Gaud-kamrupi Charya Nritya

The Buddhist Classical dance form of Bengal,

Assam and Odisha,
affinities with the South East Asian art and culture.

Fig 1 : A Buddhist divinity, painting on palm leaf, Pala period, c. 12th century; in a private collection. P. Chandra

Author : Acharya Tanay Roy

Mahabodhi Kala prashikshan o gabeshana kendra, Tangla, Udalguri
ASSAM, INDIA, 784521

+917099695477, [email protected]

Under the guidance of :

Dr. Sumanapal Bhikkhu, Dept of Pali, Calcutta university
Ven. Sugata Bhikkhu, Bodh Gaya
SNA awardee Guru Anita Sharma, Sattriya Dance exponent

Acharya Tanay Roy

 Contents

 Abstract
 Introduction
 The Legacy of Gaud-Kamrupi Charya Nritya
 The Pāla Empire
 Pāla art, culture and literature
 Charyapada
 Glimpses of the Society
 Language
 Affinities between the Modern Assamese, Bengali and Odia
Language
 Dance and music mentioned in Charyapada
 Atiśa Dīpankara Śrījñāna
 Sahajiya Buddhism and it’s legacies in modern Bengal and
Assam
 Srimanta Shankardev, Sattriya cult and Charyapada
 Uruli/Jokaar Charya – The feminist revolutionary
movement of Bengal, Assam and Odisha after Khanaa
 Impact of Buddhism on modern Bengali, Assamese and
intelligentsia
 The influence of Pala art and culture in Southeast Asia
 Rediscovery of Charyapada
 Techniques of Gaud-Kamrupi Charya Nritya (Brief)
 Revival of Gaud-Kamrupi Charya Nritya
 Bibliography

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 Abstract

Underlying this celebration of the dance is a distinct Indian attitude to the body and
the senses. Neither is a temptation nor snare. Each form of dance – the stance, the
movement and the context – is imbued with deep dialectic teachings and symbolic
significance.
No wonder the first instruction given in Sanskrit theoretical texts to the budding
artists is to go understand Indian sculpture without a thorough familiarity with the art
of dancing. Indian artists understood very early that figural sculpture is all about
expressing movement through form. Nowhere is that movement more restrained and
yet as energetic, graceful and full of life as in dance. Most of the hand gestures and
postures that one encounters, especially in sculpture, are borrowed from the dancer’s
repertoire.
Cambodian art and the culture of Cambodia has a rich and varied history dating back
many centuries and has been heavily influenced by India. In turn, Cambodia greatly
influenced Thailand, Laos, and vice versa. Throughout Cambodia’s long history, a
major source of inspiration was from religion. Cambodians developed a unique
Khmer belief from the syncretism of indigenous animistic beliefs and the Indian
religion of Buddhism. Indian culture and civilization, including its language and arts,
reached mainland Southeast Asia around the 8th century CE.

Buddhist art and architecture share the same aesthetic norms and iconometric
theories that govern the divine images of the Hindu pantheon and architecture.
Hence, you find a multitude of apsaras and gandharvas peopling Buddhist art.
Preaching with music and dance plays an important role in Buddhist literature as
well as in the pre-renunciate life of the Buddha. Even after the Buddha’s
enlightenment, one of his principal patrons was Amrapali, a courtesan skilled in
various arts. Several of the Buddhist reliefs clearly demonstrate that dancing was an
essential part of Buddhist worship. The births of both the Buddha and Mahavira
were accompanied by music, as were their weddings. Buddha’s father, however, kept
him constantly surrounded by pleasures in order to dislodge him from his resolve to
renounce the world. During his enlightenment, Mara too sent his lascivious
daughters to distract Buddha with their dance and song. This episode simply
reiterates what the gods in Hindu mythology do whenever they feel threatened by the
austerities of mortals – send their divine (apsaras) courtesans to distract the sages.

Gaud-kamrupi Charya Nritya is a revived Buddhist classical dance from the region
(Gauda) Bengal and (Kamrupa) lower Assam as well as of other Eastern parts of
India like Odisha, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh and Northeastern parts sharing borders
with neighbouring countries.

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Keywords : Charyapada, Gaud, Kamrupi, Nritya, Odramagadhi, Magadhi, South
East Asia, Buddhism, Theravada, Vajrayana, Sahajiya, Natyashastra.

Introduction

It wouldn’t be an exaggeration to state that in no other artistic tradition has the art of
dancing been as influential as in the Indic. Dance reflects a state of being at the
highest order of spiritual discipline (sadhana) and is considered yoga. It is the
medium which evokes the supreme state of bliss (ananda), the vehicle of release
(nirvana), another purpose of dance through Abhinaya (Sanskrit abhi- ‘towards’ +
nii- ‘leading/guide’) is the art of expression in Indian aesthetics. More accurately it
means “leading an audience towards” the experience (bhava) of a sentiment (rasa).
The concept, derived from Bharata Muni’s Natya Shastra, is used as an integral part
of all Indian classical dance styles.

It bears the legacy of Odhramagadhi art form of yore mentioned in Natyashastra.

Charyageetis were written by the Siddhacharyas or Nath yogis from the ancient
Bengal, Assam, Odisha and Bihar in Abahatta/Gaud-kamrupi Prakrit language. Also
a very unique form of Sculpture art was developed during the same period under the
rule of Pala kings (8th century A.D to 12th century A.D) and the affinities are
prominent with the existing performing arts and temple sculptures of South East
Asian countries like Cambodia (Khmer), (Vajrayogini Gram and Sompura
Mahavira) Bangladesh, Charya cult of Nepal, Thailand, Indonesia, Tibet, Burma,
Java, (Kyzyl) Russia.

In Bharata Muni’s Natya Shastra, the ancient Sanskrit treatise written about 2000
years ago on the performing arts, describes four regional styles of dances- Avanti,
Dakshinatya, Panchali, and Odhramaghadhi. The Odhramaghadhi style was
prevalent in Odhra, Magadha, Pundra, Kalinga, and certain other parts of eastern and
Northeastern India.

चतुर्विधा प्रवृतिश्च प्रोक्ता नाट्यप्रायोगतः।।

अवन्ती दाक्षिणात्य च पाञ्चाली चौड्रमागधी।।

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 -13/25, Chapter 2, Natya Shastra.

The legacy of Gaud-kamrupi Charya Nritya

Though the origin of Indian Classical dance is widely understood in

mythological terms, and Gaud-kamrupi Charya Nritya bears the legacy of
Odhramagadhi form of art and culture. The first historical and archeological
evidence of (Buddhist Dance) was found in the Sanchi Stupas. The
Great Stupa at Sanchi is one of the oldest stone structures in India, and an
important monument of Indian Architecture built during the Mauryan Rule.
Also we can see the evidences in the Ajanta & Ellora caves during the
Gupta Rule. The prominent evidences & Linguial legacy can be seen during
the Rule of Great Pala Kings.

The Pala Empire (800 – 1200 CE)

The Pala Empire was an imperial power during the classical period in the Indian
subcontinent, which originated in the region of Bengal. It is named after its ruling
dynasty, whose rulers bore names ending with the suffix Pala ("protector"
in Sanskrit). They were followers of the Mahayana and Tantric schools of Buddhism.
The empire was founded with the election of Gopala as the emperor of Gauda in 750
CE. The Pala stronghold was located , Bengal, Assam, Bihar and Odisha, which
included the major cities of Vikrampura, Pataliputra, Gauda, Monghyr, Somapura,
Ramvati (Varendra), Tamralipta and Jaggadala.
The Palas were astute diplomats and military conquerors. Their army was noted for
its vast war elephant corps. Their navy performed both mercantile and defensive
roles in the Bay of Bengal. They built grand temples and monasteries, including
the Somapura Mahavihara, and patronised the great universities
of Nalanda and Vikramashila.

The Proto-Bangla language developed from Magadhi Prakrit and Charyapada was
written during Pala rule.

The empire enjoyed relations with the Srivijaya Empire, the Tibetan Empire and
the Arab Abbasid Caliphate. Abbasid coinage found in Pala archaeological sites, as
well as records of Arab historians, point to flourishing mercantile and intellectual
contacts. The House of Wisdom in Baghdad absorbed the mathematical and
astronomical achievements of Indian civilization during this period. At its height in
the early 9th century, the Pala Empire was the dominant power in the northern Indian

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subcontinent, with its territory stretching across the Gangetic plain to include parts of
modern-day eastern Pakistan, northern and
northeastern India, Nepal and Bangladesh. The empire reached its peak under
Emperors Dharmapala and Devapala.

The Palas also exerted a strong cultural influence under Atisa in Tibet, as well as in
Southeast Asia. Pala control of North India was ultimately ephemeral, as they
struggled with the Gurjara-Pratiharas and the Rashtrakutas for the control
of Kannauj and were defeated. After a short lived decline, Emperor Mahipala
I defended imperial bastions in Bengal, Bihar and Kamrupa against South
Indian Chola invasions. Emperor Ramapala was the last strong Pala ruler, who
gained control of Kamarupa and Kalinga. The empire was considerably weakened
by the 11th century, with many areas engulfed in rebellion.
The resurgent Hindu Sena dynasty dethroned the Pala Empire in the 12th century,
ending the reign of the last major Buddhist imperial power in the Indian
subcontinent.
The Pala period is considered one of the golden eras of Bengali history.
The Palas brought stability and prosperity to Bengal after centuries of civil war
between warring divisions. They advanced the achievements of previous Bengali
civilisations and created outstanding works of arts and architecture. They laid the
basis for the Bengali language, including its first literary work, the Charyapada.

The Pala Art, Culture and literature.

 Art & Architecture

Pala art, also called Pala-Sena art or Eastern Indian art, artistic style that
flourished in what are now the states of West Bengal, Bihar, Assam and other
Northeastern India states, and in what is now Bangladesh. Named for
the dynasty that ruled the region from the 8th to the 12th century CE, Pala style was
transmitted chiefly by means of bronze sculptures and palm-leaf paintings,
celebrating the Buddha and other divinities.

The Pala school of sculptural art is recognised as a distinct phase of the Indian art,
and is noted for the artistic genius of the Bengal sculptors. It is influenced by
the Gupta art.
The Pala style was inherited and continued to develop under the Sena Empire.
During this time, the style of sculpture changed from "Post-Gupta" to a distinctive
style that was widely influential in other areas and later centuries. Deity figures
became more rigid in posture, very often standing with straight legs close together,

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and figures were often heavily loaded with jewellery; they very often have multiple
arms, a convention allowing them to hold many attributes and display mudras. The
typical form for temple images is a slab with a main figure, rather over half life-size,
in very high relief, surrounded by smaller attendant figures, who might have
freer tribhanga poses. Critics have found the style tending towards over-elaboration.
The quality of the carving is generally very high, with crisp, precise detail. In east
India, facial features tend to become sharp.
Much larger numbers of smaller bronze groups of similar composition have survived
than from previous periods. Probably the numbers produced were increasing. These
were mostly made for domestic shrines of the well-off, and from monasteries.
Gradually, Hindu figures come to outnumber Buddhist ones, reflecting the terminal
decline of Indian Buddhism, even in east India, its last stronghold.

