Module-1

LASER AND OPTICAL FIBERS

Introduction
Laser is the acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. It is a device for
producing very intense, almost unidirectional, monochromatic and coherent visible light beams. The
laser operation is based on the principle of stimulated emission. The lasers find applications in many
fields. They brought amazing changes in many areas and caused spectacular developments in the
field of communications.

Characteristics of Lasers

Coherence: The light from a laser is said to be coherent, which means the wavelengths of the laser light
are in phase in space and time. All the photons emitted in laser have the same energy, frequency, or
wavelength. Hence, the light waves of laser light have single wavelength (color). Therefore, the
wavelengths of the laser light are in phase in space and time. In laser, a technique called stimulated
emission is used to produce light.

Directionality: In a laser, all photons will travel in same direction. Therefore, laser emits light only in
one direction. This is called directionality of laser light. The width of a laser beam is extremely narrow.
Hence, a laser beam can travel to long distances without spreading.

Monochromatic: The word monochromatic means a light beam which has a single wavelength. Lasers
are monochromatic whereas ordinary light sources contain or range of wavelengths energies or colors.

High intensity:. The intensity depends on the amount of flow of energy that is through a unit area per
unit time. The ordinary source light spreads out in all directions while laser light is very particular
and travels in a particular direction. Because of this, it has a very high intensity.

Basic Principles:

1. Induced absorption:

It is a process in which an atom in the ground state undergoes transition to the higher energy state by
absorbing incident photon. It is represented as

Atom + Photon → Atom*

Let E1 and E2 be the energy levels in an atom and N 1 and N2 be the number density in these levels
respectively. Let Uγ be the energy density of the radiation incident.
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 Rate of absorption is proportional to the number of atoms in lower state and also on the energy
density Uγ.

Rate of absorption = B12 N1 Uγ

Here B12 is a constant known as Einstein’s coefficient of Induced absorption.

2. Spontaneous emission:

It is a process in which, atoms at the higher level undergoes transition to the ground state without any
external aid. The photons emitted in spontaneous emission may not have same direction and
phase similarities. It is incoherent.
Ex: Glowing electric bulbs, Candle flame etc.
The process is represented as
Atom* → Atom + Photon

The rate of spontaneous emission representing the number of such deexcitations is proportional to
number of atoms in the excited state.

Rate of spontaneous emission = A21 N2

Here A21 is a constant known as Einstein’s coefficient of spontaneous emission.

E2 𝐸2 −𝐸1
𝛾= =∆𝐸
ℎ

𝛾
E1

2
 3. Stimulated emission:

It is a process in which an atom in the excited state undergoes transition to the ground state by the
influence of passing photon. During this process a stimulated photon emitted along with the incident
photon and these photons are found to be coherent. The emitted two photons have same phase,
frequency, direction and polarization with the incident photon. This kind of action is responsible for
lasing action. This process represented as follows

Atom* + Photon → Atom + (Photon + Photon)

E2
𝐸2 − 𝐸1
𝛾 𝛾 𝛾=
ℎ

𝛾
E1

The number of stimulated emissions is proportional to the number of atoms in higher state N2 and
also on the energy density Uγ.

Rate of stimulated emission = B21 N2 Uγ

Here B21 is the constant known as Einstein’s coefficient of stimulated emission.

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Expression for energy density:

Consider a system of atoms in thermal equilibrium with radiation of energy density U ν & frequency
‘v’. Let N1 & N2 be the population of the energy states E1 & E2 respectively, where (E2 >E1 )Rate of
absorption is proportional to the number of atoms in lower state and also on the energy density U γ.

Rate of absorption = B12 N1 Uγ

Here B12 is a constant known as Einstein’s coefficient of Induced absorption.

Rate of spontaneous emission = A21 N2

Here A21 is a constant known as Einstein’s coefficient of spontaneous emission.

Rate of stimulated emission = B21 N2 Uγ

Here B21 is the constant known as Einstein’s coefficient of stimulated emission.

At thermal equilibrium,

Rate of absorption = Rate of spontaneous emission + Rate of stimulated emission

B12 N1 Uγ = A21 N2 + B21 N2 Uγ

𝐴21 𝑁2
𝑈𝛾 = 𝐵
12 𝑁1 −𝐵21 𝑁2

Rearranging this, we get

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 𝐴 1
𝑈𝛾 = 𝐵21 [𝐵12𝑁1 ]
21 −1
𝐵21 𝑁2

h
N1
From Boltzmann’s law, = e kT
N2
Hence
𝐴 1
𝑈𝛾 = 𝐵21 [ ℎ𝛾 ]
21 𝐵12
𝐵21
𝑒 𝑘𝑇−1

From Planck’s radiation law,

8𝜋ℎ𝛾3 1
𝑈𝛾 = [ ℎ𝛾 ]
𝑐3 [ ]
𝑒 𝑘𝑇 −1

Comparing these expressions, we get

A21 8h 3 B12
= and =1
B21 c3 B21
𝑨 𝟏
∴ 𝑼𝜸 = 𝑩 [ 𝒉𝜸 ]
𝒆𝒌𝑻 −𝟏

Requisites of a laser system.

a) Active medium:
Active medium is a Solid/Liquid/Gas medium in which stimulated emission and amplification of the
radiations can be achieved. The number of energy states of the active medium contributing for the
lasing action can be either three or four in number. Eg. He-Ne laser& CO2 laser.

b) Optical pumping:
It is a process of supply of energy to the atoms in the lower states in order to excite them to higher
states. The methods of pumping are Optical pumping, Electrical pumping, forward bias pumping,
chemical pumping, Elastic one-one collisions.

c) Resonant cavity
A laser device consists of an active medium bound between two mirrors. One of the mirror is highly
silvered and the other partially silvered. The distance between the mirrors is adjusted in a such a way
that the photons undergoing reflections should be in phase, so that they are coherent and there by
undergo constructive interference. i.e L= nλ/2 where ‘L’ is the length of laser cavity, λ is the wavelength
of the emitted photons and n is the number of stationary waves produced.

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Condition for Laser action

Population Inversion:
1.‘Population inversion is the state of a system at which, the population of a particular higher energy
state is more than that of a specified lower energy state’.
At thermal equilibrium, the number of atoms in the lower energy state is always larger than the upper
energy state. In order to increase the rate of stimulated emission Majority atoms should be at higher
energy level than the lower energy level. Thus, a non-equilibrium situation must be created to lift the
atoms to the upper energy state. Thus, the population of the upper energy level exceeds to a large
extent the population of the lower energy level. This state is called “Population Inversion”.

2. ‘Metastable state’ is an intermediate energy state between an excited state and the ground state of
the atomic energy levels, in which the atoms stay for a long period of the order 10-2 to 10-3 s. Thus, if
the atoms are continuously raised to metastable states, its population may exceed the population of its
lower energy state, which is necessary for laser action.

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Gallium – Arsenide Semiconductor laser:
It is a specially fabricated device p-n junction diode, which emits light when it is forward biased. These
are widely used in optical fiber communications.

Construction

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The gallium-arsenide (Ga-As) laser was constructed by Hall. A typical Ga-As semiconductor laser is
as shown in the figure. It consists of heavily doped n-region of GaAs doped with tellurium and p-region
of GaAs doped with zinc. The doping concentration is very high and is of the order of 1017 to 1019
dopant atoms/cm3. The p- n junction is connected to a dc power supply in a forward bias condition.
The resonant cavity required for energy amplification is obtained by cleaving (polishing) the end faces
of the junction diode, so that they act as optical cavity. Other sides of the p-n junction device are made
as rough surfaces so as to prevent the leakage of light.

Working
The laser diode is subjected to forward bias with voltage is greater than the potential barrier voltage,
electrons from the n – section and holes from p –section flow across the junction. When a hole meets
an electron, recombination takes place resulting in the emission of a photon. This emission falls under
the class of spontaneous emission. As the voltage is gradually increased population inversion is
achieved between the valence band and conduction band which in turn result in stimulated emission.
At this stage, a photon originally released by spontaneous emission may trigger stimulated emission
over a large number of recombination, leading to the buildup of laser radiation of high power. GaAs
laser produce laser beam of wavelength 8870Å in IR region.

APPLICATION OF LASER

A barcode scanner/ barcode reader:

A bar code consists of a series of strips of dark and white bands .Each strip has a width of about 0.3
mm and the total width of the bar code is about 3 cm. Information such as the country of origin,
manufacturer of the product, the direction of scan, price, reading error checking, weight of the product,
and expiry date can be stored in the pattern of dark and white strips. By a simple scanning, complete
information regarding the product can be obtained.

Laser scanners use a laser beam as a light source and typically employ oscillating mirrors or rotating
prisms to scan the laser beam back and forth across the barcode. When the laser beam hits the bars, the
amount of scattered light depends on whether the strip is black or white.

The scattered light is focused on a photodetector which converts the optical signal to an electrical signal
made of low and high states which is translated into digital signal and get fed into the computer enabling
viewing of the information on the computer screen or taking out a print.

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Laser printer:
Laser printer is based on the principle of xerography which makes use of a laser beam to produce an
image on the drum. It was first developed by Gary Starkweather at Xerox PARC in 1971. Laser printer
makes use of laser technology for the printing of copies onto the paper.

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Advantages of Laser Printer
1. The main advantage of Laser printer is its speed & efficiency at which it prints high quality graphics
& text.
2. Laser printers produce high-quality output as compared to other printers.
3. Laser printers are quite and does not produce disturbing sounds.
4. They are also capable to produce color prints.

Disadvantages of Laser Printer

1. The main disadvantage of Laser printer is its cost, they are relatively costly as compared to other
printers.
2. The maintenance, repair & servicing charges are also high of these printers.

