terms of query complexity, Grover’s optimum quantum al- like IBM, Google, Rigetti, and others are building quantum
gorithm from 1996 may significantly accelerate search across machines using quantum circuits based on superconductivity.
huge amounts of data [55]. Modern database management sys- Unfortunately, there is still a need to develop strategies for er-
tems like Oracle aren’t robust enough to handle Grover’s al- ror correction or moderation due to the poor fidelity of these
gorithm in the actual world; hence, new software that mimics qubits, especially in two-qubit operations. If your quantum cir-
Oracle’s functionality in the quantum realm is required [56]. cuit utilises five or fewer qubits, you may build and operate it
Approximation, rather than precision, is used to solve equa- on IBM’s five-qubit cloud processor, which was made publicly
tions in many branches of computer research, including nu- available in 2016. In addition to their newly revealed 433-qubit
merical weather forecasting and mathematical chemistry. In a quantum computer, IBM now provides cloud usage of quantum
weather/climate forecasting model, for instance, the parame- machines with up to 65 qubits.
terisation approaches employed to simulate sub-grid-level phe- 5.5 Presently Accessible Infrastructure: In 2016, IBM un-
nomena are a direct result of the computing limitations [19]. veiled its five-qubit IBM Quantum Experience quantum com-
The propagation of inaccuracies in the system of equation solu- puter [57]. Along with the system’s release, a user manual and
tions brought about by these approximate parameterisations can an interactive chat were made available. Rights to engage via
have an impact on the decision-making process. Using com- quantum assembly language, a user-friendly interface, and a
mercially available quantum machines, we may be able to solve simulation extension were among the many features introduced
the equations exactly. In order to enhance the existing pro- to the IBM Quantum Experience later in 2017 [58]. After that,
duction process, which has a significant carbon footprint, this IBM released Qiskit, a tool that enhanced quantum processor
might shed light on how various chemicals are used to man- coding. In addition, they established the quantum awards pro-
ufacture fertilisers. Quantum mechanical phenomena, chemi- gram and created a system with sixteen qubits. Superconduct-
cal engineering, transpiration, superconductors, and magnetics ing qubits housed in a dilution refrigerator constitute the hard-
may all be exploited with the help of commercial quantum ma- ware of IBM’s quantum computers. The quantum composer
chines [56]. Investigation at the concept level has begun utilis- is the name of the application’s user interface (GUI) that con-
ing accessible, comparatively less powerful quantum comput- sumers engage with. When writing quantum assembly code,
ers, even though a scalable industrial quantum computer has quantum composer is the tool of choice. Quantum experiments
yet to be developed and may require substantial additional re- and algorithms may be more easily developed with the help of
search. A beryllium hydride molecule was recently simulated the GUI. One can also choose to use a simulator instead of a
on a seven-qubit quantum processor by IBM [17]. In the future, real Quantum Processing Unit (QPU). To run quantum compu-
a number of applications are anticipated to gain popularity, in- tations through their paces, Rigetti Computing provides a For-
cluding real-time consumer and transportation modelling, med- est framework as a cloud-based quantum computing utility. A
ical diagnosis by rapid database comparison, and power supply quantum processor from Forest has over 36 qubits, and it is pos-
and demand balancing. However, the creation of commercial sible to utilize Python to do hybridized conventional and quan-
quantum computers will inevitably expose several other sectors tum computations. The European cloud computing provider
and applications to risks, including communications, vital in- QuTech offers the quantum platform Quantum Inspire as part of
frastructure, banking, the distributed ledger (blockchain), and its service offering. Without investing in or constructing a phys-
cryptocurrencies, among others. ical quantum computer, users can access the processing power
5.3 Commercial Quantum Computing Infrastructure of quantum algorithms using cloud-based quantum computing
Specifications: More than a hundred laboratories, including platforms.