Pala-period bronzes, which were cast by the lost-wax process, consist of an alloy of
eight metals. They represent various divinities and, being mainly small in size and
thus portable, were intended for private worship. In terms of style, the metal images
largely continued the Gupta tradition of Sarnath but endowed it with a certain heavy
sensuousness. They differ little from contemporary stone sculptures of the region but
surpass them in the precise definition of ornamental detail, in a certain elegant
virtuosity, and in their emphasis on plasticity. The bronze sculptures from this area
played an important part in the diffusion of Indian influence in Southeast Asia.

The palm-leaf paintings of the Pala period are also noteworthy. Employed in the
evocation of the deities, the paintings had to conform to the same strict iconographic
rules used in the production of contemporary stone and bronze icons. The narrow
leaf of the palm determined the size of the book illustrations, which were
approximately 2.5 by 3 inches (about 6 by 8 cm). Threaded together and enclosed in
wooden covers, the leaves were typically painted. The outlines were first drawn in
black or red, then filled in with flat areas of colour—red, blue, green, yellow, and
touches of white. The compositions are simple and the modelling vestigial.

The principal centers of production for both bronzes and paintings were the great
Buddhist monasteries at Nalanda and Kurkihar, and the works were distributed
throughout Southeast Asia, influencing the arts in Myanmar (Burma), Siam
(now Thailand), and Java (now part of Indonesia). Pala arts also had a recognizable
impact on the Buddhist art of Kashmir, Nepal, and Tibet.

From the time of the Pala and the Sena dynasties it is necessary to highlight the
abundant production of sculptures, since relatively few vestiges remain from their
architecture which suffered at the beginning of the 13th century the massive
destruction caused in all these regions by the Muslim invasion. This devastating

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invasion also contributed to the annihilation of the famous university of Nalanda, in
Bengal, which from the fifth century was recognized as a well-known teaching
centre and a seat of several great Buddhist monasteries where bronzes of beautiful
quality were made in the lost wax technique. The Muslim intrusion resulted in the
definitive sinking of Buddhism and the halting of Buddhist artistic production.

From the second half of the 7th century until the end of the 12th century, the Pala-
Sena style prevailed, inheriting the Gupta and post-Gupta styles (IV-VIII centuries),
whose survival and transmission was thus secured not only in India itself but also
overseas.

However, of the great art of the Gupta and post-Gupta that together had created an
admirable aesthetic and narrative repertoire, the Pala art devoted to perpetuate only
its iconography: thus, the Pala art was mainly represented by cult images in bronze
or stone, and exceptionally by low reliefs circumscribed in panels; the very few
paintings (illustrations of manuscripts) that have survived are dated at the end of the
style, approximately at the XII century.

The main Pala workshops were those of the famous Buddhist university of Nalanda,
those of the neighbouring places of Gaya-Bodh Gaya and Kurkihar, as well as the
numerous located in East Bengal. Their production reveal elegance and balance, a
certain mannerism in gestures and attitudes, and a pronounced taste for the
representation of ornaments.

The cult images in stone were presented in the form of a big character framed by
very small assistants, the whole group stands out in sharp relief on the background of
the stele. During the three and a half centuries in which the Pala style developed, it is
noticeable a progressive tendency towards the loading of the images with
ornamentation: the characters wear increasingly numerous and ornate jewels and the
background of the stele, initially almost empty and with a rounded top, was
gradually covered with symbolic accessories.

In the course of the tenth century, when the political power of the Pala suffered a
decline, the artistic production was more variable: as a whole, the silhouette of the
characters was progressively lengthened and more refined, the jewels were less
important, the features of the face were thicker and more accentuated, and the
modelling was looser particularly that of the legs. The subjection to the iconographic
canons was more rigorous as the Buddhist pantheon was enriched under the impulse
of the Mahāyāna Buddhism and was heavily tinged with tantric expressions. In the

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11th century and in the first decade of the 12th, the same style persisted but became
heavier, drier, and its grace appeared more affected. Since then, the stelae had a
pointed top, in the form of a leaf, and its background was ornamented with symbols
and small characters that in the best sculptures showed fretwork in some areas. To
the ornaments and jewels of the preceding centuries, a thick garland falling from the
neck to the ankles and forming a U shape in front of the legs was added later. The
Brahmanic deities are now more numerous than the Buddhist divinities, and the
tantric forms multiply. A then frequent iconographic form was that of the “adorned
Buddha”, who wears a tiara and jewels in spite of his monastic robe.

As for the bronze icons, these were usually of small sizes, although examples are
known that reach or surpass human stature: for example, the standing Buddha of
2.25 m high found in Sultanganj, Bhagalpur district, and now in the Birmingham
Museum and Art Gallery (England). These bronzes, which were cast in lost wax with
an alloy composed of eight metals (copper, tin, lead, antimony, zinc, iron, gold, and
silver) were sometimes coated with a weak layer of kaolin or clay dyed green or
brown, which acquired the appearance of a patina. In general, these bronzes
followed the evolution of the cult images in stone mentioned before, with the
difference that they often had a fretted appearance, with the background of the stele
replaced by a frame in which the themes are cut out in a vacuum which gives them a
kind of dynamism that the stone stelae are devoid of.

The Pala style seems to have many direct artistic descendants in India. On the other
hand, particularly fruitful artistic relations between the Pala imagery and the
Indonesian imagery had to be established from the beginning of the ninth century.
Not only many Indonesian bronzes of the 8th-9th centuries reflect, to the point of
being confused with them, the characteristics of the Pala bronzes of this period, but
more than two hundred bronzes of this origin have been found in the ruins of the
monastery No. 1 of Nalanda consecrated under the reign of Devapâla (around 810-
850) on the occasion of an embassy of the King of Sumatra and intended to house
pilgrims from this region. These contacts had to be renewed several times and for
this reason we can notice surprising analogies between the Pala stelae and the cult
images of East Java visibly inspired by the Pala art and hence perpetuators of their
characteristics well until the 14th century, long after the disappearance of the Pala
schools in India.

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Fig 2 : Pala style bronze figures. Top left: A 12th century Tibet avalokiteshvara by the Pala school.
Top center: Marichi, the ray of Dawn, from Eastern India, Pala period. Bottom left: Bodhisattva
Avalokiteshvara found at Kurkihar. Bottom center: Buddha in the Bhumisparsha Mudra, a bronze
from ca. 9th-10th centuries (Indian Museum, Kolkata). Right: Avalokiteshvara from Northeast
India, late Pala period.

The Pala schools also influenced the Burmese art. Direct religious relations united
Burma and India Pala: thus, King Kyanzittha (1030-1113) ordered restorations at the

famous shrine of the Mahâbodhi at Bodh Gaya, and King Nandaungmya also known
as King Htilominlo (1211-1231) had a replica of this same temple built at Pagan
(the regions that would later constitute modern-day Burma in Myanmar). It is also
possible that the cruciform temple of Paharpur (Northern Bengal), the Somapura

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Mahavihara, had undergone Burmese influences: in it, we see the use of the ashlar
vault, very exceptional in India and frequent in Pagan. In this same temple there is
also a group of more than two thousand terracotta plaques adorning its basement and
dating from around the 10th century. These plaques bear low reliefs with characters
of a diligent and picturesque style, whose simplified compositions very closely
resemble those of the enameled plates that decorated several Burmese sanctuaries
from the 9th to the 12th century.

Also many sculptures like Madan Kamdeva ruins (Baihata, Assam) and Buddhist
Stupa Ruins (Jorapukhuri, Udalguri, BTR, Assam) has a deep impact of the Pala-
sena Art.

Fig 3 : The Buddhist ruins of Jorapukhuri, Udalguri, BTR, Assam. Images captured

by Mahabodhi kala prashikshan O gabeshana kendra, Tangla. The Abhanga and the
mandala postures resembles the bodhisattvas of pala-sena art.

We can also observe the deep influence of pala-sena art in the sculptures of
Kamakhya, Bamuni hills (tezpur) etc. The head gear of the dancers sculpted in the
walls of Kamakhya resembles the Cambodian and Thai traditional Buddhist attires
which too have the influence of Pala-Sena art. The body postures and gestures of
those sculptures are none other than the hastas and bhangis portrayed in many
sculptures and paintings of Buddha (Dhyana mudra, Abhaya mudra, Vajrasana
bhangi, paddaasna bhangi, Bhumi sparsa mudra, Dhamma chakka pavattana mudra
etc.)

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Fig 4 : A view of the Somapura Mahavihara in Paharpur, ca. 8th century (Naogaon District, Bangladesh)
one of the best known Buddhist viharas from the Indian Subcontinent and considered one of the most
important archaeological sites in the country. This Pala-Gupta style temple was built for the emperor
Dharama Pala. Top right: Reliefs on the terracotta plaques at the base of the Somapura Mahavihara, the
diverse images represent mythical creatures and people. Bottom: A close up of the carved reliefs at the base
of the Somapura temple.

Finally, the Pala art was transmitted to Nepal, whose geographical proximity and
whose adoption of the Buddhist and tantric traditions designated it as a natural
receptacle to receive the artistic forms and the iconographic repertoire of the Pala art.
In the art of Nepal this transmission of the Pala forms is undeniable and it is there

where the Pala and Sena styles continued in use until the contemporary era,
introducing them in part in their neighbour the Tibet.

 Culture

The Palas were patrons of Sahajiya Buddhism. The subsequent Pala kings were
definitely Buddhists. Taranatha states that Gopala was a staunch Buddhist, who had
built the famous monastery at Odantapuri. Dharmapala made the Buddhist
philosopher Haribhadra his spiritual preceptor. He established
the Vikramashila monastery and the Somapura Mahavihara. Taranatha also credits
him with establishing 50 religious institutions and patronising the Buddhist author
Hariibhadra. Devapala restored and enlarged the structures at Somapura Mahavihara.
Mahipala I also ordered construction and repairs of several sacred structures at
Saranath, Nalanda and Bodh Gaya. The Mahipala geet ("songs of Mahipala"), a set
of folk songs about him, are still popular in the rural areas of Bengal.
The Palas developed the Buddhist centres of learnings, such as the Vikramashila and
the Nalanda universities. Nalanda, considered one of the first great universities in
recorded history, reached its height under the patronage of the Palas. Noted Buddhist

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scholars from the Pala period include Atisha, Santaraksita, Saraha, Tilopa,
Bimalamitra, Dansheel, Dansree, Jinamitra, Jnanasrimitra, Manjughosh, Muktimitra,
Padmanava, Sambhogabajra, Shantarakshit, Silabhadra, Sugatasree and Virachan.
As the rulers of Gautama Buddha's land, the Palas acquired great reputation in the
Buddhist world. Balaputradeva, the Sailendra king of Java, sent an ambassador to
him, asking for a grant of five villages for the construction of a monastery at
Nalanda. The request was granted by Devapala. He appointed the Brahmin Viradeva
(of Nagarahara, present-day Jalalabad) as the head of the Nalanda monastery. The
Buddhist poet Vajradatta (the author of Lokesvarashataka), was in his court. The
Buddhist scholars from the Pala empire travelled from Bengal to other regions to
propagate Buddhism. Atisha, for example, preached in Tibet and Sumatra, and is
seen as one of the major figures in the spread of 11th-century Mahayana Buddhism.
The Palas also supported the Shaiva ascetics, typically the ones associated with the
Golagi-Math, we get the evidence of Shaiva Gaud Pala kings of Kamrupa, the Shiva
is here Vajrapani.
Narayana Pala himself established a temple of in Kamrupa with the Dakhini
Sampraday of Nepal (nau-pala/ newly owned by Palas), and was present at the place
of sacrifice by his Brahmin minister. Queen of King Madanapaladeva, namely
Chitramatika, made a gift of land to a Brahmin named Bateswara Swami as his
remuneration for chanting the Mahabharata at her request, according to the principle
of the Bhumichhidranyaya. Besides the images of the Buddhist deities, the images
of Tara, Shiva/ Vajrapani/Vajravira Mahakala and Saraswati were also constructed
during the Pala dynasty rule.

