FUNCTION

Qyu

1. Numbers and their sets/la[;k,a ,oa muds leqPp;

(i) Natural Numbers/izkd`r la[;k,a: N = {1, 2, 3, 4, …}
(ii) Whole Numbers/iw.kZ la[;k,a: W = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, …}
(iii) Integer Numbers/iw.kkZad la[;k,a: 1 or Z = {…, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3,…}
Z+ = {1, 2, 3, …}, Z- = {-1, -2, -3, …}
Z0 = {±1, ±2, ±3, …}
(iv) Rational Numbers/ifjes; la[;k,a: Q = {p/q; p, q ∈ 𝑧, 𝑞 ≠ 0}
(v) Irrational Numbers/vifjes; la[;k,a: The numbers which are not rational or which cannot be written in
the form of p/q, called irrational numbers
os la[;k,a tks ifjes; u gks vFkkZr~ p/q :i ls u fy[kh tk lds vifjes; la[;k,a dgykrh gSaA
eg. {√2, √3, 21/3 , 51/4 , 𝜋, 𝑒, … }
2. Interval/ vUrjky
(i) Close interval/lao`r vUrjky [a, b] = {x, a ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏}
(ii) Open interval/foo`r vUrjky (a, b) or ]a, b[ x = {x, a < x < b}
(iii) Semi open or semi close interval/v)Z foo`r ;k v)Z lao`r vUrjky
[a, b[ or [a, b) = {x; a ≤ x < b}
]a, b] or (a, b] = {x; a < x ≤b}
3. Function/Qyu
Domain/izkUr = All possible values of x for which f(x) exists./x ds lHkh laHko eku ftuds fy, f(x) fo|eku gksA
Range/ifjlj = For all values of x, all possible values of f(x)./x ds lHkh ekuksa ds fy, f(x) ds lHkh laHko ekuA
Domain/izkUr = {a, b, c, d} = A
Co-domain/lg&izkUr = {p, q, r, s} = B
Range/ifjlj = {p,q,r}
4. Even function/leQyu
If we put (-x) in place of x in the given function and if f(-x) = f(x)./ ;fn Qyu f(x) esa x ds LFkku ij -x j[kus ij dksbZ ifjorZu
u gks vFkkZr~ f(-x) = f(x)
5. Odd function/fo’ke Qyu
If we put (-x) in place of x in the given function and if f (-x) = - f(x)./ ;fn Qyu f(x) esa x ds LFkku ij -x j[kus ij f(x) dk
fpUg ijofrZr gks tk;s vFkkZr~ f (-x) = - f(x)
6. Properties of even and off Function/le ,oa fo’ke Qyu ds xq.k/keZ
(i) The product of two even functions is even function./ nks leQyuksa dk xq.kk leQyu gksrk gSA
(ii) The sum and difference of two even functions is even function.
nks leQyuksa dk ;ksx ,oa vUrj leQyu gksrk gSA
(iii) The sum and difference of two odd functions is odd function.
nks fo’ke Qyuksa dk ;ksx ,oa vUrj fo’ke Qyu gksrk gSA
(iv) The product of two odd functions is even function.
nks fo’ke QYuksa dk xq.kk leQyu gksrk gSA
(v) The product of an even and an odd function is odd function.
,d le ,oa ,d fo’ke Qyu dk xq.kk fo’ke Qyu gksrk gSA
(vi) The sum of even and odd function is neither even nor odd function.
le ,oa fo’ke Qyu dk ;ksx uk gh le vkSj uk gh fo’ke Qyu gksrk gSA
7. Increasing Function/o/kZeku Qyu
A function f(x) is called increasing function in the domain D if the value of the function does not decrease
by increasing the value of x./ Qyu f(x) vius izkUr D esa o/kZeku dgykrk gS ;fn x dk eku c<kus ij Qyu dk eku ?kVs ughaA
8. Decreasing Function/ áleku Qyu
A function f(x) is said to be decreasing function in the domain D if the value of the function does not increase
by increasing the value of x (variable).
Qyu f(x) vius izkUr D esa áleku Qyu dgykrk gS ;fn x dk eku c<kus ij Qyu dk eku c<s ughaA
9. Periodic Function/vkorhZ Qyu
 (i) If function f(x) has period T then/;fn Qyu f(x) dk vkorZ T gks] rc
(a) f(nx) has period T/n / f(nx) dk vkorZukad T/n
(b) f(x/n) has period nT/ f(x/n) dk vkorZukad nT.
𝑇 𝑇
(c) f(ax + b) has period / f(ax + b) dk vkorZukad gksxkA
|𝑎| |𝑎|
10. Kinds of functions/Qyuksa ds izdkj
(i) One-one Function or Injection/,dSdh Qyu&Qyu: A function f : A → B is said to be one-one if different
elements of A have different images in B./ f : A → B ,dSdh Qyu dgykrk gS ;fn leqPp; A ds fHkUu fHkUu vo;oksa ds B
esa fHkUu fHkUu izfrfcEc gksaA
(ii) Many-one Function/cgq,dSdh Qyu&Qyu: A function f : A → B is called many-one, if two or more
different elements of A have the same f-image in B./ f : A → B cgq,dSdh Qyu dgykrk gS ;fn leqPp; A ds nks ;k
vf/kd fHkUu vo;oksa ds leku f izfrfcEc leqPp; B esa gksA
(iii) Onto Function or surjection/vkPNknd Qyu&Qyu : A function f : A → B is onto if the each element of B
has its pre-image in A./ f : A → B vkPNknd Qyu gksxk ;fn B ds izR;sd vo;o dk iwoZ izfrfcEc A esa fo|eku gks
(iv) Into Function/vUr{ksiZ h Qyu: A function f : A → B is into if there exist atleast one element in B which
is not the f-image of any element in A. In other words, range of f ≠ co-domain of f/,d Qyu f : A → B
vUr{ksiZ h dgykrk gS ;fn leqPp; B esa de ls de ,d ,slk vo;o fo|eku gks tks fd leqPp; A ds fdlh Hkh vo;o dk f izfrfcEc u gksA bl
izdkj leqPp; B dk de ls de ,d vo;o bl izdkj gks fd f-1 (y) ∅ rks Qyu vUr{ksiZ h gksxkA nwljs “kCnksa es]a Qyu f dk ifjlj ≠ Qyu f dk
lgizkUr
(v) One-one onto Function or bijection/,dSdh vkPNknd Qyu: A function f is said to be one-one onto if f is
one-one and onto both./ Qyu f ,dSdh vkPNknd dgykrk gS ;fn f ,dSdh rFkk vkPNknd nksuksa gSA
(vi) One-one into Function/,dSdh vUr{ksiZ h Qyu: A function is said to be one-one into if f is one-one but not
onto./ ,d Qyu ,dSdh vUr{ksZih gksxk ;fn f ,dSdh gks ijUrq vkPNknd ugha gksA
(vii) Many one-onto Function/cgq,dSdh vkPNknd Qyu: A function f : A → B is many one-onto if f is onto but
not one one./ Qyu f : A → B cgq,dSdh vkPNknd dgykrk gS ;fn vkPNknd gS ijUrq ,dSdh ughaA
(a) f: R → R + ∪ {0}, f(x) = x2
(b) f : R → [ 0, ∞), f(x) = |x|
(viii) Many one-into function/cgq,dSdh vUr{ksiZ h: A function is said to be many one-into if it is neither one-one
nor onto./ Qyu f : A → B cgq,dSdh vUr{ksiZ h dgykrk gS ;fn ;g uk gh ,dSdh rFkk uk gh vkPNknd gksA
(a) f : R → R, f (x) = sin x
(b) f : R →R, f(x) = |x|
11. Inverse Function/izfrykse Qyu
If f : A → B be a one-one onto (bijection) function, then the mapping f -1 : B → A which associates each
element b ∈ B with element a ∈ A, such that f(a) = b, is called the inverse function of the function f : A → B,
f-1 : B → A, f-1 (b) = a ⇒ f(a) = b/ekuk f : A → B ,d ,dSdh vkPNknd Qyu gSA vc ge ,d Qyu f-1 : B → A bl izdkj ifjHkkf’kr djsa
fd B ds izR;sd vo;o b dk g izfrfcEc A esa gks vkSj ;g vius izfrykse vo;o f-1 (b) ds cjkcj gks] f-1 : B → A, f-1 (b) = a ⇒ f(a) = b
 LIMIT
lhek