Laser cooling:

Principle of LASER Cooling Laser cooling is the use of dissipative light forces for reducing the
random motion and thus the temperature of small particles, typically atoms or ions. Depending on the
mechanism used, the temperature achieved can be in the millikelvin, microkelvin, or even nanokelvin
regime.
It is primarily based on the fact that an atom (of any metal sample) changes its momentum (and energy)
when it absorbs and then re-emits a photon.

If an atom is traveling toward a laser beam and absorbs a photon from the laser, it will be slowed by
the fact that the photon has momentum. P=E/C=h/ λ It would take a large number of such absorptions
to cool the sodium atoms to near 0K.

The following are the types of laser cooling • Doppler Cooling and Sisyphous Cooling.

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Problems
1. The ratio of population of two energy levels out of which upper one corresponds to a
metastable state is 1.059 × 10−𝟑𝟎 . Find the wavelength of light emitted at 330K.

𝑁
Given data ratio of population b/w two energy levels 𝑁2 = 1.059 × 10−30
1

Temperature T = 330K

To find the wavelength of light emitted

The ratio of population of two energy levels from Boltzmann’s law is given by

𝐸2 −𝐸1 ℎ𝛾 ℎ𝑐
𝑁2
= 𝑒− ( 𝑘𝑇
)
= 𝑒 − (𝑘𝑇) = 𝑒 − (𝜆𝑘𝑇)
𝑁1

𝒉𝒄
𝝀=−
𝑵
𝒍𝒏 𝑵𝟐 𝒌𝑻
𝟏

6.626 × 10−34 × 3 × 108

𝜆=−
𝒍𝒏(1.059 × 10−30 ) × 𝟏. 𝟑𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟑 × 330

𝝀 = 632 nm

2. A laser medium at thermal equilibrium temperature 300K has two energy levels with a wavelength
separation of 1μm. Find the ratio of population densities of the upper and lower levels.

Given data wavelength of light emitted λ= 1μm, Temperature T = 300K

𝑁
To find population b/w two energy levels 𝑁2 = ?
1

𝑁2 ℎ𝑐
= 𝑒 − (𝜆𝑘𝑇 )
𝑁1

6.626× 10 −34
×3×10 8
𝑁2 −( )
= 𝑒 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 ×𝟏.𝟑𝟖×𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟑 ×300
𝑁1

𝑵𝟐
𝑵𝟏
=1.4046×𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟏

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3. Find the ratio of population of two energy levels in a Laser if the transition between them
Produces light of wavelength 694.3nm. Assume the ambient temperature to be 27⁰C.

Given data wavelength of light emitted λ= 694.3nm, Temperature T = 27⁰C =300K

𝑁
To find population b/w two energy levels 𝑁2 = ?
1

𝑁2 ℎ𝑐
= 𝑒 − (𝜆𝑘𝑇 )
𝑁1

6.626× 10 −34
×3×10 8
𝑁2 −( )
= 𝑒 𝟔𝟗𝟒.𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟗 ×𝟏.𝟑𝟖×𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟑 ×300
𝑁1
𝑵𝟐
= 8.89×𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟏
𝑵𝟏

4.The average output power of laser source emitting a laser beam of wavelength 6328 A˚ is
5mW. Find the number of photons emitted per second by the laser source.

Given data wavelength of light emitted λ= 6328A˚, Average power P = 5 mW, t =1S
To find the number of photons emitted per second N = ?

𝑐
𝐸 = 𝑁ℎ𝛾 = 𝑝𝑡 = 𝑁ℎ
𝜆
𝒑𝒕𝝀
𝑵=
𝒉𝒄
𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 × 𝟏 × 𝟔𝟑𝟐𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟎
𝑵=
𝟔. 𝟔𝟐𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟒 × 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖

𝑵 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟗𝟏𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟔

5.A laser operating at 632.8nm emits 3.162× 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟔 photons per second. Calculate the output
power of the laser if the input power is 100 watts. Also find the percentage power converted
into coherent light energy.

Given data wavelength of light emitted λ= 632.8nm, input power Pin = 100W, t =1S
To find the output power Pout = ? And % of power converted to light energy
𝑐
𝐸 = 𝑁ℎ𝛾 = 𝑝𝑡 = 𝑁ℎ
𝜆
𝑵𝒉𝒄
𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕 =
𝝀𝒕
𝟑. 𝟏𝟔𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟔 × 𝟔. 𝟔𝟐𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟒 × 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖
𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕 =
𝟔𝟑𝟐. 𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟗 × 𝟏

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 𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 0.01W
𝑷𝒊𝒏 0.01
% of power converted to light energy = = × 100
𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝟏𝟎𝟎
=0.01

6. A laser emits pulses of 20ns duration with average power/pulse being 0.1MW. If the number
of photons in each pulse is 6.981× 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟓 , calculate the wavelength of the photons.

Given data Number of Photons per pulse N = 6.981× 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟓 ,

Average power P = 0.1MW, t =20nS
To find the wavelength of emitted photons λ = ?

The energy of Photons when power is given

𝑐
𝐸 = 𝑁ℎ𝛾 = 𝑝𝑡 = 𝑁ℎ
𝜆
𝑵𝒉𝑪
𝝀=
𝒑𝒕
6.981× 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟓 × 𝟔. 𝟔𝟐𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟒 × 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖
𝝀=
𝟎. 𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 × 𝟐𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟗

𝝀 = 𝟔𝟗𝟑𝟖. 𝟒𝟐 A˚
7.A He-Ne laser is emitting a beam with an average power of 4.5mW. Find the number of
photons emitted per second by the laser. The wavelength of the emitted radiation is 6328A˚

Given data wavelength of light emitted λ= 6328A˚, Average power P = 4.5 mW, t =1S
To find the number of photons emitted per second N = ?

𝑐
𝐸 = 𝑁ℎ𝛾 = 𝑝𝑡 = 𝑁ℎ
𝜆
𝒑𝒕𝝀
𝑵=
𝒉𝒄
𝟒. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 × 𝟏 × 𝟔𝟑𝟐𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟎
𝑵=
𝟔. 𝟔𝟐𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟒 × 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖

𝑵 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟑𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟔

8.Find the ratio of population inversion of two energy levels in a medium in thermal
equilibrium. If the wavelength of light emitted at 330K is 632.8nm.

Given data wavelength of light emitted λ= 632.8nm, Temperature T = 330K

𝑁
To find population b/w two energy levels 𝑁2 = ?
1

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 𝑵𝟐 𝒉𝒄
= 𝒆− (𝝀𝒌𝑻)
𝑵𝟏
𝟔.𝟔𝟐𝟔× 𝟏𝟎 −𝟑𝟒
×𝟑×𝟏𝟎 𝟖
𝑵𝟐 −( )
= 𝒆 𝟔𝟑𝟐.𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟗×𝟏.𝟑𝟖×𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟑×𝟑𝟑𝟎
𝑵𝟏
𝑵𝟐
= 𝒆−(𝟔𝟖.𝟗𝟕𝟖)
𝑵𝟏
𝑵𝟐
=1.104×𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟎
𝑵𝟏

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 OPTICAL FIBERS

Optical Fiber: is thin a transparent di-electric material having variable refractive indices, which are used
transmit the Visible and Infrared light over long distances.

Construction of Optical fiber

Optical fiber consists two parts in which the inner part which of a cylindrical material, is made of
glass or plastic which of high refractive index called core. It is surrounded by another di-electric
transparent material of low refractive index called cladding. The Cladding is enclosed in polyurethane
jacket which protects the fiber against chemical reaction with surroundings, and also against abrasion
and crushing Many such fibers each one protected by individual jackets, are grouped to form a cable.
A cable may consists of one several hundred such fibers.

Working Mechanism

The optical fiber consists of has a core and a cladding layer. The refractive index of the core is
higher than the refractive index of the cladding. The light rays move from denser medium to rarer
medium of interface of core - cladding with an incidence angle greater than the critical angle, then
signal undergoes total internal reflection and the signal return back into the same denser medium
(core). Hence the propagation of light rays take place inside the core of the Optical Fiber with
successive Total Internal Reflection (TIR). After series of such total internal reflection, it emerges
out of the core. Thus, the optical fiber works as a waveguide. Care must be taken to avoid very

15
sharp bends in the fiber because at sharp bends, the light ray fails to undergo total internal
reflection.

Expression for the Numerical aperture in an optical fiber

Consider an optical fiber consisting of inner cylindrical core made of glass of refractive index n 1 and
is surrounded by another material called cladding of refractive index n2 such that n2 < n1.
Let n , n and n be the refractive indices of surrounding medium, core and cladding of the fiber
0 1 2
respectively.

Apply Snell’s law at the point O which separates Surrounding medium and core:

Apply the Snell’s law at the point B which separates core and cladding

If the surrounding medium is air then

n0 = 1, Therefore
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 The condition for propagation is the angle of incidence ishould be less than
acceptance angle θ0

Sine of the angle of incidence must be less than numerical aperture.

V-Number: The number of modes supported for propagation in the fiber is determined by a
parameter called V-number and is given by

The number of modes is given by N=V2/2

Types of Optical Fiber

Optical fibers are classified into 3-types based on their R.I. profile, core and cladding dimensions
and number of modes of propagation in the fiber.
(1) Step index single mode fiber
(2) Step index multi-mode fiber
(3) Graded Index multi-mode fiber
(1) Step index single mode fibre

It consists of a core of uniform refractive index n1.The core is surrounded by a material of uniform R.I.
n called cladding such that n < n . The diameter of the core is about 10 μm The external diameter of
2 2 1
the cladding is 60 – 70 μm. The variation of R.I.s of core and cladding takes the shape of step as
shown in fig. Since the core diameter is very small, therefore, it can allow one mode of propagation.

17
Applications

There are used for long distance communications and submarine cable system.