 Literature

The Palas patronised several Sanskrit scholars, some of whom were their officials.
The Gaudiya riti style of composition was developed during the Pala rule.
Many Buddhist Tantric works were authored and translated during the Pala rule.
Besides the Buddhist scholars mentioned in the Religion section
above, Jimutavahana, Sandhyakar Nandi, Madhava-kara, Suresvara and Chakrapani
Datta are some of the other notable scholars from the Pala period.
The notable Pala texts on philosophy include Agama Shastra by Gaudapada, Nyaya
Kundali by Sridhar Bhatta and Karmanushthan Paddhati by Bhatta Bhavadeva. The
texts on medicine include

 Chikitsa Samgraha, Ayurveda Dipika, Bhanumati, Shabda

Chandrika and Dravya Gunasangraha by Chakrapani Dutta

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  Shabda-Pradipa, Vrikkhayurveda and Lohpaddhati by Sureshwara
 Chikitsa Sarsamgraha by Vangasena
 Sushrata by Gadadhara Vaidya
 Dayabhaga, Vyavohara Matrika and Kalaviveka by Jimutavahana

Sandhyakar Nandi's semi-fictional epic Ramacharitam (12th century) is an important

source of Pala history.

A form of the proto-Bengali language can be seen in the Charyapada during the
Great Pala rule.

Charyapada
Charyapada the earliest extant Bangla, Assamese and Odia poems, also known as
Charyagiti and dating back to at least the 8th century. A manuscript of writings on
palm-leafs containing the poems was discovered in the library of the royal court of
Nepal in 1907 by HARAPRASAD SHASTRI. Shastri edited the manuscript which was
published by the VANGIYA SAHITYA PARISHAD under the title of Hajar Bachharer
Purana Bangla Bhasay Bauddhagan O Doha (Thousand-year-old Buddhist songs and
verses in Bangla) in 1916. Known as Charyashcharyavinishchaya, the manuscript is
referred to as Bauddhagan O Doha or Charyapada in short.

The manuscript contains 47 verses, composed by 23 poets, estimated to have lived

between the 9th and 11th centuries AD. However, MUHAMMAD
SHAHIDULLAH suggests that the poems go back to the 7th or 8th centuries. The
language of the Charyapada is referred to as Alo-Andhari (light and shadow)
or SANDHYA BHASA (twilight language). Though predominantly Bangla-with a
recurrence of such words as ‘Bongo Desh', 'Panuya Khal' (the river Padma), 'Bangali
Bhoili'-it also draws from Oriya, Assamese or Axomiya, Brajabuli, Maithali and
Bhojpuri suggesting that the Charyapada poets came from the regions of Bengal,
Orissa, Assam, and Bihar. The Charyapada poets include Sarhapa, Lui pa, Dombi pa,
Bhusuku pa, Kanha pa , Kukkuri Pa, Mina pa, Aryadev, Dhendhan Pa.
The Charyapada poets or siddhacharya were mystic poets, initiated in
the SAHAJIYA doctrine. The poems express their tantric beliefs in figurative and
symbolical language. Hence, the poems, written in an early form of Bangla, are
difficult to understand. The following lines by Dombipa, for example, show how the
siddhacharya used similes and metaphors to express their deeper, esoteric meanings.

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The literal meaning of these lines is that Dombi crossed the river. The deeper
meaning is that Dombi reached the holy place through meditation.
Bahatu dombi baha lo dombi batata bhaila uchhara. Sadguru paa pasae jaiba punu
jinaura. The Charyapada were meant to be sung as the use of the word 'Dhruva' in
each couplet suggests. Each verse also prescribes the RAGA and TAL in which it is
meant to be sung.

 Manuscript

Fig 5 : A palm leaf manuscript of Charyapada

The original palm-leaf manuscript of the Charyapada, or Charyācharyāviniścaya,

spanning 47 padas (verses) along with a Sanskrit commentary, was edited by Shastri
and published from Bangiya Sahitya Parishad as a part of his Hajar Bacharer Purano
Bangla Bhasay Bauddhagan O Doha (Buddhist Songs and Couplets) in 1916 under
the name of Charyacharyavinishchayah. This manuscript is presently preserved at
the National Archives of Nepal. Prabodhchandra Bagchi later published a manuscript
of a Tibetan translation containing 50 verses. The Tibetan translation provided
additional information, including that the Sanskrit commentary in the manuscript,
known as Charyagiti-koshavrtti, was written by Munidatta. It also mentions that the
original text was translated by Shilachari and its commentary by Munidatta was
translated by Chandrakirti or Kirtichandra.

 Glimpses of society

Many poems provide a realistic picture of early medieval society in eastern India
(e.g. Bengal and Kamrupa, by describing different occupations such as hunters,
fishermen, boatmen, and potters). Geographical location, namely Banga is referred
to in the poems. Two rivers which are named are the Ganga and Yamuna. River
Padma is also referred to as a canal. No reference to agriculture is available.

15
References to female prostitution occur as well. The boat was the main mode of
transport. Some description of wedding ceremonies are also given.

The verses provide a picture of medieval Bengali society not only today’s Bengal or
Bangladesh but also Proto-Bangla/ other Bengali dialect speaking people of
Northeastern India. They describe the different occupations of people who were
hunters, boatmen, and potters. They also describe the popular musical instruments
such as kada-nakada, drums, and tom-toms. The custom of dowry was prevalent.
Cows were common domestic animals. Elephants too were common. Girls used to
adorn themselves with peacock feathers, flower garlands, and earrings. Nevertheless,
though they provide valuable details of everyday life in the medieval period, the
Charyapada poets were essentially mystic poets. As songs of realization,
the Charyapada were intended to be sung. These songs of realisation were
spontaneously composed verses that expressed a practitioner's experience of the
enlightened state. The feast culminates in the performance of tantric dances and
music, that must never be disclosed to outsiders. The revellers may also improvise
"songs of realization" (Charyagiti) to express their heightened clarity and blissful
raptures in spontaneous verse.

 Language
Vidhushekhara Shastri, on the basis of evidence from a number of Buddhist texts,
referred to this language as 'Intentional Language' (Sanskrit: Sandha-bhasha)
(Prakrit: Abahatta)
It is a result of the evolution of the Eastern group of Indo-Aryan languages. The
eastern group consists of languages such as Bengali, Maithili, Assamese and Odia.
Abahatta is also called Purvi Apabhramsa. Abahatta is considered to follow
the Apabhraṃśa stage, i.e. those Apabhraṃśas derived from Magadhi Prakrit.

Fig 6 : The chart of linguistic evolution

Magadhi Prakrit was an umbrella term used for various dialects spoken in Magadh

16
region later expanded as Brihat Kalinga By Great Ashoka. Gradually as lects grew
more distinct they gave rise to - Gauda Prakrit, Odra Prakrit and Kamarupi Prakrit
spoken in Bengal, Odisha and Assam. Odra Prakrit separated first to gradually give
rise to modern day Odia. And the separation/division formed a new word Banga
(Prakrit : Banga, Sanskrit : Bhanga), the Gauda-Kamrupa Prakrit was also known as
Abahatta or Banga Bhasa (a divided or language).

About 500 years later, Kamarupi Prakrit and Gauda-Prakrit separated to form distinct
languages- Bangla and Assamese. According to Xuanzang, a Chinese traveler this
separation into Kamarupi Prakrit and Gauda Prakrit was supposed to have completed
after 11th Century.

*As mentioned in verse -13/25, Chapter 2, NatyaShastra, the Charyapada bears the
lingual legacy of Magadhi Prakrit, hence the Gaud-kamrupi Charya Nritya can be
categorized as a Buddhist Classical Dance form of India from the region Gauda
Banga (today’s Bengal) and Kamrupa (today’s Assam and North Bengal).

The padas were written by poets from different regions, and it is natural that they
would display linguistic affinities from these regions of Gauda-Kamrupa. Different
scholars have noted the affinities of the language of the Charyapada with Bengali,
Assamese and Odia.

 Affinities with Proto-Bengali / Gauda Prakrit

A number of Siddhacharyas who wrote the verses of Charyapada were from Bengal.
Shabarpa, Kukkuripa and Bhusukupa were born in different parts of Bengal. Some
of the affinities with Bengali are:

Genitive -era, -ara;

Locative -Te;
Nominative -Ta;
Present indefinite verb -Ai;
Post-positional words like majha, antara, sanga;
Past and future bases -il-, -ib-;
Present participle -anta;

17
Conjunctive indeclinable -ia;
Conjunctive conditional -ite;
Passive -ia-
Substantive roots ach and thak.

The language of Charya was considered as Gauda Prakrit in a book (Ascharya

Charyachaya). Karunakar Kar has mentioned that Gauda Banga is the origin of
Charyapada as the Vajrayana/Sahajiya school of Buddhism evolved there and started
female worship in Buddhism like Tara, Vajravarahi, Vajrayogini etc. Worship
of Matri Dakini and the practice of "Kaya sadhana" are the outcome of such new
culture. Buddhist scholars like Atisa were born in Bengal. The ideas and experience
of Kaya sadhana and Shakti upasana (worshiping female principle) which were
created by Adi siddhas and have poetic expressions are found in the lyrics of
Charyapada. These were the first ever found literary documentation
of Prakrit and Apabhramsa which are the primitive form of languages of eastern
Indian origin. The poets of Charyapada prominently are from this region and their
thought and writing style has influenced the poems in early Bengali literature which
is evidently prominent in the 16th century Bengali poetries like SunyaPuran,
Dhamma Mangal etc. The ragas used in Charjyapada, especially in the songs written
by Mahasiddhas whose origin has been described in Bengal (as per traditional
biographies), bear great affinity with ragas used in the traditional of Bangla Folk
music starting from the Kirtan, Baul, Dhamail in the 12th century and classical
Bengali literature from the 14th to 19th centuries. Also some of the writing
in Jayadeva's Gitagovinda have "Ardhamagadhi padashrita giti" (poetry
in Ardhamagadhi) that is influenced by Charyagiti.