1. Indeterminate form/vfu/kk;Z :i
∞
0 × ∞, 00 , 1∞ , ∞ − ∞, , ∞0 , 0/0
∞
2. Limits of a function/Qyu dh lhek
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙
𝑥→𝑎
For finding right hand limit of the function we write (x + h) in place of x while for left hand limit we write (x
– h) in place of x./Qyu dh nka;h ds fy, Qyu esa x dh txg (x + h) o ckW;h lhek ds fy, Qyu es x dh fy[krs gSaA
3. Existence of limit/lhek dk vfLrRo
The limit of a function at some point exists only when its left-hand limit and right hand limit at that point
exist and are equal./ Qyu f(x) dh fdlh fcUnq x = a ij lhek dsoy rHkh fo|eku gksxh tcfd ml fcUnq ij Qyu dh ckW;h ,oa nkW;h nksuksa lhek,a
fo|eku gks rFkk cjkcj gks vr%
lim 𝑓(𝑥)𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑠 ⇒ lim+ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
where l is called the limit of the function./ tgkW 𝑙 Qyu dh lhek dgykrh gSA
4. Theorems on limits/lhek ij izes;
The following theorems are very helpful for evaluation of limits-/lhek dh ifjdYiuk esa fuEu izes; dkQh lgk;d jgrh gS&
(i) lim [𝑘 𝑓(𝑥)] = 𝑘 lim 𝑓(𝑥), 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑘 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
(ii) lim [𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)] = lim 𝑓(𝑥) + lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
(iii) lim [𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)] = lim 𝑓(𝑥) − lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
(iv) lim [𝑓(𝑥). 𝑔(𝑥)] = lim 𝑓(𝑥). lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
5. Properties of Logarithms
(i) logaMN = loga M + loga N
𝑀
(ii) loga = loga M – loga N
𝑁
(iii) loga 𝑁 𝛼 = 𝛼 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑁
𝛼
(iv) 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎𝛽 𝑁 𝛼 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑁
𝛽
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑁
(v) loga 𝑁 =
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑎
6. Methods of evaluation limits/lhekvksa dh ifjdyu fof/k
(A) ‘L’ Hospital rule
𝑓 (𝑥) 0 ∞ 𝑓 (𝑥) 𝑓 ′(𝑥)
If lim is of the form, or , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 lim = lim
𝑥→𝑎 𝑔 (𝑥) 0 ∞ 𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑥→𝑎 𝑔′ (𝑥)
𝑓 (𝑥) 0 ∞ 𝑓 (𝑥) 𝑓 ′(𝑥)
;fn lim ds :i esa gks] ;k rks lim = lim
𝑥→𝑎 𝑔 (𝑥) 0 ∞ 𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑥→𝑎 𝑔′ (𝑥)
(B) By using some standard limits/dqN ekud lhek,a
sin 𝑥 𝑥
(i) lim = lim 1; lim sin 𝑥 = 0
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 sin 𝑥 𝑥→0
tan 𝑥 𝑥
(ii) lim = lim = 1; lim tan 𝑥 = 0
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 tan 𝑥 𝑥→0
𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑥
(iii) lim = lim =1
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 −1 𝑥
𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑥
(iv) lim = lim =1
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥
𝑎 𝑥
(v) lim (1 + ) = lim (1 + 𝑎𝑥)1/𝑥 = ea
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 𝑥→0
𝑎𝑥 − 1
(vi) lim = loge a
𝑥→0 𝑥
𝑒 𝑥− 1
(vii) lim =1
𝑥→0 𝑥
𝑥 𝑛 − 𝑎𝑛
(viii) lim = n an-1
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥−𝑎
log(1+𝑥)
(ix) lim =1
𝑥→0 𝑥
 (1+𝑥)𝑛 − 1
(x) lim =n
𝑥→0 𝑥
 DIFFERENTIATION
vodyu