(2) Step index multi mode fiber

It consists of a core of uniform refractive index n1.The core is surrounded by a material of uniform R.I.
n called cladding such that n < n . The diameter of the core is about 50-200 μm The external diameter
2 2 1
of the cladding is 100 – 250 μm. The variation of R.I.s of core and cladding takes the shape of step as
shown in fig. Since the core diameter is very large, therefore, it will be able to support propagation of
large number of modes. Laser or LED is used as a source of light.

Applications

1)It can be used in data links which has lower band width requirements.

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 (3)Graded index multimode fiber:
It is also called GRIN. The diameter of the core is about 50-200 μm. The external diameter of the
cladding is 100 – 250 μm. The refractive index of core decreases from the axis towards the core
cladding interface. The refractive index profile is shown in figure. The incident rays bends and takes
a periodic path along the axis. The rays have different paths with same period. Laser or LED is used
as a source of light.

Applications: It can be used in the telephone trunk between central offices and it is most expensive
compared to other two types.

Attenuation in optical fibers: Attenuation is the loss of optical power as light travels through a
fiber. If Pin is the input power and Pout is the output power after passing through a fiber of length ‘L’
It is expressed in decibel/kilometer [dB/km].

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Mechanism of Attenuation

Absorption Losses: In this case, the loss of signal power occurs due to absorption of photons
associated with the signal. Photons are absorbed by
(a) impurities in the silica glass
(b) Intrinsic absorption by the glass material

Absorption by impurities: During the light propagation the electrons of the impurity atoms like
copper, chromium, iron etc, present in the fiber glass absorb the photons and get excited to higher
energy level. Later these electrons give up the absorbed energy either as heat or light energy. But the
emitted light will have different wavelength with respect to the signal. Hence it is loss.

Intrinsic Absorption: sometimes even if the fiber material has no impurities, but the material itself
may absorb the light energy of the signal. This is called intrinsic absorption.

Scattering Loss

Since, the glass is heterogeneous mixture of many oxides like SiO 2, , the compositions of the molecular
distribution varies from point to point. In addition to it, glass is a non-crystalline and molecules are
distributed randomly. Hence, due to the randomness in the molecular distribution and in homogeneities
in the material, there will be sharp variation in the density (refractive index value) inside the glass over
distance and it is very small compared to the wavelength of light. This type of scattering is known as
1
Rayleigh scattering. It varies as 𝛌 4 and becomes important at lower wavelengths. Therefore, when the
light travels in the fiber, the photons may be scattered.

Macroscopic bends
When optical fiber is curved extensively such that incident angle of the ray falls below the critical
angle, and then no total internal reflection occurs. Hence, some of the light rays escape through the
Cladding and leads to loss in intensity of light

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Microscopic bends: The microscopic bending is occur due to non-uniformities in the
manufacturing of the fiber or by non-uniform lateral pressures created during the cabling of the fiber.
At these bends some of the radiations leak through the fiber due to the absence of total internal
reflection and leads to loss in intensity

Applications of Optical Fiber

Point to Point communication system

The analog information such as voice of telephone user is converted into electrical signals in analog
form and is coming out from the transmitter section of telephone. The analog signal is converted into
binary electrical signal using coder. The binary data comes out as a stream of electrical pulses from
the coder. These electrical pulses are converted into pulses of optical power by modulating the light
emitted from an optical source like LED. This unit is called an Optical transmitter. Then optical signals
are fed into the optical fiber. Only those modes of light signals, which are funneled into the core within
the acceptance angle, are sustained for propagation through the fiber by means of TIR. The optical
signals from the other end of the fiber are fed to the photo detector, where the signals are converted
into binary electrical signals. Which are directed to decoder to convert the stream of binary electrical
signals into analog signal which will be the same information such as voice received by another
telephone user.

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 Optical Network
Definition: An Optical Network is basically a communication network used for the exchange of
information through an optical fiber cable between one end to another. It is one of the quickest networks
used for data communication.

Local Area Network

A Local Area Network (LAN) is a type of computer network that interconnects multiple computers
and computer driven devices in a particular physical location. Traditionally copper coaxial cables are
used for LAN.

Passive Optical LAN Passive here refers to the unpowered condition of the fiber and
splitting/combining components. Passive optical LANs are built entirely using Optical fiber cables.
The passive optical LAN is works on the concept of optical network terminals (ONT) and passive
optical splitters. Network switches act as passive splitters and the commercial media converters act as
optical network terminals in a real-time application of passive optical LAN.

Advantages
1. High speeds and bandwidth
2. Longer distances are possible

Advantages of Optical Fiber

1. Optical fibers can carry very large amounts information. The materials used for making optical fibers
are silicon oxide and plastic, both are available at low cost.
2. Because of their compactness, and light weight, fibers are much easier to transport.
3. No sparks are generated because the signal is optical signal.
4. It can be operated in high temperature range.

22
Limitations
1. Splicing is skillful task, which if not done precisely, the signal loss will be so much. The optic
connectors, which are used to connect (splicing) two fibers, are highly expensive.
2. Though fibers could be bent to circles of few centimeters’ radius, they may break when bent to
still smaller curvatures. Also, for small curvature bends, the loss becomes considerable

23
Problems
1. Calculate the numerical aperture, relative refractive index difference, V-number and number of
modes in an optical fibre of core diameter 50μm, core and cladding refractive indices 1.41 and
1.40 at wavelength 820 nm.
Given

ncore=n1=1.41

nclad=n2= 1.40

Wavelength of light= λ = 820nm

To find

numerical aperture N.A=?

relative refractive index difference =∆= ?

V-number =?

number of modes =?

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃0 = √𝑛 21 − 𝑛 2 2

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃0 = √1.412 − 1.402

N.A=0.1676

𝑛1 − 𝑛2
∆=
𝑛1

= 1.41 − 1.40/1.41

= 7.092𝑥10−3
 𝜋𝑑 √𝑛1 2 −𝑛2 2
V= 𝜆 𝑛0

3.14𝑥50𝑥10−6 √1.412 −1.402

V= x
820𝑥10−9 1
V=
32.09
𝑉2
N= 2 = 514

2. An optical fiber has core refractive indices 1.5 and clad refractive index 3% less than that of
core. Calculate NA, angle of acceptance and internal critical angle.
Given n1 = 1.5 , n2=3% less than n1 =0.045 =1.5-0.045=1.455

We have
√𝑛1 2 −𝑛2 2 √1.52 −1.4552 =
NA= = 0.364
𝑛0 1
√1.52 −1.4552 =
Also, angle of acceptance = 𝜃0 =𝑠𝑖𝑛−1( ) 21.340
1

𝑛
W.k.t critical angle 𝜃𝑐 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 −1(𝑛1 )= 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1(1.455/1.5) = 75.930
2

3. The angle of acceptance of an optical fiber is 30⁰ when kept in air. Find the angle of
acceptance when it is in a medium of refractive index 1.33.

Given
Angle of acceptance θ⁰= 30⁰
Refractive index of the medium n0’=1.33
To find
θ⁰=? When fiber is in a medium of RI 1.33

√𝒏𝟏 𝟐 −𝒏𝟐 𝟐
NA= 𝒏𝟎
Sin30⁰=0.5
n0sinθ⁰=(NA)= 1.33 sinθ⁰= 0.5
θ⁰= Sin-1(0.3759)=22.08⁰
4. The attenuation of light in an optical-fiber is estimated at 2.2dB/km. What fractional initial
intensity remains after 2 km & 6 km?

Data
Attenuation of light =2.2dB/km
Pout after 2km and 6km
𝟏𝟎 𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕
𝜶=− 𝒍𝒐𝒈( ) db/m
𝑳 𝑷𝒊𝒏𝒕
𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕
𝒍𝒐𝒈( ) = −(𝜶𝑳/𝟏𝟎)
𝑷𝒊𝒏𝒕

𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕
( ) = 𝟏𝟎−(𝟒.𝟒/𝟏𝟎)
𝑷𝒊𝒏𝒕
𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕
( ) = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟔𝟑
𝑷𝒊𝒏𝒕
Pout after 6km

𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕
( ) = 𝟏𝟎−(𝟐.𝟐𝑿𝟔/𝟏𝟎)
𝑷𝒊𝒏𝒕
=𝟏𝟎−(𝟏𝟑.𝟐/𝟏𝟎)
=0.0476

5.Find the attenuation in an optical fiber of length 500m when a light signal of power 100mW
emerges out of the fiber with a power 90mW.
Given
L=500m=0.5km
Pin = 90mW
Pout = 100 mW

𝟏𝟎 𝑷
𝜶=− 𝒍𝒐𝒈( 𝑷𝒐𝒖𝒕 ) db/m
𝑳 𝒊𝒏𝒕
𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟑
= 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎 ( )
𝟎.𝟓 𝟗𝟎𝒙𝟏𝟎−𝟑
= 0.915 db/km
 MODULE -2
Quantum Mechanics

Need for Quantum Mechanics

Quantum Mechanics is branch of physics that deals with the laws of motion of particles or bodies at
the atomic and subatomic level. Quantum mechanics superseded the classical mechanics which
originated from Newtonian mechanics. The classical mechanics explains the macroscopic objects such
as celestial bodies, projectile motion and the trajectory of space craft. But it fails to explain the
phenomena like blackbody radiation spectrum, photoelectric effect and specific heat of solids. A new
theory called quantum mechanics has emerged and was successful in explaining the behavior of
particles or bodies at the subatomic level. Quantum mechanics is the foundation of many disciplines
including nanotechnology, condensed matter physics, quantum chemistry, structural biology, particle
physics electronics, quantum computing and many others.

WAVE PARTICLE DUALISM:

The nature of light is not unique i.e. it exhibits both particle nature and wave nature. Some phenomenon
like Interference, Diffraction and Polarization can be explained on the basis of Wave nature of light
while other phenomenon like Photoelectric effect and Compton Effect can be explained on the
basis of particle nature of light. This property where light behaves both as waves and particles is called
dual nature of light or wave particle dualism.