 Affinities with Old Assamese / Kamrupi Prakrit

Sarahapa, a poet of Charyapada is said to have been from Rani, a place close to
present-day Guwahati. Some of the affinities with Assamese are:

18
Negatives – the negative particle in Assamese comes ahead of the verb: na jãi
Present participles – the suffix -ante
Incomplete verb forms – suffixes -i and -iya
Present indefinite verb forms – -ai: bhanai, tarai, pivai
Future – the -iva suffix: haiba, kariba
Nominative case ending – case ending in e: kumbhire khaa, core nila
Instrumental case ending – case ending -e and -era: uju bate gela

•Affinities with Odia language

The beginnings of Odia poetry coincide with the development of Charya Sahitya, the
literature thus started by Mahayana Buddhist poets. This literature was written in a
specific metaphor named “Sandhya Bhasha” and the poets like Luipa or
Luipada,Kanhupa,Sarhapa, Kambalamara etc. Are from the territory of Odisha.] The
language of Charya was considered as Prakrita and its closely related to Prakrit
languages spoken in the Eastern parts of India and Odra Prakrit is one the oldest
among other Prakrit language spoken in Eastern India.

 Dance and Music mentioned in Charyapada

In kanha pa's poetry a resemblance to Dance is notable. For example,

Ekasa paduma chowshathi pakhudi

Tahin chadhi nachaa dombi bapudi

Paduma (Padma:Lotus), Chausathi (64), Pakhudi (petals) Tahin (there), Chadhi (cli
mb/rise), nachaa (to dance), Dombi (an female belonging to scheduled
caste), Bapudi ( a 'poor fellow' ) or

Hali Dombi, Tote puchhami sadbhabe.

Isisi jasi dombi kahari nabe.

Your hut stands outside the city

Oh, untouchable maid
The bald Brahmin passes sneaking close by
Oh, my maid, I would make you my companion
Kanha is a kapali, a yogi
He is naked and has no disgust
There is a lotus with sixty-four petals
Upon that the maid will climb with this poor self and dance.

19
Also from the mention of the name of the Rāga (melody) for the each Pada at the
beginning of it in the manuscript, it seems that these Padas were actually sung. All
50 Padas were set to the tunes of different Rāgas. The ragas mentioned in
Charyapadas are Patamanjari, Gabari or Gauda, Bongal, Bhairavi, Aru, Gurjari,
Gunjari or Kanha-Gunjari, Devakri, Deshākha, Kāmod, Dhanasi or Dhanashri,
Rāmakri, Balāddi or Barādi, Shabari, Mallāri, Mālasi, Mālasi-Gaburā.
While some of these Rāgas are extinct, the names of some of these Rāgas may
actually be variant names of popular Rāgas we know today.

Atiśa Dīpankara Śrījñāna (982–1054)

Bikrampur was Atisa's birthplace, the capital of the Chandra dynasty as it was one of
the ancient kingdoms of southeast Bengal. It presently lies in the Munshiganj
District of Great Bengal, and continues to be celebrated as an early center of
Buddhist cultural, academic, and political life. Similar to Gautama Buddha, Atiśa
was born into royalty. His father was a king known as Kalyana Shri and his mother
was Shri Prabhavati. Raja Srichandra of Chandra Dynasty was his grandfather. One
of three royal brothers, Atiśa went by the name of Candragarbha during the first part
of his life. In fact, it was not until he traveled to Guge and encountered King
Jangchup Ö (Wylie: byang chub 'od, 984–1078) that he was given the name Atiśa.

He was a Buddhist religious leader and master. He is generally associated for his
work carried out at the Vikramshila monastery in Bihar. He was one of the major
figures in the spread of 11th-century Mahayana and Sahajiya/Vajrayana Buddhism
in Asia and inspired Buddhist thought from Tibet to Sumatra. He is recognised as
one of the greatest figures of classical Buddhism. Atiśa's chief disciple, Dromtön,
was the founder of the Kadam school, one of the New Translation schools of Tibetan
Buddhism, later supplanted by the Gelug tradition in the 14th century, adopting its
teachings and absorbing its monasteries. In 2004, Atiśa was ranked 18th in
the BBC's poll of the greatest Bengalis of all time.

According to Tibetan sources, Atiśa was ordained into the Mahāsāṃghika lineage at
the age of twenty-eight by the Abbot Śīlarakṣita and studied almost all Buddhist and
non-Buddhist schools of his time, including teachings from Vaishnavism, Shaivism,
Tantric Hinduism and other practices. He also studied the sixty-four kinds of art, the
art of music and the art of logic and accomplished these studies until the age of
twenty-two also practiced and preached his teaching in “Jeevan Charya” (Daily life),
this is how the Charya cult came to the existence. Among the many Buddhist

20
lineages he studied, practiced and transmitted the three main lineages were
the Lineage of the Profound Action transmitted by Asaṅga and Vasubandhu,
the Lineage of Profound View transmitted by Nagarjuna and Candrakīrti, and
the Lineage of Profound Experience transmitted by Tilopa and Naropa. is said that
Atiśa had more than 150 teachers, but one key one was Dharmakīrtiśrī.

Atisa Dipankara had made a significant contribution to popularize this ancient dance
form in Bengal, Assam, Manipur, parts of Orissa, Nepal and Tibet as well. It was
widely used in the Sahajiya/Vajrayana/Nath yogi Tantric societies. However, the art
form was extinct after the declining phase of Sahajiya/Vajrayana/Tantric Buddhism
and fall of Pala empire (12th century A.D) in Bengal and Assam, Pala kings were
patrons of the art form and Sahajiya Buddhism, due to lack of patronage the practice
of this dance form has disappear

Sahajiya Buddhism and it’s legacies in modern Bengal, Assam and Odisha

In the ancient period Bengal, Assam and Odisha used to be a seat of Buddhism. The
archaeological ruins and the accounts of the foreign travelers bear testimony to the
expansion and richness of this heritage in ancient Eastern India. There is no doubt
that Bengal and Assam had developed a connection with Buddhism from a very
early period. On the basis of the Pāli Vinaya texts, it can be assumed that Buddhism
had probably obtained a footing in North Bengal even before the reign of King
Asoka Archaeological evidence even suggests the existence of Buddhism in North
Bengal as early as 2nd century B.C. Paucity of archaeological evidence from Bengal
proper makes it difficult to say anything on the conditions of Buddhism in Bengal
during the early centuries of the Christian era but the flourishing state of the religion
at the beginning of the Gupta period presupposes that the religion had been
prospering in different cities of Bengal during the earlier period as well. Description
about the state of the religion and the religious institutions like the monasteries can
be obtained from several contemporary texts, archaeological remains and from the
accounts of the foreign travelers - particularly the Chinese. Fa Hien, in 5th century
A.D. had mentioned stupas and residence of monks in different parts of the state of
Bengal and Assam. Tamralipti alone is said to have contained 22 monasteries. His
account is corroborated by writings of Ta ceng teng, Tao- lin, I tsing, Sheng chi
and of course Hiuen tsang. The latter had also described the different schools of
Buddhism that flourished in Bengal at that time. There were some very big Buddhist
universities in the region and a close connection had developed with Tibet which
was visited by several eminent scholars from Bengal and adjoining regions . One
reason of the prosperity of Buddhism in Bengal was the patronage that it received
from the rulers of Bengal. The Pala kings, although patrons of Bramhinism, had

21
promoted the cause of Buddhism in Bengal and in Bihar. Many minor dynasties of
Bengal of this period were also followers of Buddhism.

Srimanta Shankardev, Sattriya cult and Charyapada

“Kukur Srigalo Gardhabaro Atma Ram, Janiya Sabaku Kariba Pranaam” – (The
Supreme Soul exists in th souls of Dogs, Foxes and Donkeys too, enlighten yourself
and respect every being) – Srimanta Shankardev (1449-1568), the verses justified the
adaptation of the concept of “Mangal maitri” and Ahimsa introduced by Buddha, as
Jayadev noted in his Dashavatar Stotram “Nindasi yagya bidehrahah stuti jatam,
saday hruday darshita pashu ghatam, Keshav dhruta Buddha sareera Jaya Jagadish
hare” (The one who criticize the practice of Vedas and killing the animals is none
other than Krishna). Srimanta Shankardev is the not only the pioneer of Sattriya Cult
but also the father of such sophisticated community, far from the Kanyakubj, the
Barobhuiyan not only settled in Kamrupa for survival but also contributed by their
high intellect and philosophy of Buddhist cult to make the community more civilized
and Dharmik, Sil, Samadhi and Pragyavaan, the contribution of Srimanta
Shankardev for the society is commendable and unforgettable.

In the Dashavatar Kirtan by Srimanta Shankardev mentions “Buddha Avatre

Vedapantha pari churna, Baamaanay Sashtre mohi ase Xarba Jana” he says
Baamaanay Sastra which proves the practice of Sahajiyā Buddhism (Baam panth, the
questioning mindset, progressive intelligence) in Assamese community.

The Gaja-vyala in Sattriya cult has affinities with the Yali (Dragon like mythological
creature) of Sahajiyā Buddhist myths. In a Doha by kanhu pa he mentions Yali
“Aaliye kaaliye baato rundhila, Taha dekhi kanhu bimono hoila”, the word Aali
refers to Yali. The mythological creature portrayed with the head and the body of a
lion, the trunk and the tusks of an elephant, and sometimes bearing equine features.
The creature is represented in many South Indian temples, often sculpted onto the
pillars. There also exist variations of the creature, with it possessing the appendages
of other beasts. It has sometimes been described as a leogryph (part-lion and part-
griffin), with some bird-like features, with the trunk referred to as a proboscis.
Sometimes, they have been shown standing on the back of a makara, another
mythical creature and considered to be the vahana of Budha (Mercury). Some
images look like three-dimensional representation of yalis. Images or icons have
been found on the entrance walls of the temples, and the graceful mythical lion is
believed to protect and guard the temples and ways leading to the temple. They
usually have the stylised body of a lion and the head of some other beast, most often
an elephant (gaja-vyala).[7] Other common examples are: the lion-headed (simha-
vyala), horse- (ashva-vyala), human- (nir-vyala) and the dog-headed (shvana-vyala)
ones. The yali is said to be a guardian creature, protecting human beings both

22
physically and spiritually. It is regarded to be a fearless beast, possessing supremacy
over the animal world. It is also believed to be the symbolic representation of man’s
struggle with the elemental forces of nature.

Uruli/Jokaar Charya – The feminist revolutionary movement of Bengal, Assam

and Odisha after Khanaa.

Khana was a Bengali poet and legendary astrologer, who composed in the medieval
Bengali language between the ninth and 12th centuries AD. She is associated with the
village Deulia (Chandraketugarh, near Berachampa), in present-day Barasat, North
24 parganas district, West Bengal. Her poetry, known as Khanar Bachan (or vachan)
‘khana’s words’), among the earliest compositions in Bengali and Assamese
literature. The legend of Khana (also named Lilavati elsewhere) centers around her
association with Pragjyotishpur (the Bengal/Assam border), or possibly
Chandraketugarh in southern Bengal (where a mound has been discovered amongst
ruins with the names of Khana and Mihir associated with it) and that she was the
daughter-in-law of the famous astronomer and mathematician, Varahamihira, a jewel
among Chandragupta II Vikramaditya’s famed Navaratna sabha.

