Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of Study

In Nigeria, the Nigerian (CBR) method is the most prevalent and well-developed approach

to flexible pavement design. This method utilizes design charts and tables to determine the

structural thickness of the pavement. Despite using the same design information, individual

results often vary. The Nigerian (CBR) method is an empirical procedure based on the

California Bearing Ratio and traffic volume as the primary design inputs. Originally

developed by the U.S. Corps of Engineers and modified by the British Road Research

Laboratory, this method was adopted by Nigeria as outlined in the Federal Highway

Manual. The Nigerian (CBR) design method is reliant on the anticipated traffic, the strength

of the foundation material, the quality of pavement material used, and the construction

procedure employed.

Flexible pavements are extensively employed in road construction due to their cost-

effectiveness, ease of implementation, and ability to adapt to varying environmental

conditions. These pavements comprise several layers, including an asphalt surface layer,

base course, and sub-base, which collaborate to distribute traffic loads and ensure a

smooth driving surface. However, determining the thickness of these layers is

accomplished using the Nigerian (CBR) method for flexible pavement design. This method

entails utilizing design charts and tables.

The thickness of the multiple layers in flexible pavement is critical for several reasons:
 Each layer in the pavement structure bears a portion of the vehicle load.

Appropriate thickness ensures effective distribution of the load, preventing

premature failure caused by overstressing any individual layer.

 Sufficient thickness provides structural strength to withstand repeated traffic loads

and environmental stresses, thereby enhancing the pavement's durability and

lifespan.

 Proper layer thickness helps resist common distresses such as rutting, cracking, and

fatigue cracking, which may arise due to inadequate support or excessive

deformation under traffic loading.

 Optimal layer thickness reduces the need for frequent maintenance and repairs,

thereby lowering lifecycle costs and minimizing the environmental impact

associated with pavement construction and rehabilitation.

 Each layer fulfills a specific function (e.g., base, sub-base, and surface layers), and

their thicknesses are tailored to achieve desired performance characteristics such as

smoothness, drainage, and ride quality.

1.2 Statement of Problem
Several challenges are encountered with the Nigerian CBR method for flexible pavement

design:

 Inconsistencies in Results: Despite using the same design information, different

individuals often obtain varying results, leading to inconsistencies in pavement design.

 Manual Calculations: The method relies heavily on manual calculations, which can be

time-consuming and prone to errors, especially in complex design scenarios.

 Complexity: The process of determining pavement thickness using design charts and

tables may be complex and challenging for inexperienced designers, potentially leading

to suboptimal designs.

 Risk of Inefficiency: Inefficient designs resulting from the method's limitations can lead

to premature pavement distress, increased maintenance costs, and reduced service life,

negatively impacting the sustainability and performance of road infrastructure.

Hence the need for the development of a design tool arises.

1.3 Aim and Objectives

The primary aim for this paper is to develop the design tool for the Nigerian (CBR) design of

flexible pavement. The development of this design tool is to eliminate systematic errors

(parallax error), to ease design process and provide a uniform flexible pavement structural

design results using the Nigerian (CBR) procedure.

In order to achieve the aforementioned aim of the paper, the following objectives will be

carried out:

 Creation of an extensive database by gathering data from Nigerian CBR tests, traffic

volume studies, and pavement performance records.

 Analyzing the correlations between traffic, subgrade strength (CBR), and optimal

pavement layer thicknesses.

 Formulation of precise mathematical equations to represent these correlations.

 Development of a user-friendly software program integrating these equations, enabling

engineers to input project data and obtain recommended pavement thicknesses based

on the Nigerian CBR method.

 Validation of the software by comparing its results with those obtained through

traditional manual design methods using established test cases.

1.4 Justification of Study

The findings of the paper will enhance the understanding of the Nigerian (CBR) design method

of flexible pavement. The result of this paper will help streamline the flexible pavement design

process by automating complex calculations and providing a user-friendly interface. By

incorporating robust algorithms, the tool will enhance the accuracy of pavement thickness and

material recommendations. The tool will be made widely available and accessible to engineers

and practitioners in Nigeria, providing analytical insights and data visualization to support

informed decision-making in pavement design and construction.