those associated with the government and universities, are
working together on a global scale to develop, build, and moni- 6. Widening the Debate: New Trends and Potential Chal-
tor qubit systems [52]. Production of commercial quantum ma- lenges
chines is now underway at several big firms and a plethora of as-
piring start-ups. In addition to creating quantum bits and gates, In light of the current study, we have been able to pinpoint
a commercial quantum machine would also need complex clas- a number of topics in quantum computing that are still being
sical management and wiring, including cooling systems, user studied. Simulating complicated quantum processes has been
interfaces, networks, data storage capacities, and electromag- the focus of much study, and post-quantum cryptography is now
netic fields. at its pinnacle. Fig. 2 summarises the main findings and recom-
5.4 Scalable Commercial Quantum Computing Manufac- mendations that can be utilised by future researchers to further
turing Challenges: The biggest technical problem that needs quantum computing research. In the realm of quantum tech-
to be solved before an industrial-grade quantum machine can nology, new fields of study are taking shape, including automa-
be fully functional is noise or decoherence, which makes quan- tion, handling energy, computer security, decentralised quan-
tum processing mistakes (destroys entanglement of qubits) and tum computing, complicated mathematical chemistry and drug
stops quantum benefits from working. Until a qubit can be design [2]. It could take over a decade for these domains to
6
fully implement quantum computing when they are first intro- sufficient reliability to enable sustained quantum computation,
duced. People have unrealistically high hopes for isothermal iterative error mitigation is required [36]. To provide trustwor-
quantum computing, quantum management, and quantum se- thy service in the years to come, state-of-the-art AI/ML-based
curity. Assuming they fall within the ambit of quantum com- methods may be utilised for automatic error identification and
puting, their development is anticipated to take short time [59]. rectification on the fly [61]. Nonetheless, it results in additional
There has been an excess of optimism around several areas expenses for training AI/ML methods [62].
of quantum technology, including the Internet, error-corrected However, improving the dependability of computations does
quantum technology, digital information exploration, quantum- not only pass through more reliable hardware. In their seminal
aided AI, and quantum-based satellite communications [60]. work, Avižienis et al. [63] defines a taxonomy of dependable
We have uncovered several unanswered questions and potential computing reporting applicable countermeasures at hardware
avenues for further study, all of which are subject to ongoing and software levels. Software techniques to improve traditional
investigation on a worldwide scale. computations and to tolerate hardware faults are nowadays a
6.1 Technological and Developmental Challenges: The common practice in computer engineering. The challenges are
primary problem with quantum technology is its vulnerabil- to extend such software engineering practice to pursue highly
ity, which arises from two main sources: 1) the fact that some dependable quantum programs [64]; on the other hand, correct-
qubits have a very short coherence period (which is very qubit by-construction is still a valid aim of software engineering, also
technology dependent) since, due to their superconductivity, applied to quantum computing: the application to quantum of
they lose their data extremely often. 2) Developing a quan- model-driven engineering, formal modelling, advanced verifi-
tum computer with minimal errors is challenging since quan- cation and validation techniques are other future challenges to
tum processes are unreliable because of the relatively substan- deal with [58].