Daivajna Varāhamihir (505–587), also called Varaha or Mihira, was an Indian

astronomer, mathematician, and astrologer born in Ujjain (or Bengal, according to
some legends). The Indian Parliament building contains pictures of Varahamihira
and Aryabhata, among other astronomers. Though little is known about his life, he
supposedly hailed from South Bengal, where in the ruins of Chandraketugarh there is
a mound called the mound of Khana and Mihir. Khana was the daughter-in-law of
Varaha and a famous astrologer herself.

In all likelihood, she lived her life in Bengal, but a number of legends have grown up
around her life. According to one legend, she was born in Sri Lanka and was married
to the mathematician-astronomer Varahamihira, but it is far more widely believed
that Khana was Varahamihira’s daughter-in-law, and an accomplished astrologer,
becoming thereby a potential threat to Varahamihira’s scientific career. However,
she exceeded him in the accuracy of her predictions, and at some point, either her
husband (or father-in-law) or a hired hand (or possibly Khana herself under great
duress) cut off her tongue to silence her prodigious talent. This is a theme that
resonates in modern Bengali feminism, as in this poem by Mallika Sengupta,
khanaa’s song:

Listen o listen :

Hark this tale of Khanaa

23
In Bengal in the Middle ages

Lived a woman Khanaa, I sing her life

The first Bengali woman poet

Her tongue they severed with a knife.

After the incident the women of Eastern India started the Jokaar movement, the word
Jokar comes from word Jukuwa which means to tease in modern Assamese and old
Bangla, when Bramhinism was in it’s peak the women decided to deny the norms set
by the Bramhins and started practicing rituals without Bramhins and they used to
create a sound with their tongue during any auspicious occasion, uruli or Jokaar is
still a living tradition among the Bengali and Assamese community.

Shrii P.R. Sarkar writes about her:”Based on the all-pervasive influence of the
celestial bodies, a branch of knowledge arose in day-to-day life. And this branch of
knowledge was beautifully nurtured, with all its flowers, leaves and twigs, by
Kshana, a beloved daughter of Ráŕh, the offspring of the Ráŕhii Vaidyas caste of
Bankura /Senbhum.”

Through the centuries, Khana’s advice has acquired the character of an oracle in
rural Bengal (modern West Bengal, Bangladesh and parts of Bihar). Ancient
versions in Assamese and Oriya also exist. Advice such as “A little bit of salt, a little
bit of bitter, and always stop before you are too full” is considered timeless.

Thee religion had changed its nature in course of time. The ancient schools of
sarvastivada and sammatiya gradually lost their existence and the Mahayana school
developed forms of mysticism like Tantrayana, Vajrayana and Kalachakrayana. On
account of the great emphasis on esoteric aspects of the religion, Buddhism was soon
unhinged. As time passed on, less and less importance was attached to the
ceremonial aspects and it was not long before what remained of Buddhism was
absorbed in Brahmanical and tantric systems of Bengal and Kamrupa, finally it was
completely assimilated with saktism.

The Pravrajya and the consequent observances of the rules of monastic discipline
lost relevance as monasticism was dead and the formal aspects of the religion was
completely discarded. The process began before the end of the Pala period and was
completed before the 14th century. Finally, after the Moslem invasion, Buddhism
went out of Bengal leaving almost no trace of the religion in this part of India. It is
believed that in order to save their lives many escaped to neighbouring countries of
Arakan, Pegu, Nepal and even Tibet. Thus, even though Buddhism flourished in
Bengal for a very long period and enjoyed the royal patronage, its history is also the

24
history of loss of its basic characters and finally assimilation with Brahamanism
which, in other words indicated the gradual degeneration of the ideals preached by
Buddha himself.

Excepting a very few cases, we find almost no reference to Buddha in the medieval
Bengali literature from the 14th to the 18th centuries. Of course one exception is the
Charyapada (c. 10th century) which were composed by the Vajrayani Buddhists on
some mystical thoughts and ideas. Of the local gods, Dharma Thakur , worshipped
till today in parts of Bengal, is sometimes believed to be Buddha Niranjana by some
scholars but that has not been acceptable to all.

There has been a resurgence of Buddhism in Bengal from the late 19th century
onwards. The religion as practiced by today in Bengal , represents both the two sects
of Mahayana and Theravada practised in the northern and the remaining parts of
Bengal respectively. Even though the actual number of people who profess the
religion has never been considerable in Bengal. , Buddhist principles came to be held
in high esteem by the non Buddhist Bengali intelligentsia in general. All these
aspects will be discussed at length in the following sections.

The Buddhists of Bengal today

The number of Buddhists in modern Bengal ( West Bengal in this case) is not great.
As per an estimate it has been only 81,665 in 1951, 12,1504 in 1971 and 203,578 in
1991There are two distinctly separate groups among these Buddhists people from
the plains and from the hills. The religion as practiced by them is also different
belonging to both the Theravada and the Mahayana or more specifically, the Tibetan
Buddhism. The Chittagong district of erstwhile East Bengal (modern Bangladesh)
is inhabited by several groups of people of tribal origin who are traditionally
Buddhist by religion.

The single major group of Buddhists in the plains of Bengal are the Baruas of
Bengal. Practitioners of the Theravada school of Buddhism, they are said to be the
survivors of the original Buddhists of the ancient Buddhist period itself and are
believed to be practicing the religion from the very old days. Not much research has
been done on these Barua Buddhists and the literature on them is scanty. All the
Barua Buddhists of West Bengal today are basically from the Chittagong district of
Bangladesh or erstwhile East Bengal . Oral evidence has it that originally they
belonged to the present Bihar state and other parts of Northern India and some of
their ancestors had migrated to Chittagong during the period of Brahminist
resurgence in India undertaking a long and arduous journey through Assam. There
are different theories regarding the chronology of the migration. Some think that in
the 6th century A.D. with the arising of Brahminism, Buddhism declined and Baruas

25
from India then came to Chittagong. Others believe that in the 12th century when
Bakhtiyar uddin Khilji conquered Magadha, a prince from Vriji community with
his 700 relatives came to Chittagong and they are the ancestors of the Baruas. Since
there is neither any archaeological nor any epigraphical evidence in support of these
theories these are nor beyond question. Another theory has it that the Baruas are the
descendants of the Buddhist kings who are said to have ruled Bengal from 6th to the
13th centuries. These Bengali speaking Buddhists , are generally believed to have
maintained an unbroken lineage from the original Buddhists of India.

The Chakmas, Tanchangyas, Chaks, Marmgs (Moghs ), and Mrues are the other
Buddhist communities of Chittagong . A few Rakhain Buddhists are also found in
the district of Patuakhali. All these communities have distinctive Mongoloid
characteristics in their looks, and they also have their own language, literature and
script. While the Baruas claim to be the inheritors of the North Indian tradition of
ancient Buddhism, these other Buddhist communities of tribal origin , now living in
the Chittagong part of Bangladesh do not make any such claim. Rather they
highlight their Arakanese connection from where they are believed to have
immigrated. Thus, in view of the many contradictory accounts of the origin of these
Buddhists of Bangladesh it is difficult to arrive at a final theory regarding their
historical origin.

According to the Arakanese history, Dengyawadi Aradafunf it is learnt that the

Chakmas had their own independent state in upper Burma and Arakan where they
reigned for 500 years and it was in 1418 that following a severe repressive policy of
the king of Arakan, they finally migrated to Chittagong. The Marmas or the Maghs
are also from Arakan.

Even though all these groups of people professed Buddhism as their religion, by the
18th century the religion on the whole had greatly degenerated and could at best be
said to have maintained a precarious existence. They had incorporated many Hindu
practices like worship of different deities and even some sacrifices to God. Monks
were almost ignorant about the practices of Vinaya. The first reform to the religion
was initiated by Chakma queen Rani Kalindi(or Kanindri) who invited Ven.
Saramedha Mahasthavira to her Rajanagar monastery in 1857. This proved to be a .
turning point in the religious history of the Buddhists of Chittagong . Shocked to see
the degenerated condition of the Buddhists of the region, he took upon himself the
task of reforming the religion in accordance with Dhamma, Vinaya and Tripitak. It
is said that the queen conferred the title Sangha Raja on him and in 1869 built a
bhikku Sima at Sakyamuni monastery at her capital Rajanagar. .

The Theravada based religious reformation inspired the monks and people of the
region. Eventually they discarded their Tantric practices and other superstitions and

26
reverted to Theravada monastic disciplines. This was a kind of revival of the
religion itself.

There is another section of Bengali speaking Buddhists who belong to Mahasthabir

Nikaya which is a Bengali order of Buddhist monks. Even though they are not
doctrinally opposed to Sangharaja Nikaya and in fact have some identical practices
in many respects, they are opposed to the idea that Bengali Buddhists should come
under influence of a foreign personality. It is out of this prejudice that they advocate
different day to day practices for their monks in order to maintain an organizational
front.

I9th century proved to be a turning point in the history of the religion in other parts
of India as well. Changes leading to resurgence came from different quarters one
significant development being the foundation of the Bauddha Dharmankur Sabha in
1892 by Venerable Kripasankar Mahasthabir for the regeneration of the religion in
India . He was a contemporary of Anagarika Dharmapala , the founder of the
Mahabodhi Society of India. Both worked for the same cause of reforming and
reviving the religion in Bengal. Among the Bengali Buddhists there were some who
were attracted towards Buddhism as a result of the missionary activities of these two.

On the whole however it can be concluded that even though the Bengali
Buddhists are maintaining their religious identity they are quite similar to the
Hindus and observe some Hindu practices as well and do not always maintain the
puritan Buddhist traits established through the reform movement.

In contrast to these Buddhists from the plains, there are the followers of Mahayana
Buddhism, basically among the people of the Himalayan borderland of Darjeeling.
These Buddhists are the Lepchas and the Bhutias , the Sherpas and the Tamangs and
of course the Tibetans, all of whom are people of Mongoloid origin. The religion
they follow is the Tibetan type of Buddhism also commonly known as Mahayana or
Northern Buddhism.. Numerous monasteries and the lamas (monks) belonging to all
the major sects of Tibetan Buddhism indicate the influence of Tibet in this part of
Bengal.

The reason of the existence of these people in this part of Bengal is the history of
close contact between this region and Tibet.

Historically, the district of Darjeeling used to be a part of the kingdom of Sikkim

that became a part of Bengal only in 1835 when the king of Sikkim made a gift of
this region to the British in Bengal. The present day subdivision of Kalimpong came
to be attached to Darjeeling in 1866.This place too was originally a part of Sikkim
which had been occupied by Bhutan in 1770. After Bhutan returned it to the British

27
in 1865 the latter joined it to Darjeeling. Although both of these regions were
basically uninhabited at the time of annexation, the people, however small they
might have been in terms of number, shared the same Buddhist culture that
prevailed in the two states of Sikkim and Bhutan.

The state of Sikkim was traditionally ruled by the Bhutia monarchy. Originally
migrants from Sikkim, these people were Buddhist by religion and once they were
able to set up their government in Sikkim, in 1642 they embarked upon a policy of
spreading their religion through converting the Lepchas, the original inhabitants of
the land and also through construction of monasteries. The influence of the religion
was profound on the government and politics of Sikkim. So the religion had already
taken its root among the people of this region when Darjeeling was handed over to
the British and the tradition continued in Darjeeling.