1.5 Scope of Study

This study focuses on the development of design tool for the Nigerian (CBR) flexible pavement

design method. This paper reviews existing literature on flexible pavement design method

focusing on the Nigerian CBR (California Bearing Ratio) method, provides detailed analysis of

the Nigerian CBR method including its principles equations and application in pavement design,

generate the design curve data for curves A, B, C, D, E and F by interpolation, develop curve

equations from curve data, develop program algorithm and codes, execute the program and

validate the tool. The study will not delve into the physical construction methods or materials

used for pavement construction. It will concentrate solely on the design aspect using the

established CBR method within the Nigerian context.

 CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Highway Pavement

A highway pavement is a structure consisting of superimposed layers of processed materials

above the natural soil sub-grade, whose primary function is to distribute the applied vehicle

loads to the sub-grade. The pavement structure should be able to provide a surface of

acceptable riding quality, adequate skid resistance, favorable light reflecting characteristics, and

low noise pollution. The ultimate aim is to ensure that the transmitted stresses due to wheel

load are sufficiently reduced, so that they will not exceed bearing capacity of the sub-grade.

2.1.1 Requirements of a Pavement

An ideal pavement should meet the following requirements:

1. Sufficient thickness to distribute the wheel load stresses to a safe value on the subgrade soil.

2. Structurally strong to withstand all types of stresses imposed upon it.

3. Adequate coefficient of friction to prevent skidding of vehicles.

4. Smooth surface to provide comfort to road users even at high speed.

5. Produce least noise from moving vehicles.

6. Dust proof surface so that traffic safety is not impaired by reducing visibility.

7. Impervious surface, so that sub-grade soil is well protected.

8. Long design life with low maintenance cost.

2.2 Flexible and Rigid Pavement

The road network serves as the foundation of any transportation system. However, not all

roads possess the same characteristics, and the selection of pavement type significantly

influences its longevity and appropriateness.

The pavements can be classified based on the structural performance into two, flexible

pavements and rigid pavements.

2.2.1 Rigid Pavements

Rigid pavements have sufficient flexural strength to transmit the wheel load stresses to a wider

area below. A typical cross section of the rigid pavement is shown in Figure 1. Compared to

flexible pavement, rigid pavements are placed either directly on the prepared sub-grade or on a

single layer of granular or stabilized material. Since there is only one layer of material between

the concrete and the sub-grade, this layer can be called as base or sub-base course.

Figure 2.1: Typical Cross section of rigid pavement

In rigid pavement, load is distributed by the slab action, and the pavement behaves like an

elastic plate resting on a viscous medium (Figure 2). Rigid pavements are constructed by

Portland cement concrete (PCC) and should be analyzed by plate theory instead of layer theory,

assuming an elastic plate resting on viscous foundation. Plate theory is a simplified version of

layer theory that assumes the concrete slab as a medium thick plate which is plane before

loading and to remain plane after loading. Bending of the slab due to wheel load and

temperature variation and the resulting tensile and flexural stress.

2.2.2 Flexible Pavements

Flexible pavements will transmit wheel load stresses to the lower layers by grain-to-grain

transfer through the points of contact in the granular structure (see Figure 1.1).

Figure 2.2: Load transfer in granular structure

The wheel load acting on the pavement will be distributed to a wider area, and the stress

decreases with the depth. Taking advantage of the stress distribution characteristic, flexible

pavements normally has many layers. Hence, the design of flexible pavement uses the concept

of layered system. Based on this, flexible pavement may be constructed in a number of layers
and the top layer has to be of best quality to sustain maximum compressive stress, in addition

to wear and tear. The lower layers will experience lesser magnitude of stress and low quality

material can be used. Flexible pavements are constructed using bituminous materials. These

can be either in the form of surface treatments (such as bituminous surface treatments

generally found on low volume roads) or, asphalt concrete surface courses (generally used on

high volume roads such as national highways). Flexible pavement layers reflect the deformation

of the lower layers on to the surface layer (e.g., if there is any undulation in sub-grade then it

will be transferred to the surface layer). In the case of flexible pavement, the design is based on

overall performance of flexible pavement, and the stresses produced should be kept well below

the allowable stresses of each pavement layer.

Figure 2.3: Profile of a flexible pavement

2.3 Types of Flexible Pavements

The following types of construction have been used in flexible pavement:

 Conventional layered flexible pavement,

 Full - depth asphalt pavement, and

 Contained rock asphalt mat (CRAM).