De- BROGLIE’S HYPOTHESIS: Because of the dual nature observed of radiation and light, Louis
de Broglie put forward a bold hypothesis. He reasoned out that nature exhibits a great amount of
symmetry. “If the radiation behaves as waves sometimes and as particles at other times then it
is expected that entities such as electrons which behave as particles should also exhibit wave
like behavior under appropriate circumstances”. This is known as de Broglie’s hypothesis. According
to this Hypothesis, all material particles in motion are associated with a wave. The waves associated
with material particles are called matter waves or de Broglie waves

De-Broglie’s wavelength:
In 1924 Louis de Broglie suggested that the particles like protons, electrons, & neutrons in motion
exhibit characteristic properties of waves.

The waves associated with the particles of matter like electrons are known as matter waves
or de Broglie waves.
1
Let m be the mass of moving particle with a velocity v is given by the expression.
𝒉
λ= 𝒑

h h h
  
mv 2meV 2mE
Where h is the Planck’s constant

Expression for de-Broglie wavelength of an accelerated electron

We know that the energy of a photon is E=h𝛾---- 1

From Einstein’s theory of relativity E=mc2 ------ 2
m-mass of a photon
C-velocity of light
Equating 1 and 2 we get mc2=hc/ λ
ℎ
λ= --- 3
𝑝

Where p-momentum of of photon = mc m-mass of photon, c-speed of light

But according to de-broglie theory Momentum of electron particle (p) = mv m-mass of e’s,
V-velocity of electron particle
𝒉
de-Broglie wave-length λ= 𝒑

de-Broglie wave-length in terms of Energy

1 𝑚𝑣 2
We know that the kinetic energy of particle E= 2
1 𝑚2 𝑣 2
E= 2𝑚
𝑝2
E= 2𝑚

P=√2𝑚𝐸
𝒉
λ=
√𝟐𝒎𝑬

2
de-Broglie wavelength in terms of voltage (V)
1 𝑚𝑣 2
The electron accelerated with a potential of V volt is given by eV= -------4
2

If p is the momentum of the electron then, p=mv

Squaring both sides, we have, p2 =m2v2
𝑝2
Using the above, equation (4) becomes, eV=2𝑚

P=√2𝑚𝑒𝑣

ℎ ℎ
Therefore, 𝜆 = 𝑃 = ----5
√2𝑚𝑒𝑉
1 6.63𝑥10−34
𝜆 = [ ]
√ 𝑣 √2𝑥1.6𝑥10−19 9.1𝑥 10−31

1.226
𝜆= 𝑛𝑚
√𝑉
iv) de-broglie wavelength in terms of Temperature (T):-
According to the kinetic theory of gases, the average kinetic energy of a particle at temperature ‘T’ is
3𝑘𝑇
given by E= 2
𝒉
λ=
√𝟑𝒎𝒌𝑻

Phase velocity
A point marked on a wave can be regarded as representing a particular phase for the wave at that point.
The velocity with which such a point would propagate is known as phase velocity (or) wave velocity.

ω
It is represented by VP = 𝑘

Where, ω is angular frequency and k is the propagation constant or wave number

Group Velocity
The velocity with which the resultant envelops of the group of waves travels is called group velocity.
It is denoted by Vg or Vgroup and is equal to the particle velocity v.
𝑑ω
Vg =𝑑𝑘

3
HEISENBERG’S UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE:
The discovery of dual nature of material particle imposes a serious hurdle in locating the exact position
and momentum of a particle simultaneously.

This was removed by “Werner. Heisenberg” in 1927 by proposing a significant principle. Later it was
called Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.

The position and momentum of a particle cannot be determined accurately and simultaneously. The
product of uncertainty in the measurement of position (x) and momentum (p) is always greater than
ℎ
or equal to4𝜋.
ℎ
(x) . (p) ≥ 4𝜋

If one measures position or momentum accurately, then there will be an uncertainty in the other. Thus,
the Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle gives the probability of determining the particle at any given
instant of time in place of certainty

Explanation

In quantum mechanics a particle is described by a wave packet, which represents and symbolizes all
about particle and moves with group velocity. According to Born’s probability interpretation “the
particle may be found anywhere within the wave packet”. For a large wave packet with many crests
the velocity spread is very small so that the particle velocity can be fairly determined, but the position
of the particle became completely uncertain. On the other hand if we consider infinitely small wave
packet the position of the particle become certain but the velocity became quite uncertain

4
Different forms of Heisenberg’s Principle:

ℎ
(x) . (p) ≥ 4𝜋

h
(L).( ) 
4
h
(E ).(t ) 
4

Here ΔL is the uncertainty in angular momentum

Δθ is the uncertainty in the measurement of angular displacement
ΔE is the uncertainty in the measurement of energy
Δt is the uncertainty in the measurement of time interval during which the particle exists in the
state E

Physical Significance:
1. It introduces the concept of probability.
2. It can be used to find life time of electrons in an excited state.
3. It can be used to show that electrons do not exist inside the nucleus.

TO SHOW THAT ELECTRON DOES NOT EXIST INSIDE THE NUCLEUS:

We know that the diameter of the nucleus is of the order of 10-14m. If an electron is confined inside the
nucleus, then the uncertainty in its position Δx cannot exceed the size of the nucleus
𝛥𝑥 ≤ 10−14 𝑚
Now the uncertainty in momentum is
ℎ
𝛥𝑝 ≥
4𝜋. 𝛥𝑥
6.62 × 10−34
𝛥𝑝 ≥
4𝜋 × 10−14
𝛥𝑝 ≥ 0.527 × 10−20 𝑁𝑠

5
Then the momentum of the electron can at least be equal to the uncertainty in momentum.
𝑝 ≥ 0.527 × 10−20 𝑁𝑠
Now the energy of the electron with this momentum supposed to be present in the nucleus is given by
(for small velocities -non-relativistic-case)
𝑝2
E = 2𝑚
(0.527×10−20 )2
= 2𝑋9.1𝑋10−31 𝑋1.6𝑋10−19

=85Mev

This means that if electron exist inside the nucleus, its energy must be greater than or equal to 85Mev.
But experimental investigation shows that, kinetic energy of β particles is of the order 3-4Mev. This
clearly confirms the Nonexistence of the electrons inside the nucleus of an atom.

Complementarity Principle

It was first explained by Niels Bohr in the year 1928 and hence it is familiarly known as the Bohr’s
Complementarity principle.
We know that the consequence of the uncertainty principle is both the wave and particle nature of the
matter cannot be measured simultaneously. Suppose that an experiment is constructed in such a way
that it is designed to measure the particle nature of the matter. This implies that, during this experiment,
errors of measurement of both position and the time coordinates must be zero or absent, this in turns
explains that the momentum, energy and the wave nature of the matter are completely unknown.
Similarly, if an experiment is designed for measuring the wave nature of the particle, then the errors in
the measurement of the energy and the momentum will be zero, whereas the position and the time
coordinates of the matter will be completely unknown.
From the above explanation, we can conclude that, the inability to observe the wave nature and the
particle nature of the matter simultaneously is known as the complementarity principle

6
Wave function: The variable quantity characterizing matter waves is known as wave function. It gives
complete information about the system .It is also called state function as it speaks about the physical
state of the system
In quantum mechanics, the physical state of a particle is described by the concept wave function,
denoted as 𝜓(x), Mathematically it is represented by the equation 𝜓=𝐴𝑒𝑖(𝑘𝑥−𝜔𝑡) .

Schrodinger Wave Equation:- Schrodinger equation describes the wave nature of a particle in
mathematical form and is known as Schrodinger wave equation.
Types
(i). Schrodinger Time independent wave equation
(ii). Schrodinger Time dependent wave equation

Time independent Schrödinger equation

A matter wave can be represented in complex form as Ψ =𝐴𝑒 𝑖(kx−ωt) ----- 1
Where, A is the amplitude of the wave, ω is angular frequency of the wave, ψ is
the total wave function and k is the wave number.

𝜕𝜓
Differentiating w.r.t x = 𝐴(𝑘𝑥−𝜔𝑡)ik
𝜕𝑥
𝜕2ψ 𝜕𝜓
= 𝑖𝑘 ------ 2
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥

= ik (𝜓ik)
= - k2 𝜓 ------- 3
𝜕ψ2
+k2 𝜓 = 0 ----- 4
𝜕𝑥 2

From de-Broglie’s relation

1 h h
 =
 mv p
2𝜋 2𝜋𝑝
k=𝜆= ℎ
𝑝2
𝑘 2 = 4𝜋 2 ℎ2 ………………………. (5)

7
 Total energy of a particle E = Kinetic energy + Potential Energy
1
E= m v2 + V
2
p2
E V
2m

p 2  ( E  V ) 2m

Substituting in (5)
4𝜋 2 (𝐸 − 𝑉)2𝑚
𝑘2 =
ℎ2

𝜕ψ2 8𝛱 2 𝑚(𝐸−𝑉)𝛹
 From (1) 𝜕𝑥 2
+ ℎ2

In terms of total derivative,

𝑑2 𝛹 8𝛱 2 𝑚(𝐸−𝑉)𝛹
+ =0
𝑑𝑥 2 ℎ2

Significance of wave function:

The wave function is a complex quantity, so one cannot measure it. The wave function Ψ itself has no
physical meaning.
a)It gives the idea about the probability of finding a particle.
b) Let us consider a system of electrons. If  is the wave function associated
With that system, then 2 gives measure of density of electrons.
c) If we consider an electron to be present in the region of volume V then
2dV gives the probability of finding the electron in the region of volume dV. The probability
density  2 is real and positive quantity and is measurable, represents probability of finding a

particle per unit volume.

d) The certainty of finding the electron in the entire region of volume V is given by ∫ 2dV = 1.
This is known as normalization.