These Bhutias who are people of Tibetan origin are not homogenous in nature.
L.S.S.O Malley in his Darjeeling District Gazetteer used the term to denote four
groups of people.

1. The Sikkimese Bhutias a mixed race of Tibetans and Lepchas . Basically they are
the descendants of Tibetans who had settled in Sikkim a few centuries ago.

2. Sherpa Bhutias who had come from the east of Nepal.

3.Drukpa or Dharma Bhutias whose home was originally in Bhutan

4. The Tibetan Bhutias from Tibet.

In addition, the large number of Tibetan refugees who have settled down in
Kalimpong and Darjeeling are also Buddhists. There are some Buddhists among the
Nepalis as well. The Tamangs, the Sherpas and the Yolmos are Buddhists while
Newars can be either Hindus or Buddhists. Tamangs claim to be the largest single
group to practice Buddhism. However their religion is not a pure form of Buddhism
and some Hindu elements have been mixed with it. This is true in case of the
Lepchas also. They , in spite of their conversion into Buddhism are said to have
retained some of their original animist traditions and rituals. As per the census data,
the total number of Buddhist population in Darjeeling district in 1981 was 12,0,846
which was 11.85% of the total population of the district and in 1991 their population
was 15,5,295 which was 11.05 %of the total population.

All these Buddhist communities maintain their monasteries in the region and observe
similar rituals and rites. Some of the monasteries of this region had direct contact
with Tibetan monasteries and some were even affiliated to some particular
monastery of Sikkim or even Bhutan. . A few were in fact founded by Tibetan

28
monks who often visited this part of Bengal through the mountain passes of Jelep-la
and Nathu-la.

Many more monasteries have been set up in recent years by the refugee Tibetan
lamas . Unable to practice their religion in their own country these lams now have
the urge to preserve their heritage in these newly founded centres and to pass on the
tradition to the next generation. Darjeeling has become one of the centres of
diasporic Tibetan Buddhist population. The number of lamas or Tibetan monks are
considerable in this region. They provide the Buddhists of their particular sects with
spiritual support and perform the rituals.

Practices of the Tibetan Buddhist communities of this region, are different from the
Buddhists of the rest of Bengal . They add to the ethnic diversity and
multiculturalism of the state and highlight the shades in the religion itself.

Revival of interest in Buddhism in Bengal

Even though the number of practicing Buddhists is not high in Bengal , Buddhism
has exerted a very deep influence on the Bengali intelligentsia from the late 19th
century onwards. Buddhas message of sacrifice, love of humanity, ideal of ahimsa
and non violence, his karuna and maitri made an immediate appeal to the
enlightened Bengalis irrespective of caste, creed and sex.

The Christian missionaries of Serampore initiated the earliest researches on Pali

language and literature and thereby drew attention to the life and works of Lord
Buddha. In 1808 Felix Carey. Son of William Carey went to Rangoon for spreading
Christianity and came in contact with Pali language and literature. He even authored
a book on the language and translated some of the suttas ( religious hymns
composed in meter) into English.

Interest in the life of Buddha and Buddhism actually revived in late 19th century
after the foundation of the Bauddha Dharmankur Sabha in 1892 by Venerable
Kripasankar Mahasthabir for the regeneration of the religion in India . As mentioned
earlier, he was a contemporary of Anagarika Dharmapala , the founder of the
Mahabodhi Society of India.

Thanks to Ven. Anagarika Dharmapala , the late 19th century saw the resurgence of
Buddhism not only in Bengal but in other parts of India as well. It all started with the
publication of a number of articles by Sir Edwin Arnold (author of the famous book
The Light of Asia) in the London based periodical, the Telegraph drawing attention
to the neglected state of the temple of Bodhgaya and its surroundings. These articles
caught the interest of Ven Dharmapala who was deeply moved by these. He came

29
from an aristocratic family of Ceylon but became anagarika (homeless) and
dedicated his life to the restoration of the temple at Bodh Gaya as well as the
Dhamma itself in the land of its birth.

After a visit to India in 1891 he founded the Maha Bodhi Society in Colombo in the
same year. The initial task of the Society was the maintenance of a staff of Bhikksus
in Bodh Gaya representing the Buddhist countries of Asia and publication of
Buddhist literature in English It also held an International Buddhist Conference in
Bodh Gaya.in 1891. In course of the next few years he visited America to spread the
philosophy of Buddha and also opened branches of the society in Madras,
Kushinagara and Anuradhapura. In 1915 the Society became a registered body with
Asutosh Mukherjee as its first president and within next five years the Dhrmarajika
Caitya was built in Calcutta. In recognition of the position it had won, the Society
was presented in 1920 with a casket containing the relics of the bones of Buddha
which were to be enshrined in the vihara. These relics had been discovered by
Archaeological explorations in 1891 and were preserved in the Madras Museum.
Around the same period, Bauddha Dharmankur Sabha came into existence in 1892.

Impact of Buddhism on modern Bengali, Assamese and intelligentsia

It was from the last few years of the 19th century that inspired by some
archaeological discoveries and by writings of some Orientalists, Bengali
intellectuals became interested in Buddhas life and his message. . Sir Edwin Arnolds
his book The Light of Asia in 1879 also made a profound impression in this
country . Devendranath Thakur, father of Rabindranath, was the first Indian to take
interest in Pali literature and Buddhism. He made a sojourn to Ceylone in September
1859 and joined in prayers and worships of the Buddhist monks. Back in home, he
founded a religious institution called Brahma Vidyalaya in which can be identified
some traces of Buddhist ideas and practices. Bankim Chandra Chattapadhyaya made
an assessment of Buddha and compared him with Jesus Christ and Rousseau as early
as in 1873

Kesavchandra Sen who accompanied Devendranath in Ceylone, was a zealous

Brahmo but he too was so influenced by Buddhism that he started celebrating the
birthday of Lord Buddha . He even made a visit to Bodhgaya and initiated an annual
programme for religious discussions called Shakya Samagam in 1880.
Devendranath’s two sons, Dwijendranath and Satyendranath wrote books on
Buddhist history and philosophy. This was the period when several books were
being written on Buddhism and history of Buddhism by Bengali scholars. These
included the researches made by Indologist Rajendralal Mitra, Haraprasad Sastri,
Satischandra Vidyabhusan and Romeschandra Dutt. Haraprasad was a great
Orientalist. Besides writing papers on Buddha and Buddhist texts, he made landmark

30
contribution to Bengali literature by discovering the Charyapada-the Buddhist mystic
songs. Well known dramatists and poets Girishchandra Ghosh and Nabin Chandra
Sen adoped Buddhas life as subject matter of their creations.

Of all the Bengali literati it was Rabindranath who wrote most extensively about
Buddha. He wrote not only about the life events of Buddha but made an original
interpretation of his philosophy as well. As early as 1883 he had written in his book
Samalochana I am a devotee of Buddha.Whenever I go for pilgrimage where
Buddhas tooth is preserved or where I look at the rock where Buddhas footstep is
carved , I feel how I gain him in my own self. In 1903 he described Buddhadeva as
follows

Buddhadeva made man great. He discarded all caste divisions and relieved man from
the compulsion of observing various rites and yagnas. He removed gods from being
the object. He declared the power of Self. He refused to beg mercy and welfare of
man from heaven and invoked it from within mans own self.

His writings on Buddha and related themes began in the last decade of the 19th
century and continued almost till the last year of his life. Rabindranath did not of
course go on with professional scholarship of Buddhist scriptures but the specific
characteristics of Hinayani and Mahayani ideals were clear to him . In his essay
Bauddhadhrme Bhaktibad (1911) he made his own observation. He was for the
Mahayana ideal of universal love. He emphasized that truth and love were identical.
He compared Buddhas teachings to the Upanishadas.

For him, the truth as declared by the Upanishad is same as the Buddhas concept of
love for the animals. Maîtri is the special term used for love and Buddha is the
embodiment of karuna and maîtri .Rabindranath did not find any dissimilarity
between the teachings of the Buddha and those of the Upanishads. In the essay
Brahmavihara he explains mangala to be the goal of life, and he equates this
mangala with nirvana. He differs from the Theravadi conception of sunyata. Nirvana
for him cannot be eternal nothing. The object of life cannot be negative. It must be
something positive and that has to be love or maîtri. This interpretation of Buddhism
was certainly original. It is generally accepted that for Buddha, attraction to this
world only creates Tanha endless sorrow. One has to be free from this attraction.
But Rabindranath resolves it this way

‘People at that time used to believe that to attain the supreme state by practicing
austerity is the ultimate goal. But when Buddhadeva attained Buddhahood he
immediately set himself to work. That was pure action, because it was free from fear,

31
greed, jealousy and dotage. It was beyond any selfish interest. It was action purely
of love and mercy. ‘

Rabindranath did not accept that the total extinction of self is the Nirvana. On the
other hand, to do good to mankind is the urge that must remain.

Rabindranaths writings on Buddha are of three types poems, dramas and addresses.
He also composed dance dramas on Buddha theme. In the early years of his career
he composed a number of poems and dramas the first literary composition on this
theme being Malini (1896). It is based on the Mahavastu- avadana and gives a
glimpse of conflict between the Brahmanas and the Buddhists. The same avadana
provided him the central theme of the poem Parishodh ((1899) which was later in
1939 developed into the dance drama Shyama. The other poems based on the
stories of different Avadanas are Sreshtha Bhiksha, Nagarlakshmi, Abhisar,
Samanya Kshati, Mulyaprapti, Pujarini and Mastakbikray. The stories of some of
his dramas were also taken from Buddhas life and message. These include Raja
(1910), Achalayatan (1912), Natir Puja (1926). All the basic stories were taken from
Rajendralal Mitras book -. The Sanskrit Buddhist literature of Nepal (1882) which
is a descriptive account of various avadana stories and was used by Rabindranath as
a constant companion.

In the later part of his life Rabindranath travelled to Siam, Java, Bali and Ceylone
where Buddhism was still a living faith. Standing before the ancient relics he
remembered the ancient glory and greatness of Buddha . Even in the last year of his
life, when he was in Kalimpong, the local Buddhist residents came to pay homage to
him on his birthday. Rabindranath was moved and composed poem in which he
remembered Buddhadev. Buddha was, in fact the symbol of the philosophy of his
own life.

That Buddhas ideals had a profound influence on Rabindranaths outlook is also

reflected in the fact that the concept of sangha was very much in his mind when he
founded his Brahmacharyashrama in Santiniketan. Even though it was modeled on
the Tapovana style where students gathered at the feet of their teachers , at the same
time they were taught to love a life in a body of united cooperation as in a sangha.

In his essay Vishva Vidyalayer Rup(1932) he explained how he loved to think that
Visva Bharati would develop in the line of great Buddhist seats of learning like
Nalanda, Bikramsila and Taksasila.

Several renowned scholars like Sylva Levi, Bidhusekhar Sastri, Prabodh Chandra
Bagchi, Sujit Kumara Mukhopadhyaya,and the like joined Visva Bharati on his
invitation.. The Cheena Bhavana turned out to be a widely known centre of Buddhist

32
studies and the Department of Tibetan studies was also founded to pursue higher
studies in Buddhist history and philosophy.