Conventional flexible pavements are layered systems with high quality expensive materials

are placed in the top where stresses are high, and low quality cheap materials are placed in

lower layers.

This is the most common type of flexible pavement. It's constructed with multiple distinct

layers, each serving a specific purpose:

 Surface Course: The topmost layer, typically made of high-quality asphalt concrete,

endures the brunt of traffic wear and tear.

 Binder Course: This layer distributes traffic load to the base course and provides

structural integrity. It's usually made of asphalt concrete as well, but with

potentially different material compositions compared to the surface course.

 Base Course: Often constructed from crushed aggregate materials like gravel, this

layer provides a stable platform for the upper layers and spreads the load over a

wider area.

 Subbase Course: In some cases, an additional layer of unbound materials like sand

or crushed rock can be used below the base course to improve drainage and

address specific subgrade weaknesses.

 Subgrade: The natural soil beneath the pavement structure. Its strength is a crucial

factor in overall pavement design.

 Full - depth asphalt pavements are constructed by placing bituminous layers directly on

the soil sub-grade. This is more suitable when there is high traffic and local materials are

not available.

Contained rock asphalt mats are constructed by placing dense/open graded aggregate

layers in between two asphalt layers. Modified dense graded asphalt concrete is placed

above the subgrade will significantly reduce the vertical compressive strain on soil sub-

grade and protect from surface water.

2.5 Failure of Flexible Pavements

The major flexible pavement failures are fatigue cracking, rutting, and thermal cracking. The

fatigue cracking of flexible pavement is due to horizontal tensile strain at the bottom of the

asphaltic concrete. The failure criterion relates allowable number of load repetitions to tensile

strain and this relation can be determined in the laboratory fatigue test on asphaltic concrete

specimens. Rutting occurs only on flexible pavements as indicated by permanent deformation

or rut depth along wheel load path. Thermal cracking includes both low-temperature cracking

and thermal fatigue cracking.

2.6 California Bearing Ratio (CBR) Method of Flexible Pavement

Although CBR for pavement design is an empirical technique, it is still in use as it is a relatively

simple test with a long record of use and hence, understanding of likely performance also it is

easy to perform, inexpensive and has spread almost everywhere in the world.

The CBR method was developed originally by the California state highway department. The

California bearing ratio is a measure of the strength of the subgrade of the road or other paved

area and of the materials used in its construction. CBR is the ratio expressed in % of force per

unit area required to penetrate a soil mass with standard circular plunger of 50mm diameter at

the rate of 1.25mm/min to that required for corresponding penetration in a standard material.

The ratio is usually determined for penetration of 2.5 mm and 5.0 mm.

In Nigeria, the prevalent and primary method for flexible pavement design is the Nigerian (CBR)

method. This approach relies on design charts and tables to determine pavement structural

thickness. The Nigerian (CBR) method, an empirical procedure initially developed by the U.S.

Corps of Engineers and refined by the British Road Research Laboratory, is outlined in the

Federal Highway Manual. It integrates California Bearing Ratio and traffic volume as key design

inputs, with pavement structure thickness contingent upon anticipated traffic, foundation

material strength, pavement quality, and construction method. Traffic is assessed based on the

number of commercial vehicles per day exceeding 29.89kN (3 tons), adjusted using traffic

adjustment factors and the percentage of trucks in the design lane. Pavement structure

selection is based on design curves, with layer thickness determined by expected traffic loading.

The recommended minimum asphalt pavement surface thickness is considered in terms of

light, medium and heavy traffic as follows:

Light traffic - 50mm

Medium - 75mm

Heavy - 100mm

Data required for flexible pavement design:

a. CBR value of soil subgrade

b. CBR value of sub base course

c. CBR value of base course

d. Traffic Intensity

2.7 Design Tools/Computer Program for Design of Highway Pavement

Design tools are objects, media or computer programs which can be used to make facilitate the

process of design. They may influence the process of production, expression and perception of

design ideas and therefore need to be skillful.

Prior to the invention of the computers, pavement designs were solely carried out using design

charts, Tables and monographs. In contemporary times with the invention of computers,

pavement design could be carried out using computer programs. Several computer programs

have been developed for the design of pavements. The programs are either empirical, layered

elastic analysis or finite element programs.