8
Normalization: Total probability of finding a particle in a closed volume is unity.

 dv  1
2

If  2 = 1; then we are sure that particle is present.

If  2 = 0; then the particle is completely absent

Application of Schrödinger’s equation:

Particle in an infinite potential well problem:
Consider a particle of mass m moving along X-axis in the region from X= 0 to X = a in a one-
dimensional potential well as shown in the diagram. The potential energy is assumed to be zero inside
the region and infinite outside the region.

Region (1)
Region
(2)

X=0 X=a

Applying, Schrodinger’s equation for region (1) as particle is supposed to be present in region (1)
𝑑2 𝛹 8𝜋 2 𝑚𝐸𝜓
𝑑𝑥 2
+ ℎ2
=0 V  0
8𝜋 2 𝑚𝐸
But 𝑘 2 = ℎ2
𝑑2 𝛹
 𝑑𝑥2 + 𝑘 2 𝛹 = 0


Auxiliary equation is D 2  k 2 x  0 
9
Roots are D = +ik and D = -ik

The general solution is

𝑥 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑥 + 𝐵𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑥
= 𝐴(𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑘 𝑥 + 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘 𝑥) + 𝐵(𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑘 𝑥 − 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘 𝑥)
= (𝐴 + 𝐵) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑘 𝑥 + 𝑖(𝐴 − 𝐵) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑘 𝑥
𝜳 = 𝑪 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒌 𝒙 + 𝑫 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒌 𝒙

The boundary conditions are

1. At x=0,   0 C  0
2. At x=a,   0
D sin ka = 0  ka = n 𝜋……… (2)
Where n = 1, 2 3…
𝜋
 𝛹 = 𝐷 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑛 𝑎 ) 𝑥

n2h2
From (1) and (2) E =
8ma 2

To evaluate the constant D:

Normalization: For one dimension

 dx  1
2

𝑎 𝑛𝜋
∫0 𝐷2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ( 𝑎
) 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 1

But cos 2  1  2 sin 2 

𝑎 1 𝑛𝜋
∫0 𝐷2 2 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ( 𝑎 )𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 1

𝑎 𝐷2 𝑎1 𝑛𝜋
∫0 𝑑𝑥 − ∫0 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ( 𝑎 )𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 1
2

10
 D2a 𝑛𝜋 𝑥
 [𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 ( ) ]𝑎0 = 1
2 𝑎 2

a
D2  0 =1
2

2
D=
a

2 𝜋
 n  𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑛 𝑎 ) 𝑥
a

Wave functions, probability densities and energy Eigen values for a particle in a box:

For n = 1, First state

2 𝜋
 1  𝑠𝑖𝑛 (1. 𝑎 ) 𝑥
a
 1 is maximum at x = a/2.
Thus a plot of 1 versus x will be as shown in figure and a plot of probability density 12 versus x
is as shown in figure. The probability of finding the particle is zero both at x = 0 and x = a.
It is maximum at x = a/2. This means that in the ground state, the probability of finding the particle is
maximum at the centre of the box.

The graph of  2 versus x is shown below.

11
 n=1

X=0 X=a/2 X=a

It is seen from the graph that probability density is maximum at the Centre for the particle in the first
state.

For n = 2, Second state

2 𝜋
 2  𝑠𝑖𝑛 (2. 𝑎 ) 𝑥
a
For n = 2, Second state
2 = 0 at x = 0, a/2 and a.
2 is maximum at the positions x = a/4 and 3a/4.

The graph of ψ2 𝑣𝑠 x is shown below.

12
 n=2

X=0 X=a/2 X=a

It is seen from the graph that probability density is maximum at x = a / 4 and x = 3a/4 for the particle
in the second state.

Eigen function: It is the physically acceptable solution to Schrodinger’s equation. It represents the
matter wave corresponding to a quantum particle in a specific state.
2 𝜋
Ex: For a particle in an infinite potential well, the eigen function is n  𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑛 𝑎 ) 𝑥
a
Eigen Value: It represents the energy of a particle in corresponding to its Eigen function.
n2h2
Eigen value for a particle in an infinite potential well is E =
8ma 2

13
Expectation values

Quantum mechanics deals with probabilities and hence predicts only the most probable values of the
observables of a physical system which are called the expectation values. These expectation values
could be the average of repeated measurements on the system.

To relate a quantum mechanical calculation to something you can observe in the laboratory, the
"expectation value" of the measurable parameter is calculated.

For the position x, the expectation value is defined as

Let  (x) describe the wave function of a quantum system, average value of the position (x) is given
by the expectation value integral:

This integral can be interpreted as the average value of x that we would expect to obtain from a large
number of measurements. Alternatively it could be viewed as the average value of position for a large
number of particles which are described by the same wave function.

The expectation value of momentum is given by 〈𝑝〉 =

14
15
 MODULE-3
Quantum Computing

Principles of Quantum Computing

Quantum computing is a growing field at the intersection of Physics and Computer Science.
In Quantum computers information is stored and manipulated using single isolated atoms or
photons or electrons. Since atoms, molecules and photons obey the law quantum mechanics,
quantum computers perform computation and process information according to the laws of
quantum mechanics. The novel features of these computers have immense potential applications
in the field of cryptography. (Cryptography is the science of main- tainting secrecy and security in
communication)

Figure 1: Disciplines contribute towards quantum computation

 Moore’s Law and its end

Statement: “The number of transistors on a microchip doubles every two years"

Gordon Moore, cofounder of Intel, indicated that - due to the shrinking size of transistors to the
nano scale (allowing integrated circuits to be composed of more transistors, resulting in more
powerful computer systems) - every year, twice as many transistors would be able to fit onto
computer chips. Now that nanometer circuits are attained, further reduction in the size of transistors
is extremely challenging. Computer systems may have reached their limit in transistor capacity
and power. Hence, industry leaders are asserting that Moore’s Law has come to an end, and
computers will no longer have many more transistors every year Moore’s Law has had a direct
impact on the progress of computing power.

Differences between classical and quantum computing

Comparison key Classical computer Quantum computer

Large scale multipurpose computer High speed computer based on
Basis of computing
based on classical physics quantum mechanics
Quantum bit-based information
Information Bit-based information storage using
storage using electron spin or
storage voltage/charge
polarization
Qubits have a value of 0, 1 or
Bits having a value of either 0 or 1 can sometimes linear combination of
Bit values
have a single value at any instant both, (a property known as
superposition)
The number of possible states is
Number of possible The number of possible states is 2 which infinite since it can hold
states is either 0 or 1 combinations of 0 or 1 along with
some complex information
Gates used for Quantum gates (X, Y, Z, H, CNOT
Logic gates (AND, OR, NOT, etc.)
processing etc.)
Operations use linear algebra and
Operations Operations use Boolean Algebra are represented with unitary
matrices
Bit: A digital computer stores and processes information using bits, which can be either 0 or 1.
Physically, a bit can be anything that has two distinct configurations: one represented by “0”, and the
other represented by “1”. It could be a light bulb that is on or off, a coin that is heads or tails, or any
other system with two distinct and distinguishable possibilities

Qubit:
An atom / ion / photon / Nuclei/ etc in a lower energy level / upper energy level/ superposed state .It is
the quantum version of a bit, and its quantum state can be written in terms of two levels, labelled |0⟩ and
|1⟩. | ⟩ this notation is known as ‘ket’ notation and 0 | is known as ‘bra notation. Both are together called
as Dirac notations.

Notation to represent quantum mechanical states

Ket notation:

Examples :
1 
0  
0 
0 
1  
1 
c 
 c 0 d 1   
d 
.
Branotation [1 0]

Superposition of two states

The difference between qubits and classical bits is that a qubit can be in a linear combination
(superposition) of the two states |0⟩ and |1⟩. For ex, if|0⟩ and |1⟩ are the probability amplitudes of electron
in ground state (ie, in |0⟩ state) and in excited state (ie, in |1⟩ state) then the linear combination of two states
is
|ψ⟩ = α |0⟩ + β|1⟩
The numbers α and β are complex but due to normalization conditions

|∝|2 + |𝛽|2 = 1.

Here |∝|2is the probability of finding |𝜓⟩ in state |0⟩ and |𝛽|2is the probability of finding |𝜓⟩ in state |1⟩.