1. Differential coefficient of some standard function/dqN ekud Qyuksa ds vody xq.kkad

𝑑
(i) (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡) = 0
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
(ii) (𝑎𝑥) = 𝑎
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
(iii) (𝑥 𝑛 ) = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
(iv) ex = ex
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
(v) (ax) = ax logea
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
(vi) (logex) = 1/x
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 1
(vii) (logax) =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 log 𝑎
𝑑
(viii) (sin 𝑥) = cos 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
(ix) (cos 𝑥) = − sin 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
(x) (tan 𝑥) = sec2x
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
(xi) (cot x) = - cosec2 x
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
(xii) (sec 𝑥) = sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
(xiii) (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥) = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 cot 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 1
(xiv) (sin-1x) =
𝑑𝑥 √1− 𝑥 2
𝑑 1
(xv) (cos-1 x) = −
𝑑𝑥 √1− 𝑥 2
𝑑 1
(xvi) (tan-1x) =
𝑑𝑥 1+ 𝑥 2
𝑑 1
(xvii) (cot-1 x) = −
𝑑𝑥 1+ 𝑥 2
𝑑 1
(xviii) (sec-1 x) = ,
𝑑𝑥 𝑥√𝑥 2 − 1
𝑑 1
(xix) (cosec-1 x) = −
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 √𝑥 2 − 1
2. Some theorems on Differentiation/vodyu ij dqN izes;
𝑑
Theorem/ize;
s I [kf(x)] = k d/dx [f(x)], where k is a constant/tgkW k ,d vpj jkf”k gSA
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
Theorem/ize;
s II [𝑓(𝑥). 𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝑓(𝑥) [𝑔(𝑥)] + 𝑔(𝑥) [𝑓(𝑥)]
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑔(𝑥)𝑑 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑
𝑑 𝑓(𝑥) −
𝑑𝑥[𝑓(𝑥)] 𝑑𝑥[𝑔(𝑥)]
Theorem/ize;
s III [ ]=
𝑑𝑥 𝑔(𝑥) [𝑔(𝑥)]2
Theorem/ize; s IV: Derivative of parametric equations./ izkpfyd lehdj.kksa ls vodyt
If x = ∅(𝑡), 𝑦 = 𝜑 (𝑡)𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑡
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥/𝑑𝑡
3. Differentiation by trigonometrically substitutions/f=dks.kferh; izfrLFkkiu }kjk vodyu
Some times before differentiation, we reduce the given function in a simple form using suitable
trigonometrically or algebraic transformations./dbZ ckj fn;s x, Qyu dks igys chth; ;k f=dks.kferh; lw=ksa dk iz;ksx djds ,d ljy
:i esa O;Dr dj ysrs gS
Function/Qyu Substitution/izfrLFkkiu
(i) √𝑎 2 − 𝑥 2 x = a sin 𝜃 or a cos 𝜃
(ii) √𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 x = a tan 𝜃 or a cot 𝜃
(iii) √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 x = a sec 𝜃 or a cosec 𝜃
 𝑎−𝑥
(iv) √𝑎+𝑥 x = a cos 2 𝜃