tial rate of errors needing a huge number of qubits for error han- 6.3 Quantum ML & QAI: The use of principal compo-
dling. Additionally, error correction in quantum technology is nent analysis, quantifying vectors, classifiers, regression, and
far more difficult than in conventional computing due to the fol- stochastic modelling are common tools used by machine learn-
lowing reasons: (a) quantum errors are ongoing (including the ing scientists. Using quantum computers to manage massive
two magnitudes and stages), (b) it is not possible to replicate un- datasets with gadgets ranging from 100 to 1000 qubits may
known quantum states, and (c) evaluation may degrade a quan- increase the effectiveness and scalability of AI methods. Ad-
tum state and erase the information in qubits. A large number ditionally, by rapidly creating and evaluating certain statisti-
of physical qubits are needed to execute a quantum algorithm cal distributions, including training in conventional and quan-
successfully; this necessitates a tight and constant link between tum generative algorithms, quantum computers might pique the
the classical structure and the quantum device, which in turn curiosity of the field of machine learning. As a result of the
creates a massive control burden. Additionally, the connection increasing amount of inputs (the number of participants) for
and overhead costs increase the complexity of the run-time con- quantum recommendation algorithms, it is becoming increas-
trol, design, and installation for quantum computing processes. ingly challenging to complete the task in a timely manner. Mil-
At the moment, the qubit count serves as a measure of quan- lions of qubits are required to deal with big datasets and present
tum computing equipment’s computational capacity. However, demand. By supplying computational power and other ma-
this metric is off by a significant margin, and it raises questions chine learning tasks, hybrid quantum-classical algorithms can
about the viability of supercomputer-level quantum machines overcome this challenge [56]. Limited qubit connection and
with over a thousand qubits. Qubit design necessitates an effi- increased decoherence in the qubits caused by the device’s in-
cient cooling component to manage heat, which AI-driven sys- trinsic noise are two additional important problems. The use of
tems may be able to do. This increases scalability and allows sophisticated AI/ML can improve scalability and provide addi-
for the solution of dynamically scaled, tricky issues. tional processing capacity to manage massive amounts of data
6.2 Resilient and Sustainable Quantum Modelling: Since produced by different Internet of Things (IoT) gadgets [65].
the actual application of quantum error mitigation remains a 6.4 Power Control and Management: Modern supercom-
matter of wide debate, it is difficult to achieve trustworthy and puters and cloud servers need a great deal of electrical power
fault-tolerant quantum computers. The sensitive nature of quan- to tackle various issues, making managing energy a major dif-
tum states necessitates operating bits at extremely cold tem- ficulty. When performing a specific activity, quantum comput-
peratures and requires highly precise manufacture [43]. Ac- ers are anticipated to use less energy compared in comparison.
curately measuring the full quantum state is similarly difficult, However, a quantum computer could consistently do massive
making verification a difficult task. When compared to con- computations with less power, cutting costs and reducing green-
ventional computing, the likelihood of calculation mistakes is house gases even more. It can find the best answer with the
much higher. Quantum structures cannot function properly least amount of energy because its qubits can represent both
without a reliable method of error correction. In order to fa- zeros and ones simultaneously for superposition (though entan-
cilitate better verification of exact manufacturing restrictions, glement or interference is also needed for computation), in con-
further reevaluation of quantum communication infrastructure trast to classical computers’ usage of binary bits (0 or 1). Quan-
is required. However, due to strict tolerances and the need to tum processors use less power since they operate at a shallow
prevent using poorly positioned qubits to minimise error, test- temperature, and because they are superconducting and have no
ing qubits after manufacture is a challenging task. To achieve resistance, they don’t generate any heat [56]. The two halves of
7
 Quantum
- Statistical Modelling of Climate

Modelling
Computing

Climate
- Numerical weather predictions
- Global Warming and Carbon Neutrality

Figure 2: New Trends and Potential Challenges in Quantum Computing.

an integrated application are the extremely energetic and low- quired [43]. Furthermore, decoherence results from qubit in-
energy components. Classical computing uses the cloud to ex- teractions with their environments due to the fragility of qubits
ecute the low-energy part, whereas quantum computing han- and the gradual loss of qubit-to-environment information [66].
dles the high-energy portion [56]. Therefore, hybrid comput- Quantum computing has additional difficulties with efficient
ing, which combines quantum and conventional computing, can data transformation due to long-distance entanglement disper-
address these types of challenges since it significantly reduces sion. It will be more difficult in the eventual quantum Internet
energy consumption and expenses. To address the most diffi- to save the specifics of processes executed, which is a major
cult business issues of the present, further research is required drawback of current quantum computing systems that rely on
prior to using hybrid computing. Utilising AI, quantum com- massive amounts of storage for processing and connectivity.