Properties of qubits

1. Qubits make use of discrete energy state particles such as electrons and photons
2. Qubits exists in two quantum state |0⟩ and |1⟩ or in a linear combination of both states. This is
known as superposition.
3. State of the qubits is represented using Bloch sphere
4. The total probability of all the states of the quantum system must be 100%
|∝|2 + |𝛽|2 = 1. is called Normalization rule.
Bloch sphere
Bloch sphere is an imaginary sphere which is used to represent pure single-qubit states as a point
on its surface. It has unit radius. Its North Pole and South Pole are selected to represent the basis
states namely |0⟩ and |1⟩. North Pole represents |0⟩ (say spin up) and South Pole represents |1⟩
(say spin down ). All other points on the sphere represent superposed states Bloch sphere allows
the state of a qubit to be represented in spherical coordinates (ie, r,  and ). It is as follows

The state qubit |ψ⟩ on the Bloch sphere makes an angle  with z-axis and its projection (azimuth)
makes angle  with x-axis as shown. It is clear from the fig that 0 <  <  and 0 <  < 2. |ψ⟩ is
represented as
|ψ⟩ = α |0⟩ + β|1⟩

It can be proved that

𝜃 𝜃
|Ψ⟩ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 |0⟩ + 𝑒 𝑖𝜙𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 2 |1⟩

Using this equation we can represent |ψ⟩ for different  and  as follows

Case-1: let  = 0 and  = 0, then eq (1) becomes

|𝚿⟩ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 0|0⟩ + 𝑒𝑖0𝑠𝑖𝑛0|1⟩ = |0⟩ + 0

∴ |𝚿⟩ = |0⟩

Case-2: let  =  and  = 0, then eq (1) becomes

𝜋 𝜋
|𝚿⟩ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 |0⟩ + 𝑒 𝑖0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 |1⟩ = 0 + |1⟩
2 2
 ∴ |𝚿⟩ = |1⟩

Case-3: let  = /2 and  = 0, then eq (1) becomes

𝜋 𝜋
|𝚿⟩ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 |0⟩ + 𝑒 𝑖0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 |1⟩
4 4
1 1
|𝚿⟩ = |0⟩ + |1⟩
√2 √2

|0⟩ + |1⟩
|𝚿⟩ =
√2

Case-4: let  = /2 and  = , then eq (1) becomes

𝜋 𝜋
|𝚿⟩ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 |0⟩ + 𝑒 𝑖𝜋 𝑠𝑖𝑛 |1⟩
4 4
1 1

|𝚿⟩ = |0⟩ − |1⟩

√2 √2

|0⟩ − |1⟩
|𝚿⟩ =
√2
Multiple Qubits
Consider two qubits. They can be in any one of four possible states represented as |00⟩, |01⟩, |10⟩ and |11⟩.

1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
i.e |00⟩=[ ] |01⟩=[ ] |10⟩=[ ] |11⟩=[ ]
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1

The state qubit is (ie, linear combination of these four) |⟩ = 00|00⟩ + 01|01⟩ + 10|10⟩ + 11|11⟩

For 2 qubit system we have 4 complex amplitudes namely 00, 01, 10 and 11. According to
normalization condition |𝛼00| 2 + |𝛼01| 2 + |𝛼10| 2 + |𝛼11| 2 = 1

Similarly if there are 3 qubits there will be 8 complex amplitudes and in general for n qubits we will have
2n complex amplitudes. This means that a basis state is represented by a number 0 to 2n-1 .
2𝒏−𝟏
The superposition state is represented as |⟩ = ∑ ∝ |x⟩
X=0

Dirac representation and Matrix operations

Matrix representation of 0 and 1 states

In Quantum mechanics, Bra-Ket notation is a standard notation for describing quantum states. The
notation | ⟩ is known as ‘ket’ notation and  | is known as ‘bra’ notation. Both are together called as Dirac
notations.

The ‘ket’ vector typically represented as a column vector and ‘bra’ vector typically represented as a row
vector as follows

1 0
|0⟩=[ ] |1⟩=[ ]
0 1

0 |=[1 0] |1⟩ =[0 1]

Operators and matrices

An operator is a mathematical rule that transform a given function into another function.
Ex:
√4 = 2. Here √a square root operator. It transforms 4 to 2

Identity operator ‘I’

The identity operator is an operator which, operating on a function, leaves the function unchanged
i.e.
𝐼 |𝑎⟩ = |𝑎⟩

1 0
It is given in matrix form by 𝐼= [ ]
0 1

This is also called as identity matrix. There will be no change when I operates on either |0⟩ state or |1⟩
state. It is explained as follows.
 1 0 1 1
I|0⟩=[ ] [ ]=[ ]
0 1 0 0

I|0⟩=|0⟩

1 0 0 0
Similarly I|1⟩=[ ] [ ]=[ ]
0 1 1 1

I|1⟩=|1⟩

Conjugate matrices
If the elements in a matrix A are complex numbers, then the matrix obtained by the corresponding conjugate
complex elements is called the conjugate of A and is denoted by 𝐴∗.

1 𝑖
A=[ ]
−𝑖 1

1 −𝑖
𝐴∗ =[ ]
𝑖 1
Transpose matrices
If columns and rows of a matrix A are interchanged then the resultant matrix is transpose of A and
represented as AT .
1 𝑖 1 −𝑖
A=[ ] then AT=[ ]
−𝑖 1 𝑖 1
Hermitian matrices
A Hermitian matrix is a square matrix, which is equal to its conjugate transpose matrix. The non-
diagonal elements of a Hermitian matrix are all complex numbers. It is represented by 𝐴 †

3 1−𝑖
A=[ ]
1+𝑖 3

3 1+𝑖
𝐴∗= [ ]
1−𝑖 3

3 1−𝑖
AT =[ ]
1+𝑖 3
Unitary Matrices

A unitary matrix is a complex matrix that multiplied by its conjugate transpose is equal to the identity matrix.
𝐴𝐴 † = I

1 1
√2 √2
A=[ 1𝑖 −1𝑖 ]
√2 √2

Inner product
The inner product of two vectors U and V in the complex space is a function that takes U and V as inputs and
produces a complex number as output.

In terms of Dirac notation, the inner product is given as ⟨𝑈|𝑉⟩ = c

Orthogonality

If the inner product of two vectors is equal to 0 then they are said to be orthogonal (or perpendicular)
to each other.
The most important property of the inner product of a vector with itself is equal to one ie, ⟨𝜓|𝜓⟩ = 1
This is known as normalization condition. The physical significance of normalization is that the "probability
amplitude" of the quantum system is1

Orthonormality

If each element of a set of vectors is normalized and the elements are orthogonal with respect to each other, we say
the set is orthonormal (ortho + normalization = orthonormalization)

Consider

1 0
|0⟩=[ ] |1⟩=[ ]
0 1

0 |=[1 0] |1⟩ =[0 1]

1
⟨0|0⟩ =[10] [ ] =1 normalised
0

0
⟨0|1⟩ =[10] [ ] =0 orthogonal
1

0
⟨1|0⟩ =[01] [ ] =0 orthogonal
1

0
⟨1|1⟩ =[01] [ ] = 1 normalized
1

Paulis Matrices: are the set of three 2 × 2 complex matrices that are Hermitian, and unitary. Usually indicated
by the Greek letter sigma (σ).

0 1
𝜎1 = 𝜎𝑗 = 𝑋 =[ ]
1 0

0 −𝑖
𝜎2 = 𝜎k = Y =[ ]
𝑖 0

1 0
𝜎3 = 𝜎l = Z =[ ]
0−1
Properties of Pauli matrices

The most important property of Pauli matrices is that square of all the three matrices gives an identity matrix I.

0 1 0 1
𝜎X2 =[ ][ ]
1 0 1 0
1 0
=[ ]
0 1

𝜎X2 = 𝐼
In genral 𝜎X2 = 𝜎Y2 = 𝜎Z2 =I

Another property of Pauli matrices is that they are Hermitian. Let A be a matrix, A* be its complex conjugate and 𝐴†
is its transpose. If A = 𝐴†then the matrix is Hermitian.

𝜎Y2=[ 0 −𝑖
]
𝑖 0
 0 𝑖
𝜎Y2*=[ ]
−𝑖 0

0 −𝑖
𝜎Y2†=[ ]
𝑖 0

Operation of Pauli Matrices on 0 and 1 states

Three Pauli matrices X, Y and Z act on basis states |0⟩ and |1⟩ as follows

X operating on | |0⟩ and |1⟩

0 1 1
X |0⟩ =[ ][ ]
1 0 0
0
= [ ]
1
=|1⟩

0 1 0
𝑋|1⟩=[ ][ ]
1 0 1
1
= [ ]
0
=|0⟩
Since X inverts each input it is also called as bit-flip gate If a superposed qubit goes through X gate, the result
will be 𝑋|𝚿⟩ = 𝛼|1⟩ + 𝛽|0⟩

Y operating on | |0⟩ and |1⟩

0 −𝑖 1
Y |0⟩ =[ ][ ]
𝑖 0 0
0
= [ ]
1
=i|1⟩

0 −𝑖 0
Y|1⟩=[ ][ ]
𝑖 0 1
1
= −𝑖 [ ]
0
=i|1⟩

If a superposed qubit goes through Y gate, the result will be 𝑌|𝚿⟩ = 𝑖𝛼|1⟩−𝑖𝛽|0⟩

Z operating on | |0⟩ and |1⟩

1 0 1
Z |0⟩ =[ ][ ]
0 −1 0

1
= [ ]
0
=|0⟩

1 0 0
Z |1⟩ =[ ][ ]
0 −1 1

0 0
= [ ]== − [ ]
−1 1
=- |0⟩
If a superposed qubit goes through Z gate, the result will be 𝑍|𝚿⟩ = 𝛼|0⟩ − 𝛽|1⟩.This is also called phase-flip
gate.
The Truth table as follows

X- gate Y-gate Z-gate

Input Output Input Output Input Output
|0⟩ |1⟩ |0⟩ 𝑖|1⟩ |0⟩ |0⟩
|1⟩ |0⟩ |1⟩ −𝑖|0⟩ |1⟩ −|1⟩
𝛼|0⟩ + 𝛽|1⟩ 𝛼|1⟩ + 𝛽|0⟩ 𝛼|0⟩ + 𝛽|1⟩ 𝑖𝛼|1⟩−𝑖𝛽|0⟩ 𝛼|0⟩ + 𝛽|1⟩ 𝛼|0⟩ − 𝛽|1⟩

A quantum gate, a counterpart of classical gate, is a very simple computing device that performs quantum
operation on qubits. Quantum gates are one of the essential parts of a quantum computer and are the building blocks
of all quantum algorithms.

There are different types of quantum gates. Single-qubit gates can flip a qubit from 0 to 1 as well as allowing
superposition states to be created. Two-qubit gates allow the qubits to interact with each other and can be used to
create quantum entanglement.