𝑎2 − 𝑥 2
(v) √ x2 = a2 cos 2 𝜃
𝑎2 + 𝑥 2

𝑥
(vi) √𝑎+𝑥 x = a tan2 𝜃

𝑥
(vii) √𝑎−𝑥 x = a sin2 𝜃

(viii) √(𝑥 − 𝑎)(𝑥 − 𝑏) x = a sec2 𝜃 − b tan2 𝜃

(ix) √(𝑥 − 𝑎)(𝑏 − 𝑥) x = a cos2 𝜃 + b sin2 𝜃
 TANGENT & NORMAL
Li”kZjs[kk ,oa vfHkyEc

1. Geometrical interpretation of the derivative/vodyt dh T;kferh; O;k[;k

𝑑𝑦
If y = f(x) be a given function, then the differential coefficient f’ (x) or at the point P (x1, y1) is the
𝑑𝑥
trigonometrical tangent of the angle 𝜑 (say) which the positive direction of the tangent to the curve at P
𝑑𝑦
makes with the positive direction of x-axis ( ), therefore represents the slope of the tangent./ekuk fd y = f(x)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
fn;k x;k Qyu gS bldk fdlh fcUnq P (x1, y1) ij vody xq.kkWd f’ (x) ;k ml dks.k dh Li”kZT;k ¼Li”kZ js[kk½ gS tks fd fcUnq P (x1, y1) ij Li”kZ
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
js[kk x v{k dh /ku fn”kk ds lkFk cukrh gSA vr% Li”kZT;k dh izo.krk dks fu:fir djrk gSA
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
f’(x) = ( ) = tan 𝜑
𝑑𝑥 (𝑥1 ,𝑦1 )
𝑑𝑦
(i) The inclination of tangent with x-axis = tan-1 ( )/Li”kZ js[kk dk v{k ds lkFk >qdko
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
(ii) Slope of tangent = /Li”kZ js[kk dh izo.krk =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
(iii) Slope of the normal = − / vfHkyEc dh izo.krk = −
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2. Equation of tangent/Li”kZjs[kk dk lehdj.k
Equation of tangent to the curve y = f(x) at A (x1, y1) is/oØ y = f(x) ds fdlh fcUnq A (x1, y1) ij Li”kZ js[kk dk lehdj.k
𝑑𝑦
y – y1 = ( ) (x – x1)
𝑑𝑥 (𝑥1 ,𝑦1 )
𝑑𝑦
(i) The tangent at (x1, y1) is parallel to x-axis ⇒ ( ) = 0/(x1, y1) ij Li”kZ js[kk x v{k ds lekUrj ⇒
𝑑𝑥 (𝑥1 ,𝑦1 )
𝑑𝑦
( ) =0
𝑑𝑥 (𝑥1 ,𝑦1 )
𝑑𝑦
(ii) The tangent at (x1, y1) is parallel to y-axis ⇒ ( ) = ∞/(x1, y1) ij Li”kZ js[kk x v{k ds lekUrj ⇒
𝑑𝑥 (𝑥1 ,𝑦1 )
𝑑𝑦
( ) =∞
𝑑𝑥 (𝑥1 ,𝑦1 )

3. Equation of Normal/vfHkyEc dh lehdj.k

The equation of normal at (x1, y1) to the curve y = f(x) is/ oØ y = f(x) ds fdlh fcUnq (x1, y1) ij vfHkyEc dk lehdj.k
1
(y – y1) = − 𝑑𝑦 (𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
( )
𝑑𝑥 (𝑥1 ,𝑦1 )

4. Angle of intersection of two curves/ nks oØksa dk izfrPNsn dks.k

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
If two curves intersect orthogonally i.e. at right angle then/;fn nksuksa oØ ledks.kh; dkVrs gksa rks ( ) . ( ) = −1
𝑑𝑥 1 𝑑𝑥 2

