CHAPTER 11

ELECTRICITY
1. Charge: It is an inherent property of the body due to which the body feels
attractive and repulsive forces.There are two types of electric charges:
(i) Positive and (ii) Negative
(ii) Like charges are repelling each other.
(iii) Unlike charges attract each other.
2. Conductors and insulators: Those substances through which electricity can flow
are calledconductors. All the metals like silver, copper, aluminiumetc. are
conductors.
Those substances through which electricity cannot flow are calledinsulators. Glass,
ebonite, rubber, most plastics, paper, dry wood, etc., are insulators.
3. Electrostatic potential: The electrostatic potential at any point is defined as the
work done inbringing a unit positive charge from infinity to that point. Potential is
denoted by the symbol V and its unit is volt. A potential of one volt at a point means
that 1 joule of work is done in bringing 1 unit positive charge from infinity to that
point.
4. PotentialDifference: The amount of work done in moving unit positive charge
from one pointto another in an electric field is known as potential difference.
Potential difference = Work done/Quantity of charge transferred
If a W joule of work has to be done to transfer Q coulombs of charge from one
point to another point, then the potential difference V between the two points is
given by the formula:
Potential difference, V = W/Q
The SI unit of potential difference is volt (V).
1 volt: One volt is defined as the potential difference between two points in a
current carrying conductor when 1 joule of work is done to move a charge of 1
coulomb from one point to another.Therefore, 1 volt = 1joule/ 1 coulomb
5. Voltmeter: The potential difference is measured by means of an instrument called
voltmeter. The voltmeter is connected in parallel across the points where the
potential difference is measured. A voltmeter has high resistance.
6. Electric Current: The electric current is the rate of flow of electric charges (called
electrons) in a conductor.
If a charge of Q coulombs flows through a conductor in time t seconds, then the
magnitude I of the electric current flowing through it is given by
Current, I = Q/t
The SI unit of electric current is ampere and it is denoted by the letter A. Electric
current is a scalar quantity.
7. Ammeter: Current is measured by an instrument called ammeter. The ammeter is
connected in series with the circuit in which the current is to be measured. An
ammeter should have very lowinternal resistance.
8. Voltaic Cell: It is one of the earliest devices which are capable of providing a
continuous flow of electric current. It is used for converting chemical energy into
electricalenergy. It was invented by Volta in the year 1800.
9. Ohm's Law: At constant temperature, the current flowing through a conductor is
directly proportional to the potential difference across its ends. If 1 is the current
flowing through a conductorand V is the potential difference across its ends. Then
according to Ohm’s law
I𝖺V
This can also-be written as:
V𝖺 I
V = IR
Where R is a constant called 'resistance' of the conductor. The value of this
constant depends on the nature, length, area of cross-section and temperature of
the conductor.
10. Resistance of a Conductor: The property of a conductor due to which it opposes
the flow of current through it is called resistance. The resistance of a conductor is
numerically equal to ratio of potential difference across its ends to the current
flowing through it. i.e.
Resistance =Potential difference/Current
R = V/I
The SI unit of resistance is ohm, which is denoted by symbol Ω.
1 ohm: If V = 1 volt, I = I ampere, then
R = 1 volt/1 ampere= 1 ohm
Thus, the resistance of a conductor is said to be 1 ohm if 1 ampere current flows
throughthe conductor when a potential difference of 1 volt is applied across it.
11. Factors affecting the Resistance of a Conductor: The resistance of the conductor
depends:
(i) on its length,
(ii) on its area of cross-section
(iii) on the nature of its material.
12. Resistivity: It has been found by the experiments that:
(i) The resistance of a given conductor is directly proportional to its length.
R 𝖺 l ………(i)
(ii) The resistance of a given conductor is inversely proportional to its area
ofcross-section.
R 𝖺1/A …….(ii)
 By combining the equations (i) and (ii),
R 𝖺l/A
R = 𝜌 (l/A)
Where 𝜌is called specific resistance or resistivity of the conductor.
When l = 1m, A = 1m2, we have 𝜌 = R
Thus, the resistivity of a conductor is the resistance of unit length and unit
area of cross-section of the conductor. The SI unit of resistivity is ohm metre
(Ωm).
13. Combination of Resistance: The resistance can be combined in two ways:
(i) In series
(ii) In parallel
(i) Resistance in series:

In series, the total potential difference,

V = V1 + V2 + V3 …….(i)
Applying Ohm’s law to the entire circuit
V = IR ……(ii)
Applying Ohm’s law to each resistance separately, we have
V1 = IR1; V2 = IR2; V3 = IR3 ….(iii)
From equations (i), (ii) and (iii), we have
IR = IR1 + IR2 + IR3
R = R1 + R2 + R3

(ii) Resistance in parallel:

In parallel, the total current:

I = I1 + I2 + I3 …….(i)
Applying Ohm’s law to the entire circuit
I = V/R ……(ii)
 Applying Ohm’s law to each resistance separately, we have
I1 = V/R1; I2 = V/R2; I3 = V/R3 ….(iii)
From equations (i), (ii) and (iii), we have
V/R = V/R1 + V/R2 + V/R3
1/R = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3
14. Electric Power: The rate at which work is done by an electric current is known as
electric power.
Power = Work done/Time
P = W/t = (V x Q)/t …..(i)
The work done by current I when it flows for time t under a potential difference V
is given by:
W = V x I x t joules [Because W = VQ and Q = It]
Putting the value of W in equation (i), we have
P = (V x I x t)/t = VI
P = I2R [Because V = IR]
P = V2/R [Because I = V/R]
The unit of electric power is watt.
Power = V x I
1 watt = 1 volt x 1 ampere
Thus, if a potential difference of 1 volt causes a current of 1 ampere to flow
through a wire, the electrical power consumed is one watt.

15. Electrical Energy:

Electrical energy = Power x Time
E=Pxt
The electrical energy consumed by an electrical appliance depends upon
(i) Powerrating of the appliance
(ii) Time for which it (appliance) is used.
The SI unit of electrical energy is joule.
1joule is the amount of electrical energy consumed when an appliance of 1 watt
is used for 1 second.

16. Commercial Unit of Electrical Energy: Kilowatt hour is the commercial unit of
electrical energy. One kilowatt hour is the electrical energy consumed when an
electrical appliance having 1kW power rating is used for 1 hour.
Energy used = Power x Time
1 kWh = 1 kW x lh
= 1000 w x 60 x 60s
= 1000 Js-l X 3600 s
 = 3600000 J= 3.6 x 106 J
17. Heating Effect of Current: When an electric current is passed through a high
resistance wire, it becomes very hot and produces heat. This effect is called the
heating effect of current.
When an electric charge Q moves against a potential difference V, the amount
of work done is given by,
W=Qx V ……(i)
But, current, I = Q/t
Q = I xt
From Ohm's law: V = I x R
Now, putting all these values in equation (i), we have
Work done, W = 12 x R x t
This work done is converted into heat energy for maintaining the flow of current
I through the conductor for t second.
Heat produced, H = 12 x R x t joules.
18. Applications Of Heating Effect of Current:
(i) In electrical heating appliances: All electrical heating appliances are based
on heating effect of current. For example, appliances, such as electric iron,
water heaters and geysers, room heaters, toaster, hot plates are fitted
with heating coils made of high resistance wire such as nichrome wire.
(ii) Electric filament bulb: The use of electric filament bulbs (ordinary electric
bulbs) is also based on the heating effect of current. Inside the glass shell
of electric bulb there is a filament. This filament is made from a verythin
high bulb resistance tungsten wire. When current flows through this
filament, it gets heated up. Soon, it becomes white hot and starts emitting
light.