X operating on | |0⟩ and |1⟩

0 1 1
X |0⟩ =[ ][ ]
1 0 0
0
= [ ]
1
=|1⟩

0 1 0
𝑋|1⟩=[ ][ ]
1 0 1
1
= [ ]
0
=|0⟩
Since X inverts each input it is also called as bit-flip gate If a superposed qubit goes through X gate, the result
will be 𝑋|𝚿⟩ = 𝛼|1⟩ + 𝛽|0⟩

Y operating on | |0⟩ and |1⟩

0 −𝑖 1
Y |0⟩ =[ ][ ]
𝑖 0 0
0
= [ ]
1
=i|1⟩

0 −𝑖 0
Y|1⟩=[ ][ ]
𝑖 0 1
1
= −𝑖 [ ]
0
=i|1⟩

𝑌|𝚿⟩ = 𝛼|1⟩ + 𝛽|0⟩ Y 𝑖𝛼|1⟩−𝑖𝛽|0⟩

 Z operating on | |0⟩ and |1⟩

1 0 1
Z |0⟩ =[ ][ ]
0 −1 0

1
= [ ]
0
=|0⟩

1 0 0
Z |1⟩ =[ ][ ]
0 −1 1

0 0
= [ ]= − [ ]
−1 1
=- |0⟩
If a superposed qubit goes through Z gate, the result will be 𝑍|𝚿⟩ = 𝛼|0⟩ − 𝛽|1⟩.This is also called phase-flip
gate.

𝛼|0⟩ + 𝛽|1⟩ Z 𝛼|0⟩ − 𝛽|1⟩

The Truth table as follows

X- gate Y-gate Z-gate

Input Output Input Output Input Output
|0⟩ |1⟩ |0⟩ 𝑖|1⟩ |0⟩ |0⟩
|1⟩ |0⟩ |1⟩ −𝑖|0⟩ |1⟩ −|1⟩
𝛼|0⟩ + 𝛽|1⟩ 𝛼|1⟩ + 𝛽|0⟩ 𝛼|0⟩ + 𝛽|1⟩ 𝑖𝛼|1⟩−𝑖𝛽|0⟩ 𝛼|0⟩ + 𝛽|1⟩ 𝛼|0⟩ − 𝛽|1⟩

4. Hadamard Gate

The Hadamard Gate is a well-known gate that brings a qubit into a superposition state. Similar to the Pauli-
X gate, the Hadamard Gate acts on a single qubit, and can be represented by a 2 x 2 matrix as follows

1 1 1
H=√2 [ ]
1 −1
Let us find out what happens when Hadamard gate operates on a qubit that is in the |0⟩ state.

1 1 1 1
H |0⟩ = [ ][ ]
√2 1 −1 0
1 1
=√2 [ ]
1
1
H|0⟩ = [|0⟩ + |1⟩]
√2

Let us find out what happens when Hadamard gate operates on a qubit that is in the |1⟩ state

1 1 1 0
H |1⟩ = [
√2 1
] [ ]
−1 1
1 1
=√2 [ ]
−1
 1
H|0⟩ = [|0⟩ − |1⟩]
√2

The truth table

INPUT OUTPUT
|0⟩ + |1⟩
|0⟩
√2
|0⟩ − |1⟩
|1⟩
√2
|0⟩ + |1⟩ |0⟩ − |1⟩
|𝜓⟩ = 𝛼|0⟩ + 𝛽|1⟩ 𝛼 +𝛽
√2 √2

Phase Gate (S Gate)

The Phase gate or S gate is a gate that transfers |0⟩ into |0⟩ and |1⟩ into 𝑖|1⟩. It is represented as

1 0
𝑆 =[ ]
0 −𝑖

1 0 1
𝑆|0⟩=[ ][ ]
0 −𝑖 0
=|0⟩

1 0 0
S|1⟩=[ ][ ]
0 −𝑖 1
0
=i[ ]
1

=i|1⟩

𝛼|0⟩ + 𝛽|1⟩ 𝛼|0⟩ + 𝑖𝛽|1⟩

The truth table

Input Output
|0⟩ |0⟩
|1⟩ 𝑖|1⟩

|𝜓⟩ = 𝛼|0⟩ + 𝛽|1⟩ 𝛼|0⟩ + 𝑖𝛽|1⟩

T- Gate

The T-gate is a very commonly used gate and it is given by

𝟏 𝟎
T=[ ]
𝒊𝝅
𝟎 𝒆 𝟒

If the input is |0⟩ then the output is also |0⟩

𝟏 𝟎 𝟏
T|0⟩=[ ][ ] 𝒊𝝅
𝟎 𝒆 𝟎 𝟒

=|0⟩
𝒊𝝅
If the input is |1⟩ then the output is also 𝒆 𝟒 |1⟩

𝟏 𝟎 𝟎
T|1⟩=[ ][ ] 𝒊𝝅
𝟎 𝒆 𝟏 𝟒
𝒊𝝅
𝟎
=𝒆𝟒 [ ]
𝟏
𝒊𝝅
= 𝒆 𝟒 |0⟩

𝒊𝝅
𝛼|0⟩ + 𝛽|1⟩ 𝛼|0⟩ + 𝛽 𝒆 𝟒 |𝟎⟩

The truth table

Input Output
|0⟩ |0⟩
|1⟩ 𝑖𝜋
𝑒 4 |1⟩
𝛼|0⟩ + 𝛽|1⟩ 𝛼|0⟩ + 𝑒𝑖𝜋⁄4𝛽|1⟩
 MUTIPLE QUBIT GATES

1. Controlled Gate (CNOT)

The CNOT gate is a two-qubit operation, where the first qubit is referred as the control qubit (A) and the
second qubit as the target qubit (B). If the control qubit is |1⟩ then it will flip the target qubit state from|0⟩
to |1⟩ or from |1⟩ to |0⟩. When the control qubit is in state |0⟩ then the target qubit remains unchanged. In
fact CNOT applies X on target whenever its control is in state |1⟩.

The symbolic representation is as follows. The upper line represents control qubit and bottom line
represents target qubit
|𝐴⟩ control Qubit
Control Qubit

|𝐵⟩ |𝐵⨁𝐴⟩Target Qubit

In the combined qubit, first term is control qubit and the second term is target qubit. For ex, in |𝐴𝐵⟩, A is
control qubit and B is target qubit
NOTE: In diagram the control qubit is represented by and target is represented by

Discussion for 4 different input states

1. Input state |00⟩ (Control qubit = 0, Target qubit = 0): Both the bits remain unaltered. Hence, the
output state is the same as the input state or |00⟩ → |00⟩
2. Input state |01⟩ (Control qubit = 0, Target qubit = 1): Both the bits remain unaltered. Again, the
output state is the same as the input state or |01⟩ → |01⟩
3. Input state |10⟩ (Control qubit =1, Target qubit = 0): The target qubit is flipped to 1. Therefore, the
output state has both qubits 1 or |10⟩ → |11⟩
4. Input state |11⟩ (Control qubit =1, Target qubit = 1): The target qubit is flipped to 0. Therefore, the
output state becomes |10⟩ or |11⟩ → |10⟩.

The matrix form

1000
CNOT= [0100]
0001
0010

The truth table

Input Output
|00⟩ |00⟩
|01⟩ |01⟩
|10⟩ |11⟩
|11⟩ |10⟩
 2. Swap Gate

In quantum computation sometimes we need to move state between two qubits, ie from control to target and vice
versa. This is nothing but swapping of the states and the gate used for this purpose is known as SWAP gate.

SWAP gate is a two qubit operation gate and swaps the state of the two qubits involved in the operation. It contains 3
CNOT gate. The action of SWAP gate is explained by taking two CNOT gates as follows where |10⟩ is swapped to
|01⟩

Consider the SWAP circuit diagram

Truth table of swap gate is as follows

Input Output
|00 |00
|01 |10
|10 |01
|11 |11

The matrix form

1000
SWAP= [0010]
0100
0001

3. Controlled-Z Gate

CNOT gate can be extended in a way that it can work on two qubits based upon a single control qubit.
C-Z gate is one such gate. In this gate there is one control qubit and Z unitary matrix as target qubit. If
the control qubit is in state |1 then it acts on target Z and will flip the state (ie, there is 1800 phase
change)

The circuit is represented as follows.

Z
 The truth table of a controlled-Z gate:

Input Output
|00 |00
|01 |01
|10 |10
|11 -|11

10 0 0
0 1 0 0
SWAP= 0 0 1 0
0 0 0−1
[ ]

4. Toffoli Gate

The Toffoli gate or controlled-controlled-NOT (CCNOT) gate is a logic gate having three input
qubits. The first two bits are control bits which remain unaffected by the action of Toffoli Gate. The
third is the target bit which is inverted (ie, changes from 0 to 1 or 1 to 0) if both the control bits are 1;
else it does not change

The circuit and the truth table are as follows

A A/ Input Output
A B C A/ B/ C/
0 0 0 0 0 0
B B/ 0 0 1 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 1 1
C C/ 1 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 1 0 1
1 1 0 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 0

I t can be expressed as an 8x8 matrix

10000000
01000000
00100000
00010000
𝑈𝑇 =
00001000
00000100
00000001
[ 00000010 ]
 MODULE-4

Electrical Properties of Materials and Applications

Introduction:

Materials having low electrical resistivity are known as conductors. Metals and alloys belong to this
group of materials. Free electrons theory was proposed by Drude assuming that Valence electrons
become free in a metal and move randomly with in the metal. Later Lorentz refined Drude’s theory by
assuming the velocity distribution of the electrons obeyed the Maxwell- Boltzmann’s law. However,
theory suffered from a number of setbacks, because of various assumptions made. Sommerfeld later
extended the free electron model by incorporating Fermi Dirac statistics.

Classical free electron theory: (Drude – Lorentz theory)

Postulates:
1. All metals contain a large number of free electrons which move freely through the positive
ionic core of the metals. These electrons are responsible for electrical conduction and hence
called conduction electrons.