MONOTONICITY/,df’Vrk

Method of testing monotonicity/,dfn’Vrk dh ijh{k.k fof/k

(i) At a point x/,d fcUnq ij = a, function f(x) is/ Qyu f(x), x = a ij
Monotonic increasing/,dfn’V o/kZeku gS ⇒ f’(a) > 0
Monotonic decreasing/,dfn’V áleku gS ⇒ f’ (a) < 0
(ii) In an interval/vUrjky esa
A function f(x) defined in the interval [a, b] will be/Qyu f(x) vUrjky [a, b] esa
Monotonic increasing/,dfn’V o/kZeku ⇒ f’ (x) ≥ 0
Monotonic decreasing/,dfn’V áleku ⇒ f’(x) ≤ 0
Constant/vpj ⇒ f’(x) = 0 ∀ 𝑥 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏)
Strictly increasing/o/kZeku ⇒ f’(x) > 0
Strictly decreasing/áleku ⇒ f’’ (x) < 0
 MAXIMA & MINIMA
mfPp’B ,oa fufEu’B

1. Maximum & Minimum Points/mfPp’B ,oa fufEu’B fcUnq

(i) The maximum and minimum points are also known as extreme points./ mfPp’B rFkk fuEu’B fcUnqvksa dks pje fcUnq
dgrs gSaA
(ii) A function may have more than one maximum and minimum points/fdlh Qyu ds dbZ mfPp’B rFkk dbZ fufEu’B
fcUnq fo|eku gks ldrs gSaA
(iii) If a continuous function has only one maximum (minimum) point, then at this point function has its
greatest (least) value./;fn larr Qyu dk ,d gh mfPp’B fcUnq gks] rks bl fcUnq ij Qyu dk eku vf/kdre gksrk gksA
(iv) Monotonic functions do not have extreme points./,dfn’V Qyu dk dksbZ pje fcUnq ugha gksrkA
2. Conditions for Maxima & Minima of a function/Qyu ds mfP’B ,oa fufEu’B ds fy, izfrca/k
A. Necessary condition/vko”;d izfrca/k: A point x = a is an extreme point of a function f(x) if f’(a) = 0,
provided f’(a) exists. Thus if f’(a) exists then/fcUnq x = a Qyu f(x) dk ,d pje fcUnq gksrk gS ;fn f’(a)= 0 c”krsZ f’(a)
fo|eku gks] vr% ;fn f’(a) fo|eku gS] rks
x = a is an extreme point/,d pje fcUnq ⇒ f’(a) = 0
or f’(a) ≠ 0 ⇒ x = a is not an extreme point./ ,d pje fcUnq ugha

3. Properties of Maxima & minima/mfPp’B ,oa fufEu’B ds xq.k/keZ

(i) Between two equal values of f(x), there lie at least one maxima or minima./f(x) ds nks leku ekuksa ds e/; de ls
de ,d mfPp’B ;k fufEu’B eku fo|eku gksrk gSA
(ii) Maxima and minima occur alternately./ mfPp’B rFkk fufEu’B eku ,dkUrj Øe ls fo|eku gksrs gSaA
4. Some standard geometrical results related to Maxima & Minima/mfPp’B ,oa fufEu’B lacfa /kr dqN T;kferh; ekud
ifj.kke
(i) The area of rectangle with given perimeter is greatest when it is a square./ nh xbZ ifjfefr okys vk;r dk {ks=Qy
vf/kdre rc gksrk gS tcfd og ,d oxZ gksA
(ii) The perimeter of a rectangle with given area is least when it is a square./ fn, x, {ks=Qy ds vk;r dh ifjfefr
U;wure rc gksrh gS tcfd og ,d oxZ gksA
(iii) The greatest rectangle inscribed in a given circle is a square/fn, x, o`Ùk esa [khaps tkus okyk cMs ls cMk vk;r ,d oxZ
gksrk gSA
(iv) The greatest triangle inscribed in a given circle is a square./ fn, x, o`Ùk esa vf/kdre {ks=Qy dk f=Hkqt leckgq f=Hkqt
gksrk gSA
(v) The semi vertical angle of a cone with given slant height and maximum volume is tan -1 √2./ nh xbZ fr;Zd
ÅWpkbZ vkSj vf/kdre vk;ru okys “kadq dk v)Z “kh’kZ dks.k tan-1 √2 gksrk gSA
(vi) The height of a cylinder of maximum volume inscribed in a sphere of radius a is 2a/√3/a f=T;k ds xksys ls
dkVs tkus okys vf/kdre vk;ru okys csyu dh ÅWpkbZ 2a/√3 gksrh gSA
 INTEGRATION
lekdyu