Tagore’s deep regard for Buddha moved his young contemporaries like
Satyendranath Datta as well. His poem Buddha Purnima or On the sight of the full
moon on Buddha’s birthday is well known. The trend continued. Younger poet
Mohitlal Majumdar interpreted his philosophy in a new light in his Poem
Mahamanaba or the Great Man . Some of the compositions of other modern Bengali
poets like Jibananda Das, Sudhindranath Datta, Birendra Chattapadhya and Amiya
Chakravorty are also based on themes from the life and philosophy of Buddha.

As for modern Bengali prose , events from Buddhas life have been the theme of
many a Bengali short stories and even novels. As early as 1883 , Haraprasad Sastri
had written the novel Kanchanmala which was followed by Bener meye – published
in 1919. A historian of eminence, Haraprasad Sastri had a impartial attitude and even
though the themes of these two novels were from the history of Buddhism, he did
not hesitate to show the shortcomings of Buddhist organizations and practices.
Another novel -was written by the distinguished archaeologist Rakhaldas
Bandapadhyaya which was serialized in the periodical Manasi during 1912 to 1914.
Saradindu Bandapadhyaya was another popular Bengali writer who based many of
his short stories and novels on themes related to Buddhism. Famous among his
novels are Kaler Mandira (1951), Gourmallar (1954), Tumi sandhyar megh ( 1958),
in addition to several short stories. Very recently, Bani Basu in her novel Maitreya
Jataka, narrated the achievements of Buddha in a modern frame of mind.

The influence of Pala art and culture in Southeast Asia

Religious activities and trade were one of the most significant factors in the cultural
contacts between Bengal region and Southeast Asia. Notably, the key location of
Bengal region (East and North East of the Indian Subcontinent and modern
Bangladesh) along the Maritime Silk Roads. This region had a special artistic
influences in Southeast Asian regions, especially in architecture and diverse artistic
movements.
Bengali architecture influenced Southeast Asian lands, modern Myanmar and
Indonesia (notably Java Island). At the end of the 8th century AD, an unusual form of
temple architecture was popular in the Bengal region. These temples had a unique
cruciform plan at the centre of the monastery. Architectural elements with the same
characteristics were found in temples in Burma region, modern Myanmar.

33
Another example of these cultural influences include the Ananda Temple in Bagan
(modern Myanmar) built in the 11th century AD under the ruling of King Kyanzittha.
At these times, Buddhist and Vaisnava monks travelled to Burma from the Indian
Subcontinent and discussed commonalities about the beauty of the temples of their
region. Therefore, the King Kyanzittha heard the monks and decided to build and
design a temple with these western inspirations. Although, the Ananda Temple
display its eastern origins, the western features remain obvious and demonstrate its
uniqueness. Even today, the Ananda Temple is considered as a masterpiece of
architecture.

Moreover, Buddhist temples in central Java also demonstrates the Bengal influence
in Southeast Asia. As an illustration, Chandi Sevu – one of the biggest Buddhist
Temple in Java – built in the 9th century AD, as well as other temples of the area,
were quite inspired by the Paharpur (Somapura Mahavihara) monastery in the
Bengal region.

Besides architecture, the development of bronze techniques coming from the Bengal
region – belonging to the Pala School of Art – has had an influence on ancient
Javanese art. Hindu-Javanese bronzes have not been conceived within the Pala
School of Art movement. However, different features and models of the bronzes
definitely display the influence of the Pala School of Art in Javanese art. In this way,
several Pala bronze sculptures coming from the Bengal region were found in
Southeast Asia. These sculptures were likely carried by the inhabitants of the Bengal
region to Java, Sumatra, and Burma where their art style and design eventually
became popular.

A collection of bronze sculptures from Mainamati-Chittagong (in the South East of

modern Bangladesh) of the pre-Pala and post-Gupta period determined the existence
of a local Centre for Buddhist Art in this region. This centre of art was a significant
hub for the expansion of this art movement towards eastern regions, notably to the
Burma region.

Thereby, it can be said that the Bengal artistic movements and architecture deeply
influenced Southeast Asians culture thanks to the exchanges along the Maritime Silk
Roads. Hence, Southeast Asian arts and style remain unique because of the use of
the local traditions along with Bengal artistic elements.

Indian culture itself arose from various distinct cultures and peoples, also including
early Southeast Asian, specifically Austroasiatic influence onto early Indians. A
reason for the acceptance of Indian culture and religious traditions in Southeast Asia

34
was because Indian culture already had similarities to indigenous cultures of
Southeast Asia, which can be explained by earlier Southeast Asian
(specifically Austroasiatic, such as early Munda and Mon Khmer groups), as well as
later Himalayan (Tibetic) cultural and linguistic influence onto various Indian
groups. Several scholars, such as Professor Przyluski, Jules Bloch, and Lévi, among
others, concluded that there is a significant cultural, linguistic, and political Mon-
Khmer (Austroasiatic) influence on early Indian culture and traditions. India is seen
a melting pot of western, eastern and indigenous traditions. This distinctly Indian
cultural system was later adopted and assimilated into the indigenous social
construct and statehood of Southeast Asian regional polity, which rulers gained
power and stability, transforming small chieftains into regional powers. In later
centuries Southeast Asia was more and more influenced by the scholars of the
University of Nalanda and the style of the Pala dynasty, the last of the great Indian
dynasties which bestowed royal patronage on Buddhism. The influence of Mahayana
Buddhism prevailing in Bihar and Bengal under the Palas was so strong at the court
of the Shailendras of Java that a Buddhist monk from ‘Gaud’ (Bengal) with the
typical Bengali name of Kumara Ghose, became rajguru of the Shailendra king and
in this capacity consecrated a statue of Manjushri in the royal temple of the
Shailenras in 782 AD. Bengal, lower Assam, eastern Bihar and Orissa were at that
time centers of cultural influence. These regions were in constant contact with
Southeast Asia, whose painters and sculptors reflected the style of Eastern Indian in
their works. Typical of this aesthetic was the special arrangement of figures
surrounding the central figure. This types of arrangement can be found both in
Indonesian sculptures and in the temple paintings of Pagan (Burma) during this
period. Trade was of major importance to the Palas, who thereby also increased their
cultural influences. The occasional military interventions of the Palas did not detract
from the peaceful cultural intercourse. At the northern coast of Sumatra the old port
of Dilli, near Medan, had great Buddha sculptures evincing a local variation of the
Pala style, also a magnificent status of the Hindu God Ganesha, in the pure Chola
style, have recently been found at the same place, Close to the famous temple of
Padang Lawas, central Sumatra, small but very impressive Pala-style bronze

35
sculptures of a Loknath and of Tara have been found. These sculptures are now in
the museum of Jakarta. They are dated at 1039 AD, and a brief inscription
containing Old Malay words in addition to Pali/Prakrit proves that the figures were
not imported from India but were produced locally.

The influence in Burma (Myanmar)

At the western end of the South East Asian mainland, Lower Burma was occupied
by the Mon peoples who are thought to have come originally from western China. In
Lower Burma they supplanted an earlier people: the Pyu, of whom little is known
except that they practised Hinduism.

Arrival of Buddhism and impact of Indian literature was from 3rd A.D, The Mons
strongly influenced by their contacts with Indian traders during the 3rd century B.C
adopted Indian literature and art and the Buddhist religion. The Mons were the
earliest known civilization in Southeast Asia. They consisted of several Mon
kingdoms, spreading from Lower Burma into much of Thailand, where they founded
the kingdom of Dvaravati. Their principal settlements in Burma were Thaton
Kingdom and Pegu. The Mons strongly Influenced by their contacts with Indian
traders during the 3rd century B.C adopted Indian literature and art and the Buddhist
religion. The Mons were the earliest known civilization in Southeast Asia. They
consisted of several Mon kingdoms, spreading from Lower Burma into much of
Thailand, where they founded the kingdom of Dvaravati. Their principal settlements
in Burma were Thaton Kingdom and Pegu. But the Tibeto-Burman Buddhist
kingdoms ruled over Burma from 11th – 13th A.D, about the 9th century onward
Tibeto-Burman tribes moved south from the hills east of Tibet into the Irrawaddy
plain. They founded their capital at Bagan in Upper Burma in the 10th century. They
eventually absorbed the Mons, their cities and adopted the Mon civilization and
Buddhism. The Bagan Kingdom united all Burma under one rule for 200 years -
from the 11th to 13th centuries. The prominent influence of Charya cult can be seen
in this period. The zenith of its power occurred during the reign of King Anawratha

36
(1044–1077), who conquered the Mon kingdom of Thaton. King Anawratha built
many of the temples for which Bagan is famous. It is estimated that some 13,000
temples once existed within the city, which some 5,000 still stand.

The influence in Cambodia

The first of these states to achieve widespread importance was the Kingdom of
Funan founded in the 1st century CE in what is now Cambodia — according to
legend, after the marriage of a merchant Brahmin Kaundinya I with
princess Soma who was the daughter of the chieftain of the local Nāga clan. These
local inhabitants were Khmer people. Funan flourished for some 500 years. It carried
on a prosperous trade with India and China, and its engineers developed an extensive
canal system. An elite practised statecraft, art and science, based on Indian culture.
Vassal kingdoms spread to southern Vietnam in the east and to the Malay
Peninsula in the west

In late 6th century CE, dynastic struggles caused the collapse of the Funan empire. It
was succeeded by another Hindu-Khmer state, Chenla, which lasted until the 9 th
century. Then a Khmer king, Jayavarman II (about 800–850) established a capital at
Angkor in central Cambodia. He founded a cult which identified the king with the
Hindu God Shiva – one of the triad of Hindu gods, Brahma the creator, Vishnu the
preserver, Shiva the god symbolising destruction and reproduction. The Angkor
empire flourished from the 9th to the early 13th century. It reached the peak of its
fame under Jayavarman VII at the end of the 12th century, when its conquests
extended into Thailand in the west (where it had conquered the Mon kingdom of
Dwaravati) and into Champa in the east. Its most celebrated memorial is the great
temple of Angkor Wat, built early in the 12th century. This summarises the position
on the South East Asian mainland until about the 12th century. Meanwhile, from
about the 6th century, and until the 14th century, there was a series of great maritime
empires based on the Indonesian islands of Sumatra and Java. In early days these
Indians came mostly from the ancient kingdom of Kalinga, on the southeastern coast
of India. Indians in Indonesia are still known as “Klings”, derived from Kalinga.

The influence in Indonesia

Approximately for more than a millennia, between 5th to 15th centuries, the various
Indianised states and empires flourished in the Indonesian archipelago; from the era
of Tarumanagara to Majapahit. Though founded possibly by either early Indian
settlers or by native polities that adopted Indian culture, and have maintaining

37
diplomatic contacts with India, these archipelagic Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms
remained politically independent from the kingdoms of Indian subcontinent.

The Indonesian archipelago saw the rise of Hindu-Buddhist empires of Sumatra and
Java. In the islands of Southeast Asia, one of the first organised state to achieve fame
was the Buddhist Malay kingdom of Srivijaya, with its capital at Palembang in
southern Sumatra. Its commercial pre-eminence was based on command of the sea
route from India to China between Sumatra and the Malay peninsula (later known as
the Straits of Malacca). In the 6th – 7th centuries Srivijaya succeeded Funan as the
leading state in Southeast Asia. Its ruler was the overlord of the Malay peninsula and
western Java as well as Sumatra. During the era of Srivijaya, Buddhism became
firmly entrenched there.