puters are capable of improving processing speed, dependabil- 6.6 The Robotics View of Quantum: Robots employ
ity, and confidentiality [61]. However, this comes at a cost—a Graphics Processing Units (GPUs) to tackle computationally
tremendous quantity of energy is required to power them and heavy problems in industries like pharmaceuticals, logistics,
manage their temperature with cooling devices. Renewable en- encryption, and banking, whereby the addition of quantum
ergy sources, in conjunction with brown power, will be able to computing may significantly accelerate computations. Robots
provide the energy needs for such quantum computers in the powered by quantum technology may also use cloud-based
decades to come. quantum computing resources to address a variety of prob-
6.5 Quantum Web/Internet: The advent of the quantum lems [56]. Modern industrial robots with improved sensing ca-
Internet has greatly improved computing power and opened pabilities, made possible by quantum computing, may detect
the door for novel forms of communication, paving the way many jet engine problems simultaneously [52]. In addition,
for decentralised quantum computing. The usage of quan- by making use of two essential aspects of quantum comput-
tum mechanics principles introduces a number of difficulties ing—parallelism and entanglement—quantum image process-
in the development of the quantum Internet, the most signifi- ing aids in the optimal understanding of visual knowledge as
cant of which are the prohibitions on replication, quantum mea- well as the efficient preservation and management of image
surement, teleportation, and entanglement. A basic premise data. Robots powered by AI are solving a wide range of is-
of conventional computing—the error-control mechanism—is sues by mining graphs for hidden insights, but the complex-
now completely irrelevant in the context of quantum comput- ity grows exponentially as data sets get larger. By utilising
ing. In order to build the quantum Internet, a radical change quantum random walks rather than graph search, quantum com-
from the current classical approach to networking design is re- puting is able to decrease performance. In addition, quantum
8
neural networks may improve machine activities and detect in- coordination with vital infrastructure, rescue services, mobile
stances of joint friction and motion, two additional major kine- Internet financial services, and distance learning. Additionally,
matics concerns. This means they can handle mechanical and various methods can be chosen to hasten the transfer.
robotic movements as well. In addition, there is another difficult 6.9 Statistical Modelling of Future Climate: Improve-
challenge that may be tackled using quantum algorithms: de- ments in computerised weather forecasting abilities occurred
termining why there is a discrepancy between the predicted and in the 1950s concurrently with the introduction of classical
observed behaviours. The potential applications of quantum- computers. Forecasts for the climate have come a long way
reinforced learning might optimise robotic machine motion by in the years since, though. Though advancements in software
addressing issues like joint friction and instances of inertia. and hardware have accelerated this trend, the use of bits, or
6.7 Simulations for Advanced Quantum Research: In 0s and 1s, as the building blocks of conventional computers
the near future, small-scale ”quantum simulators” with 50–100 has stymied progress. Highly powerful computers are con-
qubits of computing power may be accessible, allowing quan- structed by stacking conventional computers to handle the mas-
tum computers to model complicated biological, physical, and sive amounts of computation that are needed. Every day, these
chemical issues [56]. To comprehend and utilise quantum tech- supercomputers crunch numbers to predict what the planet’s at-
nology, it is necessary to combine the knowledge of several ex- mosphere, seas, and land will do. For practical uses in soci-
perts with the essentials of conventional computing [53]. In ety, such as flood projections, metropolitan modelling, under-
addition, quantum simulators can mimic the natural system ground flow modelling, and related complicated tasks, today’s
and solve complicated issues in a controlled environment, al- advanced forecasts require significant improvements [19]. The
lowing researchers to study the interplay of several parame- current state of computing power has impeded these advance-
ters—questions that would be impossible to accomplish us- ments. The future global computer systems might be able to
ing conventional or supercomputer systems. When developing operate at significantly greater temporal and spatial detail if
quantum computers, simulators can make use of entanglement commercial quantum computers become feasible. Numerical
and superposition, two of their key features [58]. To conduct weather forecasts using quantum computers require careful in-
large-sized and complicated operations connected to biology vestigation. Since conventional computers’ constraints gen-
and chemistry with optimum outcomes, the scalability of simu- erate inaccurate, high-resolution forecasts, numerical weather
lations needs to be increased in the future. forecasting can benefit from quantum computing. With the pro-
6.8 Modern Cryptography: Cryptography is essential for cessing capability of traditional computers being a constraint,
the safety of Internet communication, embedded medical equip- the scientific objective is to solve complicated partial differen-
ment, and services. However, once big quantum computers tial equations on the three-dimensional in natural spherical air
are available, they will compromise the several commonly em- and sea.