The American Association of State Highway and Transportation Official AASHTO [3] developed

its empirical design utility for flexible and rigid pavement. The program solves the 1993 AASHTO

Guide basic empirical design equation for flexible and rigid pavements. It also provides

information on variable descriptions, typical values and equation precautions.

A number of computer programs based on layered elastic theory [4] have been developed for

layered elastic analysis. The program CHEV [5] developed by the Chevron Research Company

can be applied to linear materials, however, CHEV program was modified to account for

material non-linearity and called DAMA [6]. The DAMA computer program can be used to

analyze a multi-layered elastic pavement structure under single or dual-wheel load, the number

of layers cannot exceed five. In DAMA, the subgrade and the asphalt layers are considered to be

linearly elastic and the untreated sub-base to be non-linear. Instead of using iterative method

to determine the modulus of granular layer, the effect of stress dependency is included be

effective elastic modulus computed according to equation 1.0.

E2 = 10.447h1-0.471h2-0.041E1-0.139E3-0.287K10.868 (1.0)

Where, E1, E2 and E3 are the modulus of asphalt layer, granular base and subgrade respectively;

h1 and h2 are the thicknesses of the asphalt layer and granular base. K 1 and K2 are parameters

for K-θ model with K2 = 0.5. ELSYM5 developed at the University of California is a five layer

linear elastic program for the determination of stresses and strains in pavements [7; 8]. The

KENLAYER computer program developed at the University of Kentucky in 1985 incorporates the

solution for an elastic multiple-layered system under a circular load. KENLAYER can be applied

to layered system under single, dual, dual-tandem wheel loads with each layer material
properties being linearly elastic, non-linearly elastic or viscos-elastic. The Everstress [9] layered

elastic analysis program from the Washington State Department of Transportation was

developed from WESLEA layered elastic analysis program. The pavement system model is

multilayered elastic using multiple wheel loads (up to 20). The program can analyze hot mix

asphalt (HMA) pavement structure containing up to five layers and can consider the stress

sensitive characteristics of unbound pavement materials. The consideration of the stress

sensitive characteristics of unbound materials can be achieved through adjusting the layer

moduli in an iterative manner by use of stress-modulus relationships in equations 2.0 and 3.0;

Eb = K1θK2 for granular soils (2.0)

Eb = K3σdK4 for fine grained soils (3.0)

Where,

Eb = Resilient modulus of granular soils (ksi or MPa)

Es = Resilient modulus of fine grained soils (ksi or MPa)

θ = Bulk stress (ksi or MPa)

σd = (Deviator stress (ksi or Mpa) and

K1, K2, K3, K4 = Regression constants.

K1, and K2, are dependent on moisture content, which can change with the seasons. K 3, and K4

are related to the soil types, either coarse grained or fine-grained soil. K 2 is positive and K4 is

negative and remain relatively constant with the season.

The ILLI_PAVE 2D computer program (10) developed at the University of Illinois at Urbana-

Champaign treats the pavement system as an axis-symmetric solid domain. The resilient

modulus is stress-dependent and failure criteria for granular material and fine-grained soils are

incorporated in ILLI_PAVE. The principal stresses in the sub-base and subgrade layers are

updated iteratively. The Mohr-Coulomb theory is employed as a criterion to ensure the

principal stresses do not exceed the strength of the material. When the base or subgrade layer

is divided into several layers, the minor stresses in the upper layer may be very small or become

tensile in the lower layers. Therefore, the replacement of the small or negative stress by a large

positive stress results in a higher, modulus. The MICH_PAVE 2D [11] finite element computer

program is very similar to ILLI_PAVE. It uses the same methods to model granular material and

soils and the same Mohr-Coulomb failure criteria. MICH_PAVE uses a flexible boundary at a

limited depth beneath the surface of subgrade instead of a rigid boundary at a large depth

below the surface. MICH_PAVE is capable of performing both linear and non-linear finite

element analysis of flexible pavements. It assumes axisymmetric loading condition and

computes an equivalent resilient modulus for each pavement layer that is obtained as the

average of the moduli of the finite elements in the layer that lie within an assumed 2:1 load

distribution zone. For non-linear material, MICH_PAVE employs the stress dependent K-θ

model to characterize the resilient modulus of soils through a stress dependent modulus and

constant Poisson’s ratio. ABAQUS, a commercially available 3D FE program has been used in the

structural analysis of pavement systems. The program has the ability to accommodate both 2D

FE analysis and 3D FE analysis and use reduced integration elements (3D) to reduce the total

computational time [12].