The expansion of Srivijaya was resisted in eastern Java, where the powerful
Buddhist Sailendra dynasty arose. From the 7th century onwards there was great
activity in temple building in central Java. The most impressive of the ruins is at
Borobudur, considered to have been the largest Buddhist temple in the world.
Sailendra rule spread to southern Sumatra, and up to Malay peninsula to Cambodia
(where it was replaced by the Angkorian kingdom). In the 9th century, the Sailendras
moved to Sumatra, and a union of Srivijaya and the Sailendras formed an empire
which dominated much of Southeast Asia for the next five centuries. After 500 Years
of supremacy, Srivijaya was superseded by Majapahit.

In the 10th century, Mataram to the challenged the supremacy of Srivijaya, resulting
in the destruction of the Mataram capital by Srivijaya early in the 11th century.
Restored by King Airlangga (c. 1020–1050), the kingdom split on his death and the
new state of Kediri was formed in eastern Java.

Kediri kingdom, spread its influence to the eastern part of Southeast Asia and
became the centre of Javanese culture for the next two centuries (11 th – 13th A.D),
also we can observe a beautiful cultural amalgamation of Indonesian culture and
Charya cult in this period, the contribution towards the Charya cult by the
Indonesian Kediri kingdom is appreciable. The spice trade was now becoming of
increasing importance, as the demand by European countries for spices grew. Before
they learned to keep sheep and cattle alive in the winter, they had to eat salted meat,
made palatable by the addition of spices. One of the main sources was the Maluku
Islands (or "Spice Islands") in Indonesia, and Kediri became a strong trading nation.

Influence in Malaysia

38
Hinduism and Buddhism from India dominated early regional history, reaching their
peak during the reign of the Sumatra-based Srivijaya civilisation, whose influence
extended through Sumatra, Java, the Malay Peninsula and much of Borneo from the
7th to the 13th centuries, which later gradually defeated and converted to Islam in 14 th
and 15th century before the European colonisation began in 16th century.
Between the 7th- 13th century, much of the Malay peninsula was under the Buddhist
Srivijaya empire. The site of Srivijaya’s centre is thought be at a river mouth in
eastern Sumatra, based near what is now Palembang. For over six centuries the
Maharajahs of Srivijaya ruled a maritime empire that became the main power in the
archipelago. The empire was based around trade, with local kings (dhatus or
community leaders) swearing allegiance to the central lord for mutual profit. The
relation between Srivijaya and the Chola Empire of south India was friendly during
the reign of Raja Raja Chola I but during the reign of Rajendra Chola I the Chola
Empire invaded Srivijaya cities. Even today the Chola rule is remembered in
Malaysia as many Malaysian princes have names ending with Cholan or Chulan, one
such was the Raja of Perak called Raja Chulan.
Decline of the Srivijaya empire and conflicts between its capital and its former
vassal states (12th – 13th century)
At times, the Khmer kingdom, the Siamese kingdom, and even the Chola kingdom
tried to exert control over the smaller Malay states. The power of Srivijaya declined
from the 12th century as the relationship between the capital and its vassal states
broke down. Wars with the Javanese caused it to request assistance from China, and
it may have also waged wars with the Indian states. In the 11th century, the centre of
power shifted to Malayu, a port which was possibly located further up the Sumatran
coast near the Jambi River. The power of the Buddhist Maharajas was further
undermined by the spread of Islam. Areas which were converted to Islam early, such
as Aceh, broke away from Srivijaya’s control. By the late 13th century, the Siamese
kings of Sukhothai had brought most of Malaya under their rule. In the 14th century,
the Hindu Java-based Majapahit empire came into possession of the peninsula.

Influence in Thailand

Thailand’s relationship with India spans over a thousand years and understandably
resulted in an adaptation of Hindu culture to suit the Thai environment. Evidence of
strong religious, cultural and linguistic links abound.
Historically, the cultural and economic interaction between the two countries can be
traced to roughly around the 6th century B.C. The single most significant cultural
contribution of India, for which Thailand is greatly indebted to India, is Buddhism.
Propagated in Thailand in the 3rd century B.C. by Buddhist monks sent by King
Asoka, it was adopted as the state religion of Thailand and has ruled the hearts and

39
minds of Thais ever since. Presently 58,000,000 Thais, an overwhelming 94% of the
total Thai populace adheres to Buddhism. However, direct contact can be said to
have begun only in the 3rd century B.C. when King Asoka sent Buddhist monks to
propagate Buddhism in the Indo-Chinese peninsula. Besides Buddhism, Thailand has
also adopted other typically Indian religious and cultural traditions. The ceremonies
and rites especially as regards the Monarchy evidence a strong Hindu influence.
Two of the most popular classical dances the Khon, performed by men wearing
ferocious masks, and the Lakhon (Lakhon nai, Lakhon chatri and Lakhon nok),
performed by women who play both male and female roles draws inspiration
primarily from the Ramakien which bears the affinity with Purulia chau of Bengal.
Thai language too bears close affinity with Pali and Sanskrit languages. An
indication of the close linguistic affiliation between India and Thailand is found in
common Thai words like Bhagavato (Phagavato in Thai), Ratha Mantri, Vidhya,
Samuthra, Karuna, Gulab, Prannee etc. which are almost identical to their Indian
counterparts. Thai language basically consists of monosyllabic words that are
individually complete in meaning. His Majesty King Ram Khamhaeng the Great
created the Thai alphabet in 1283. He modeled it on the ancient Indian alphabets of
Sanskrit and Pali through the medium of the old Khmer characters. Like most world
languages, the Thai language is a complicated mixture derived from several sources.
Many Thai words used today were derived from Pali, Sanskrit, Gaud-kamrupi
Prakrit, Khmer, Malay, English and Chinese.

Rediscovery of Charyapada

The rediscovery of the Charyapada is credited to Mahamahopadhay Haraprasad

Shastri, a 19th-century Sanskrit scholar and historian of Bengali literature who,
during his third visit to Nepal in 1907, chanced upon 50 verses at the Royal library
of the Nepalese kings. Written on trimmed palm leaves of 12.8×0.9 inches in a
language often referred to as sāndhyabhāṣa or twilight language, a semantic
predecessor of modern Bengali, the collection came to be called Charyapada and
also Charyagiti by some. At that time, Shastri was a librarian of the Asiatic
Society in Calcutta, and was engaged in a self-assigned mission to trace and track
ancient Bengali manuscripts. His first and second trips to Nepal in 1897 and 1898
met with some success, as he was able to collect a number of folkloric tales written
in Pali and Sanskrit. However, after he rediscovered the treasure manuscripts in
1907, he published this collections in a single volume in 1916. According to some
historians, there may very likely have been at least 51 original verses which were

40
lost due to absence of proper preservation. Based on the original Tibetan translation,
the book was originally called Charyagitikosh and had 100 verses. The scrolls
discovered by Shastri contained selected verses.

Techniques of Gaud-Kamrupi Charya Nritya

The dance follows the natyashastra techniques and Sangeet Damodara.

The performance of Gaud-kamrupi Nritya is based on those metaphorical Tantric
poems called Charyapadas written in Gaud-kamrupi Prakrit language also Pali and
Sanskrit Jataka tales or Gathas.
This is a Guru-Shishya parampara.
Though it comes from the Odhra-magadhi clan of performing arts mentioned in
Natyashastra hence we can observe it’s affinities with Odissi, Sattriya, Gaudiya and
Manipuri dances.
The Major elements of the style are: “Thai Chali Uthan Bhanga, Baithan Ghuran
Kriya Ranga”
Thai: The Standing posture
Chali: The movements which suggests basic ways of walking and covering space.
Uthan: The jumps used in the Dance
Bhanga: Resting posture with different body bendings.
Baithan: The seated or semi seated dance posture or movements.
Ghuran: The spins.
Kriya: Any body movement which conveys the meaning like, hasta mudra.
Ranga: Expression and presentation.
The instruments used in the dance style are Vajraveena, Rudraveena, Surveena,
Kham (percussion), Khol (percussion), Mridang (percussion), Gini/manjira, Flute,
Ektantru/ektara etc.

Revival of Gaud-kamrupi Charya Nritya

41
 Fig 7 : Depicting Dhyani Buddha in Gaud-kamrupi Charya Nritya attire.

With the endless efforts of the researchers and practitioners of Mahabodhi kala
prashikshan o gabeshana kendra, Tangla, Assam under the leadership of Acharya
Tanay Roy has succeeded in retrieving the dance form by assembling the manuscript,
sculptures, linguistic evidence and living traditions of the neighboring countries
having the same roots.

Conclusion
History of Buddhism in Bengal and Assam as passed through various phases. In the
ancient period Bengal and Assam used to be a seat of Buddhism. The archaeological
ruins and the accounts of the foreign travelers bear testimony to the expansion and
richness of this heritage in ancient Gaud-Kamrupa. Yet it was not before long that
the religion degenerated and became almost extinct. There was hardly any trace of

42
Buddhist practices and heritage in the medieval period when Bengal was ruled by the
Muslim rulers and Assam by the Ahoms. There has been a revival and resurgence of
Buddhism in modern period almost all over India and it has found its reflection in
Bengal and Assam as well.
Buddhism continues as a practicing religion among small , diverse groups of people
in Assam & Bengal. On one hand the presence of the Mahayana Buddhists reminds
one of the interaction between the Bengalis and the trans-border communities in the
northeast and on the other hand, the tribal Buddhist communities bear the legacy of
Bengal and Assamese connection with the kingdoms of Myanmar and Aracan at one
point of time. Some communities even claim to carry the legacy of the religion from
the heartland of India. The presence of these different groups of people practicing
different forms of the same religion reminds one of the different phases of the
history of Bengal and Assam as well as the different shades of the religion itself.
More important than that is the fact that Buddha’s philosophy has stirred and
inspired the Bengali and Assamese intellectuals since the 8 th century and
Charyapada was written during the Pāla regime. Both the intellectual community,
Bengali and Assamese in general are aware of Buddha’s life and teachings. There is
a deep rooted respect for Buddhism- not for any particular sect or school but for
those concepts that he had originally preached and proved with his life. This has
been possible for several reasons. The rediscovery of Charyapada by
Mahamahopadhyay Haraprasad Sashtri in 19th century awed everyone proving that
Charyapada is the literature written in such a period when Bengal and Assam wasn’t
two different pieces of land neither two different language nor two different
communities, Both the Bengali and Assamese bears the linguistic and Cultural
Legacy from the Gaud-Kamrupi Prakrit from the Magadhi Prakrit clan and
foundation of the institutes like Mahabodhi Kala Prashikshan O Gabeshana Kendra
retrieved the forgotten performing art “Gaud-Kamrupi Charya Nritya” under the
leadership of Acharya Tanay Roy which has created the interest among the upcoming
generation to know about the roots of Eastern and Northeastern India and their
glorious cultural history of Buddhism and Socio-cultural diplomatic relations with
the South East Asian Countries.
This respect for Buddha and his preaching is one characteristic of resurgent Bengal
and Assam

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