ployed cryptosystems. Cryptographic algorithms, often known 6.10 Quantum Cloud Computing: With the eventual
as public-key algorithms, are referred to as post-quantum cryp- widespread availability of robust quantum computers, uncon-
tography. With post-quantum cryptography, it is presumed that ditionally secured quantum cloud computing has the potential
the assailant used a massive quantum computer to launch the to play a significant role in a range of practical applications
assault, and these systems adapt to remain safe in this sce- [4]. It could become considerably easier for the customer’s
nario [11]. Authenticity and secrecy must be preserved in post- work if there were a few strong quantum-computer nodes in
quantum cryptography in order to thwart various assaults. Gen- the cloud. In order to transmit their work and related qubits,
erally speaking, six methods—symmetric key quantum resis- clients would have to interact with quantum servers using a
tance, code-based, hash-based, multifaceted, and lattice-based quantum connection. There have been attempts to prove blind
encryption—are the primary focus of post-quantum cryptogra- quantum computing through experimentation, in which quan-
phy investigation. Finding the correct places to include agility tum servers are unaware of the inputs, delegations, calcula-
is a different issue within post-quantum cryptography. So, it’s tions, or outputs [20]. The ubiquitous and potent quantum clus-
important to design ulterior systems with the ability to antici- ters have stymied these advancements. Methods for error-free
pate potential security issues. In addition, new automated tech- quantum encryption, digital encryption basic concepts, and key
niques for fault detection and adaptive fixation during runtime distribution in a quantum cloud computing setting, as well as
are required for the validation and testing of designs [5]. A fur- quantum approaches for gaining control in the cloud, are all
ther unresolved issue is the necessity to integrate agility into covered in the following works: cryptographic verification of
old programs in order to reconfigure existing equipment with quantum computing, fault-tolerant secure quantum computa-
security protocols. Research in the future should focus on de- tions. Finally, in order to implement widespread quantum com-
veloping code-based systems that are more secure and produce puting on a massive scale, research into a safe and effective
results with less latency. As a result, research into the relative quantum cloud computing platform is essential. Additionally,
merits of latency, security, and data throughput is essential. Our the quantum computing industry will benefit from using clouds
goal is to achieve high processing and communication speeds as a means of storing, processing, and disseminating informa-
while maintaining security. There has to be the formalisation tion [58]. To overcome issues with network speed and latency
of several standards in order to accommodate the shift to post- that arise during the running of tiny activities in these systems,
quantum cryptography in applications that operate in real-time. fog/edge computing is a viable solution [62]. The concept of
Understanding post-quantum method options is necessary for blockchain may also be applied to the provision of reliable and
9
safe services [31]. Acknowledgements
Summary of Findings and Take-Aways: There are sev-
eral unanswered questions and some good ideas for where to Ji Liu acknowledges support from the DOE-SC Office of Ad-
go from here. To date, it has been unclear how to combine vanced Scientific Computing Research AIDE-QC project under
these performance features into a single quantum computing contract number DE-AC02-06CH11357.
approach. In order to construct a quantum computer capable of
concurrent activities, a quantum computing approach that en-
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