1. Standard Integrals/ekud lekdy

(i) ∫ 0. 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑐
(ii) ∫ 1. 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝑐
(iii) ∫ 𝑘. 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑥 𝑛+1
(iv) ∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = + 𝑐
𝑛+1
1
(v) ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑐
(vi) ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑎𝑥
(vii) ∫ 𝑎 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 + 𝑐 = 𝑎 𝑥 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑒 + 𝑐
𝑒𝑎
(viii) ∫ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 + 𝑐
(ix) ∫ cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sin 𝑥 + 𝑐
(x) ∫ tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = log sec 𝑥 + 𝑐 = − log cos 𝑥 + 𝑐
(xi) ∫ cot 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = log sin 𝑥 + 𝑐
𝜋 𝑥
(xii) ∫ sec 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = log(sec 𝑥 + tan 𝑥) + 𝑐 = − log(sec 𝑥 − tan 𝑥) + 𝑐 = log tan ( 4 + 2) + 𝑐
𝑥
(xiii) ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − log(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 + cot 𝑥) + 𝑐 = log(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 − cot 𝑥) + 𝑐 = log tan (2) + 𝑐
(xiv) ∫ sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sec 𝑥 + 𝑐
(xv) ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 cot 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑥 + 𝑐
(xvi) ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = tan 𝑥 + 𝑐
(xvii) ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − cot 𝑥 + 𝑐
1 1 𝑥
(xviii) ∫ 𝑥 2+𝑎2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑎) + 𝑐
1 1 𝑥−𝑎
(xix) ∫ 𝑥 2−𝑎2 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑎 𝑙𝑜𝑔 (𝑎+𝑎) + 𝑐
1 1 𝑎−𝑥
(xx) ∫ 𝑎2 −𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑎 𝑙𝑜𝑔 (𝑎+𝑥) + 𝑐
1 𝑥 𝑥
(xxi) ∫√ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 ( ) + 𝑐 = − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 ( ) + 𝑐
𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 𝑎 𝑎
1
(xxii) ∫√ 𝑑𝑥 = log(𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 ) + 𝑐
𝑥 2 + 𝑎2
1
(xxiii) ∫√ 𝑑𝑥 = log(𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 ) + 𝐶
𝑥 2 − 𝑎2
𝑥 𝑎2 𝑥
(xxiv) ∫ √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 + , 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 + 𝑐
2 2 𝑎
𝑥 𝑎2 𝑥
(xxv) ∫ √𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 𝑑𝑥 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 + , 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ−1 + 𝑐
2 2 𝑎
𝑥 𝑎2 −1 𝑥
(xxvi) ∫ √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 𝑑𝑥 = √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 − , 𝑐𝑜𝑠ℎ + 𝑐
2 2 𝑎
1 1 𝑥
(xxvii) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 −1 + 𝑐
𝑥√𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 𝑎 𝑎
𝑒 𝑎𝑥
(xxviii) ∫ 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 sin 𝑏𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = (𝑎 sin 𝑏𝑥 − 𝑏 cos 𝑏𝑥) + 𝑐
𝑎2 + 𝑏 2
𝑒 𝑎𝑥
(xxix) ∫ 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 cos 𝑏𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = (𝑎 cos 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑏 sin 𝑏𝑥) + 𝑐
𝑎2 + 𝑏 2
2. Integration by substitution/izfrLFkkiu ls lekdyu
𝑑𝑥
(i) Integral of the form ∫ Putting a = r cos 𝜃 and b = r sin 𝜃, we get / tc lekdy dk :i
𝑎 sin 𝑥+𝑏 cos 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝑎 sin 𝑥+𝑏 cos 𝑥 gks] rks a = r cos 𝜃 rFkk b = r sin 𝜃 j[kus ij
(ii) Standard Substitutions/dqN ekud izfrLFkkiu
Following standard substitutions will be useful/fuEu ekud izfrLFkkiu mi;ksxh gSa]
 Integrand Form/lekdY; :i Substitution/izfrLFkkiu
1
(i) √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 or 2 2
√𝑎 −𝑥
x = a sin 𝜃
1
(ii) √𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 or
√𝑥 2 + 𝑎2
x = a tan 𝜃 or x = a sinh 𝜃
1
(iii) √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 or
√𝑥 2 − 𝑎2
x = a sec 𝜃 or x = a cosh 𝜃
𝑥 𝑎+𝑥
(iv) √𝑎+𝑥 𝑜𝑟 √ or
𝑥
1
√𝑥 (𝑎 + 𝑥) 𝑜𝑟 √𝑥 (𝑎+𝑥)
x = a tan2 𝜃
𝑥 𝑎−𝑥
(v) √𝑎−𝑥 𝑜𝑟 √ or
𝑥
1
√𝑥 (𝑎 − 𝑥) 𝑜𝑟 √𝑥 (𝑎−𝑥)
x = a sin2 𝜃
𝑥 𝑥−𝑎
(vi) √𝑥−𝑎 𝑜𝑟 √ or
𝑥
1
√𝑥 (𝑥 − 𝑎) 𝑜𝑟 √𝑥 (𝑥−𝑎)
x = a sec2 𝜃
𝑎−𝑥 𝑎+𝑥
(vii) √𝑎+𝑥 or √𝑎−𝑥 x = a cos 2 𝜃
𝑥− 𝛼
(viii) √ 𝛽−𝑥 𝑜𝑟 √(𝑥 − 𝛼)(𝛽 − 𝑥), (𝛽 > 𝛼) x = 𝛼 cos2 𝜃 + 𝛽 sin2 𝜃
3. Integration by parts/[k.M”k% lekdyu
(i) If u and v are two functions of x1 then/;fn u rFkk v ds nks Qyu gksa rks
𝑑𝑢
∫(𝑢. 𝑣)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢 (∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑥) − ∫ (𝑑𝑥 ) . (∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
From the first letter of the words inverse circular, Logarithmic, Algebraic, Trigonometric, Exponential
functions, we get a word ILATE. Therefore first arrange the functions in the order according to letters
of this word and then integrate parts./ izfrykse o`Ùkh;] y?kqx.kdh;] chth;] f=dks.kferh;] pj/kkrkdh; Qyuksa ds izFke vaxzsth v{kjksa
ls ILATE izkIr gksrk gSA vr% Qyuksa dks blh Øe esa O;ofLFkr djds [k.M”k% lekdyu djuk pkfg,A
(ii) If the integral is of the form/;fn lekdy ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 [𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)]𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝑒 𝑥 [𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)]𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑐
(iii) If the integral is of the form/;fn lekdy ∫[𝑥 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) + 𝑓(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑐
4. Integration of Fractional Function/ifjes; Qyuksa dk lekdyu
(i) Integration of rational functions containing only even powers of x. To find integral of such
functions, first we divide numerator and denominator by x2, then express numerator as d(x
±1/x)and denominator as a function of (x ∓1/x) /x dh le?kkr okys fo”ks’k ifjes; Qyuksa ds lekdyu ,sls Qyuksa ds
lekdY; Kkr djus gsrq va”k o gj dks x2 ls foHkkftrdj va”k dks d(x ±1/x) rFkk gj dks (x ±1/x) ds O;atd esa O;Dr djrs gSaA
5. Integration of Irrational Functions/vifjes; Qyuksa dk lekdyu
𝑑𝑥
(i) If integral in the form of ∫ , ∫ √𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑑𝑥 then we integrate it by expressing ax2 + bx +
√ 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥+𝑐
𝑑𝑥
c = (x + 𝛼)2 + 𝛽/ ;fn lekdy fuEu :i esa gks ∫ , ∫ √𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑑𝑥 rks ax2 + bx + c dks fuEu izdkj O;Dr djds
√ 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥+𝑐
lekdyu djrs gSa ax2 + bx + c = (x + 𝛼)2 + 𝛽
𝑝𝑥+𝑞
(ii) If the integrals of the form ∫ , ∫(𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞) √𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑑𝑥
√ 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥+𝑐
First we express px + q in the form
 𝑑
Px + q = A { (𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐)} + 𝐵 and then proceed as usual with standard form./
𝑑𝑥
𝑝𝑥+𝑞
∫√ , ∫(𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞) √𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑑𝑥 :i ds lekdy gsrq loZizFke Px + q dks fuEu :i esa O;Dr djrs gSa] Px + q = A
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥+𝑐
𝑑
{ (𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥
+ 𝑐)} + 𝐵 blds ckn ekud:i lekdy dh HkkWfr vkxs c<rs gSaA
𝑑𝑥
6. Integration of Trigonometric Functions/f=dks.kferh; Qyuksa dk lekdyu