 Chapter 3
Materials and Methods
3.1 Materials

The materials used for the paper work were:

 1. Design tables and charts like Initial Traffic Adjustment Factor (table 2.2), Lane

Distribution Factors on Multilane Roads (table 2.1), Recommended Minimum Asphalt

pavement thickness (table 2.3), Flexible Pavement Design Curve (Nigerian CBR Method)

(Figure 2.2).

2. Measuring ruler and pencil for tracing the California Bearing Ratio to their

corresponding pavement thickness.

3. Existing material properties like CBR value, number of vehicle exceeding 3 tons, it's

corresponding traffic growth rate and design period.

4. Microsoft Office Excel Software to plot and derive the equation of the curves.

5. Visual Basic Package for creating interface and code writing.

1.2 Methods

The methodology adopted for this paper work for the development of the design tool include

traffic analysis, generation of design curve data, development of curve equations from curve

data, development of program algorithm, creation of interface on Visual Basic Package, code

writing using visual basic and execution of the N-Flex-Pave Program.

3.2.1 Traffic Analysis

The anticipated traffic for design life is estimated in terms of number of commercial vehicles

per day heavier than 3 tons loaded weight.

Anticipated Daily Traffic= traffic adjustment factor × Number of vehicle per day heavier than 3

tons loaded weight.

The traffic adjustment factor is gotten from table 2.2 using the provided data of traffic growth

rate.

According to the Nigerian (CBR) method of flexible pavement design, the calculated anticipated

traffic determines which curve to use. This is shown in Figure 3.1. This flexible pavement design

chart consist of six curve A, B, C, D, E and F.

3.2.2 Generating Design Curve Data

To generate the design curve data for curves A, B, C, D, E and F, interpolations were carried out

at intervals of 1% CBR on the CBR-Pavement thickness chart. The interpolations produced the

“thicknesses above layer” and the corresponding CBR for curves A to F.

3.2.3 Developing Curve Equations from Curve Data

The data generated in the above procedure (3.2.2) was modeled using the Microsoft Office

Excel Program (Power Option) with “CBR” as X-axis and “Thickness above layer” as the Y-axis to

obtain the curve equations. The curve equations for curves A to F are as presented in Equations

4.0

Y = (WX)a……………………………. 4.0

Where,

X = CBR (%)
Y = T = Thickness above layer (mm) (10.0)

‘W’ and ‘a’ varies, depending on the curve in consideration.

3.2.4 Developing Program Algorithm

Using the procedure for obtaining the anticipated traffic and curve equation, connotations

where used in developing the program algorithm ensuring that it suits the Nigerian (CBR)

method of flexible pavement design.

Traffic Data:

A = Number of vehicle exceeding 3 tons.

B = Traffic growth rate

C = Traffic adjustment factor

D = Percentage of vehicle in the design lane

E = Anticipated daily traffic in terms of No of Veh. exceeding 3 tons. = No of Veh. Exceeding 3

tons x Traffic Adjustment Factor x % of Veh. in design lane

∴E = A x C x D

F = The Curve equation to be used for pavement thickness determination.

T = Thickness above layer

If 0 ≤ E ≤ 15, T = (CBR÷ W1)a1 for Curve A

If 15 ≤ E ≤ 45, T = (CBR÷ W2)a2 for Curve B

If 45 ≤ E ≤ 150, T = (CBR÷ W3)a3 for Curve C

If 150 ≤ E ≤ 450, T = (CBR÷ W4)a4 for Curve D

If 450 ≤ E ≤ 1500, T = (CBR÷ W5)a5 for Curve E

If 1500 ≤ E ≤ 4500, T= (CBR÷ W6)a6 for Curve F

Thickness Description:

T1 = Total thickness

T2 = Thickness of base and surface

T3 = Thickness of surface = Tsurface

T2 – T3 = Thickness of base = Tbase

T1 – T2 = Thickness of sub-base = Tsubbase

Recommended Thickness of Surface:

Light traffic; T3 ≥ 50

Medium traffic; T3 ≥ 75

Heavy traffic; T3 ≥ 100

3.2.5 Creating Interface on Visual Basic Package

a) Creating Textbox: Pick text box on the tool box, set property name;
b) Creating Label: Pick label on the toolbox, click caption then reset the name property.

c) Set board style

d) Insert name property

e) Name property: This is where the calculated output is being displayed

f) Pick command button, go to caption and type in text calculate, then go to name property and

say cmd calc.

g) Form addition: go to project and say add form.