Type – I
𝑑𝑥
(i) ∫ 𝑎+𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
(ii) ∫ 𝑎+𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
(iii) ∫ 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝑥+𝑏 sin 𝑥+cos 𝑥+𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥
𝑑𝑥
(iv) ∫ (𝑎 sin 𝑥+𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 )2
Divide numerator and denominator by cos2 x in all such type of integrals and then put tan x =
t./buds lekdyu gsrq va”k o gj dks cos2 x ls Hkkx nsdj rFkk tan x = t j[ksAa

Type – II

𝑑𝑥
(i) ∫ 𝑎+𝑏 cos 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
(ii) ∫ 𝑎+𝑏 sin 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
(iii) ∫ 𝑎 cos 𝑥+𝑏 sin 𝑥
𝑑𝑥
(iv) ∫ 𝑎 sin 𝑥+𝑏 cos 𝑥+𝑐

In such types of integrals we use following formulae for sin x and cos x in terms of tan (x/2)./bl izdkj ds
lekdY; ds fy, ge sin x rFkk cos x ds lw= tan (x/2) ds inksa esa iz;ksx es ykrs gSaA
𝑥 𝑥
2 tan(2) 1− 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 (2)
sin x = 𝑥 , cos 𝑥 = 𝑥
1+ 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 ( ) 1+ 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 ( )
2 2
and then take tan (x/2) = t and integrate/rFkk tan (x/2) = t j[krs gSa rFkk lekdyu djrs gSaA
 DEFINITE INTEGRATION
fuf”pr lekdyu