3.2.6 Code Writing

The codes were written in Visual basic 6.0 [13]. The following codes were written in line with

the program algorithm;

i. Codes to Determine Traffic Parameters

ii. Codes to evaluate the various thicknesses

iii. Codes for thickness adjustment

iv. Codes for the cross section of the designed pavement

3.2.7 Executing the ABECS-Flex-Pave Program

The ABECS-Flex-Pave is a user-friendly program, it is simple to use and easy to run. The program

is applicable to four-layered (Surface, base, subbase and subgrade) flexible pavement system.

When all the necessary design input parameters have been made, the program can run
successfully in less than 30 seconds. The following traffic and material parameters are required

as inputs in ABECS-Flex-Pave;

i. Traffic Data: Number of vehicles exceeding 29.89kN(3 tons), traffic growth rate, Number of

lanes, and design lane.

ii. Material Properties: CBR of subgrade, subbase and base material.

Four (4) steps are required to carry out a complete design of a flexible pavement using N-Flex-

Pave;

Step 1 of 4(Figure 2): This window takes Traffic data input; No. of veh/day exceeding 3tons,

traffic growth rate, design period, No. of lanes and design lane, click next to go to step 2 of 4 -

the “material parameter” window.

Step 2 of 4(Figure 3): This window takes the material parameters input, click next to get to step

3 of 4 - the “thickness above layer” window.

Step 3 of 4(Figure 4): At step 3 of 4, the program displays computed “thickness above layer” for

subgrade, subbase and base, click next for step 4 of 4 - the “thickness of layer” window.

Step 4 of 4(Figure 5):

On this window, the thickness of layer is automatically computed and displayed. Click Finish to

end design. At this stage if the computed surface thickness is less than the recommended

minimum for light, medium or heavy traffic, the program prompts the warning message

“Surface thickness is less than the recommended value, do you want to carry out an
adjustment”. The user has an option of clicking Yes, No or Cancel. If the user clicks Yes, the

program automatically adjust the thickness in accordance with design procedures as shown in

Figure 6.The user may also view the cross section of the pavement by clicking “View Site” as

shown in Figure 7.

REFERENCES

American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials AASHTO, AASHTO Guide for

Design of Pavement structures, Washington, D.C (1993).

D. Huang, M. W. Witczack, Program DAMA (Chevron), User’s Manual, Department of Civil

Engineering, University of Maryland, (1983).

D.M. Burmister. Journal of Applied Physics, 1945.

G. Ahlborn. ELSYM5 [Computer Program for Determining Stresses and Strains in Five Layer

System]. University of California, Berkeley (1972).

H. Howard., Visual Basic 6.0, MSCD Training Guide, New Riders Publishers, USA (1999).

Highway Manuel –Part 1 Design, Federal Ministry of Works, Lagos (1973).

H. Warren, W. L. Dieckman. Numerical Computational Stresses and Strains in Multi-Layer

Asphalt Pavement System, Internal Report, Cheron Research Corporation, Richmond, CA. 1963.

L. Raad, J. L. Figueroa. Transportation Engineering Journal, ASCE , 1980, Vol. 106, No. TE1, pp.

111-128.
N. Sivaneswaran, L. M. Piecce, J. S. Ulmeyer. Everstress (Version 5.0) [Layered Elastic Analysis

Program] Washington State Department of Transportation (2001).

R. S. Harichandran, Y. Ming-Shah, Y. B. Gilbert. MICH_PAVE, A Nonlinear Finite Element

Program for Analysis of Flexible Pavement, Transportation Research Records No. 1286 pp. 123-

131 (1990).

Road Research Laboratory, , “A Guide to the Structural Design of Pavement for New Roads –

Road Note 29” 3rd Edition, Department of Environment, HMSO, London, (1970).

S. Kopperman, G. Tiller, M. Tseng. ELSYM5, Interactive Microcomputer Version, User’s Manual,

Report No. FHWA-TA-87-206, Federal Highway Administration (1986).

Y. Cho, B. F. McCullough, J. Weissmann. Transportation Research Record, no.1322, pp.112-121

(1996)