1. Properties of Definite Integral/fuf”pr lekdy ds xq.k/keZ

𝑏 𝑏
(i) ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑏 𝑎
(ii) ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = − ∫𝑏 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎
(iii) ∫0 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫0 𝑓(𝑎 − 𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎 0, 𝑖𝑓 𝑓(−𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥) 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑖𝑓 𝑓(𝑥)𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑
(iv) ∫−𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = { 𝑎
2 ∫0 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥, 𝑖𝑓 𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑖𝑓 𝑓(𝑥)𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
𝑛𝑎 𝑎
(v) 𝐼𝑓 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑎), 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 ∫0 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑛 ∫0 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑏 𝑏
(vi) ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑏 − 𝑥)𝑑𝑥
2. Some important formulae/dqN egRoiw.kZ lw=
𝜋/2 𝜋/2 𝜋
I. ∫0 log sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫0 log cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − ( ) log 2
2
II. 𝑊𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑖 ′ 𝑠 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎/okyh dk lw=
𝜋/2 𝜋/2 (𝑛−1) (𝑛−3) 2
(i) ∫0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = … .1 (n is odd)
𝑛 (𝑛−2) 3
(𝑛−1) (𝑛−3) 1 𝜋
= ….. × (n is even)
𝑛 (𝑛−2) 2 2
 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
vody lehdj.k

1. Order of Differential Equation/vody lehdj.k dh dksfV

The order of a differential equation is the order of the highest derivative occurring in the
differential equation./fdlh vodyu lehdj.k dh dksfV] mlesa fo|eku mPpre dksfV ds vodyt dh dksfV ds cjkcj gksrh gSA
2. Degree of Differential Equation/vody lehdj.k dh ?kkr
The degree of a differential equation is the degree of the highest order derivative when
differential coefficients are free from radical and fraction./fdlh vody lehdj.k dh ?kkr mlesa fo|eku
mPpre dksfV ds vodyt dh ?kkr ds cjkcj gksrh gS] tcfd vodyu xq.kkad fHk=kRed ?kkrksa rFkk dj.kh fpUgksa ls Lora= gksAa
𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒚
3. Differential Equations of the form = 𝒇(𝒙)/tc vody lehdj.k = 𝒇(𝒙) :i esa gks
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
∫ 𝑑𝑦 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + 𝑐
𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒚
4. Differential Equations of the form = 𝒇(𝒙)𝒈(𝒚)/tc vody lehdj.k = 𝒇(𝒙)𝒈(𝒚) :i esa gks
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝑑𝑦
∫ 𝑔(𝑦) = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + 𝑐
5. Differential Equation of Homogeneous Type/le?kkrh; vodyu lehdj.k
𝑑𝑦 𝑓 (𝑥,𝑦)
To solve the homogeneous differential equation/le?kkr vody lehdj.k = dks gy djus ds fy,
𝑑𝑥 𝑔 (𝑥,𝑦)
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑣
Substitute y = vx and so =𝑣+𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
6. Differential Equations reducible to Homogeneous Form/le?kkrh; :i esa ifjorZuh; lehdj.k
𝑑𝑦 𝑎1 𝑥+ 𝑏1 𝑦+ 𝑐1 𝑎1 𝑏1
A differential equation of the form = where ≠ can be reduced to
𝑑𝑥 𝑎2 𝑥+ 𝑏2 𝑦+ 𝑐2 𝑎2 𝑏2
homogeneous from by adopting the following procedure –
𝑑𝑌 𝑑𝑦
Put x = X + h, y = Y + k so that =
𝑑𝑋 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑎1 𝑥+ 𝑏1 𝑦+ 𝑐1 𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑑𝑌
vody lehdj.k = tgkW ≠ dks dqN fuf”pr izfrLFkkiuksa x = X + h, y = Y + k j[kus ij rkfd =
𝑑𝑥 𝑎2 𝑥+ 𝑏2 𝑦+ 𝑐2 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑑𝑋
𝑑𝑦
izkIr gksrk gSA
𝑑𝑥
7. Linear Differential Equations/jSf[kd vody lehdj.k
A differential equation is linear if the dependent variable (y) and its derivative appear only in
𝑑𝑦
first degree. The general form of a linear differential equation of first order is + 𝑃𝑦 = 𝑄/jSf[kd
𝑑𝑥
,d vody lehdj.k jSf[kd gksxh ;fn ijra= pj (y) rFkk blds vodyt dsoy izFke ?kkr ds gksAa izFke dksfV dh jSf[kd vody lehdj.k
dk O;kid :i fuEu gksrk gS
y 𝑒 ∫ 𝑝𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑄 𝑒 ∫ 𝑝𝑑𝑥 + 𝑐 which is the required solution, where c is the constant and 𝑒 ∫ 𝑝𝑑𝑥 is
called the integrating factor./ tks fd vHkh’V gy gS] tgkW 𝑐 vpj gS ,oa 𝑒 ∫ 𝑝𝑑𝑥 lekdyu xq.ku[k.M gSA