2. These free electron gasses are treated as equivalent to gas molecules and they are assumed to
obey the laws of kinetic energy of gases. In the absence of any electric field the energy
associated with electrons is equal to
3
Kinetic energy = kT
2

3. The interaction between the electrons and lattice ions, the repulsion between electrons themselves
are ignored.
4. The electrons travel under a constant potential inside the metal due to the positive ionic cores but
stay confined within its boundaries.

Mean Collision Time ( ) : It is the average time taken between two consecutive collisions of
electrons.
Mean free path () : The average distance traveled by the electrons between two successive
collisions.

Drift Velocity (Vd): “The average velocity with which free electrons move in a steady state opposite to
the direction of the electric field in a metal is called drift velocity”.
Mobility of electrons: 

It is net drift velocity acquired per unit electric field applied. Mobility of electrons in Graphene is very
much higher than that in Silicon.
vd

E
It can be shown that   ne .

Temperature dependence of resistivity of a metal:

All metals are good conductors of electricity. The electrical conductivity of metal varies with the
temperature. The electrical resistance of a metal, to the flow of current, is due to scattering of
conduction electrons by lattice vibrations. When the temperature increases the amplitude of lattice
vibrations also increases, thereby increasing the resistance. The dependence of resistance of metal
(non-superconducting state) is shown in figure. The resistance decreases with temperature and
reaches a minimum value at T = 0K. The residual resistance at T = 0K is due to impurities in the
metal.

By Matthiessen’s rule

ρ = ρo + ρ(T)

Where ‘ρ’ is the resistivity of the given material, ‘ρo’is the residual resistivity and ‘ρ (T)’ is the
temperature dependent part of resistivity.

“The total resistivity of a metal is the sum of the resistivity due to phonon scattering and the
resistivity due to scattering by impurities.”
Failures of Classical free electron theory:
1. Specific heat

3
The Molar specific heat of a gas at constant volume is Cv = R As per theory, free electrons are
2

treated just as gas molecules. The above equation must be applicable for free electrons also.

But experimentally it was found that, the contribution to specific heat of a metal by its conduction
electron was, Cv =10-4RT, which is lower than expected value , but also shows a dependence on
temperature, which is contrary to the theory results.

2. Temperature dependence of electrical conductivity:

From the assumption of kinetic theory of gases
3 1
kT  mv 2
2 2
 v  T
Also mean collision time τ is inversely proportional to velocity

1

v
1

T
ne2 1
   
m
T
1
However experimental studies show that  
T

3. Dependence of electrical conductivity on electron concentration:

According to classical free electron the theory

ne2
σ= i.e., σ α n, where n is the electron concentration,
m
 Consider copper and aluminum. Their electrical conductivities are 5.88×107/Ωm and 3.65x107/Ωm.
The electron concentrations for copper and aluminum are 8.45×1028/m3and 18.06x1028/m3. Hence
the classical free electron theory fails to explain the dependence of σ on electron concentration.

Experimental results:

Metals Electron concentration(n) conductivity (σ)

Copper 8.45×1028/m3 5.88x107/Ωm

Aluminium 18.06x1028/m3 3.65x107/ Ωm

These examples indicate that

  n does not hold good.

Quantum free electron theory:

Assumptions:
1. The energy of conduction electrons in a metal is quantized.
2. The distribution of electrons amongst various energy levels is according to Pauli’s exclusion
principle and Fermi – Dirac statistical theory.
3. The interaction between the electrons and ions, the repulsion between electrons themselves are
ignored.

4. The electrons travel in a constant potential inside the metal but stay confined within its boundaries.

Density of energy of states:

There are large numbers of allowed energy levels for electrons in solid materials. A
group of energy levels close to each other is called as energy band. Each energy band is
spread over a few electron-volt energy ranges. In 1mm3 volume of the material, there will be a more
than a thousand permitted energy levels in an energy range of few electron-volts.

To represent it technically it is stated as density of energy levels. The dependence of density of energy
levels on the energy is denoted by g(E). The graph shows variation of g(E) versus E. It is called density
of states function.
Definition
It represents the number of energy levels per unit energy range per unit volume. It is a
continuous function and the product f(E) g(E)dE=dN gives the number of states per unit
volume in an energy range (dE)between E and E+dE .

The number of electrons per unit volume

, n=∫𝑔(𝐸)𝑓(𝐸)𝑑𝐸
 Fermi energy and Fermi level:

The energy of electrons corresponding to the highest occupied energy level at absolute 0°K is
called Fermi energy and the energy level is called Fermi level.

Fermi probability factor: It represents the probability of occupation of a given energy state by an
electron in a metal at thermal equilibrium. It is given by the relation
1
f (E) = E  EF
( )
e kT
1

Fermi factor and Temperature dependence of fermi factor

It is the probability of occupation of a given energy state by an electron in a metal at thermal equilibrium.
It is given by the relation
1
f (E) = E  EF
( )
e kT
1
Case1 Probability of occupation for For E < EF, at T = 0,
If E < 𝐸𝐹 ⇨ (𝑬 − 𝑬𝑭)𝑖𝑠 − 𝑣𝑒 ,then 𝒆(𝑬−𝑬𝑭)/𝒌𝑻 = 𝒆−∞ = 0
1
f (E) = E  EF =1
( )
e kT
1
Thus, the probability of occupation up to Fermi level is 100%.
Case 2 Probability of occupation for For E > E F , at T=0,
If E >𝐸𝐹 ⇨ (𝑬 − 𝑬𝑭)𝑖𝑠 + 𝑣𝑒 ,then 𝒆(𝑬−𝑬𝑭)/𝒌𝑻 = 𝒆∞ = ∞

1
f (E) = E  EF = 0
( )
e kT
1
Thus, the probability of occupation above Fermi level is 0%.

Case 3 The probability of occupation at ordinary temperature

At ordinary temperatures, T>0K for E = EF, 𝑰𝒇 𝑬 = 𝑬𝑭 ⇨ (𝑬 − 𝑬𝑭) = 𝟎
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝒆(𝑬−𝑬𝑭)/𝒌𝑻 = 𝒆𝟎 = 1
1
f(E) =
2
Thus, the probability of occupation of Fermi level is 50% above 0K.

The variation of f(E) with temperature(T) and energy(E)is shown in the graph

f(E)

T = 0K

0.5 T > 𝑜𝐾

E
𝐸𝐹

Fermi Temperature: It is the temperature to which a metal is to be heated such that the free electrons
acquire energy equal to Fermi energy.

2E F
TF 
3k
Fermi Velocity: It is the velocity of the electrons possessing Fermi energy.

2E F
VF 
m
Superconductivity

Superconductivity is a phenomenon in which certain materials (metals, alloys and ceramics)

exhibit zero resistivity when they are cooled to sufficiently low temperatures. This effect is called
superconductivity. The Materials having this property are called superconductors.

The phenomenon Superconductivity was first observed in1911 by Dutch physicist H.Kamerlingh ones.
He observed that, when Mercury is cooled, the resistivity of the Hg also decreases but, at a particular
temp (4.2 K) resistivity abruptly fall to zero.

Temperature dependence of resistivity of a superconductor:

The resistance of a superconductor in the non-superconducting state decreases with temperature and
the electrical resistivity of some of the metals and alloys vanish entirely below a certain temperature.
“The resistance offered by certain materials to the flow of electric current abruptly drop to zero below
a threshold temperature. This phenomenon is called superconductivity and threshold temperature is
called “critical temperature.” “The temperature at which a material undergoes transition from
normal state to superconducting state losing its resistivity is called the critical temperature or
transition temperature Tc”. The critical temperature is different for different superconducting
materials. It is not very sensitive to the presence of small amount of impurities.
Meissner effect

When a weak magnetic is applied to a superconducting specimen at a temperature below

transition temperature TC the magnetic flux lines are expelled. This phenomenon is called
Meissner effect.

When the temperature is lowered to Tc, the flux is suddenly and completely expelled, as the specimen
becomes superconducting. The Meissner effect is reversible. When the temperature is raised the flux
penetrates the material, after it reaches Tc. Then the substance will be in the normal state
.

Under normal state the magnetic induction inside the specimen is

B = µ0 ( H + I )

Where H is the external applied magnetic field and I is the magnetization produced inside
the specimen.

When the specimen is in superconducting state B = 0 (Meissner effect)

0= µ0 (H + I)
0
0µ
Or H = - I

χ = I/H
= -1
Experimental demonstration of Meissner effect:

Consider a primary coil and a secondary coil, wound on a superconducting material. The primary
coil is connected to a battery and a key. The secondary coil is connected to ballistic galvanometer
(BG). When the key is closed the current flows through the primary coil and the magnetic field
is produced. This flux is linked with the secondary coil and the current flows through the
secondarycoil which makes a deflection in the galvanometer. If the primary current is steady the
magnetic flux and the flux linked with the coil will become steady. As the temperature of the
specimen is decreased below the critical temperature, BG suddenly shows a deflection indicating
that the fluxlinked with the secondary coil is changed. This is due to the expulsion of the magnetic
flux from the specimen.

Effect of magnetic field

Super conductor loses its state of superconductivity, when it is subjected to strong magnetic field.
The minimum value of the field at which superconductivity is destroyed is called critical magnetic
field strength. Above the critical magnetic field strength, Hc, superconductivity vanishes and the metal
becomes a normal conductor. This field Hc depends on the temperature of the material and it is shown
in figure.
It can be seen from the figure that, the lower the temperature, higher is the value of the critical
Magnetic field strength.
The value of Hc can be obtained from the equation Hc=Ho(1 −T2/T2c)

where Hc - critical field at TK

H0 - critical field at 0K

Tc - transition temperature

HC

Types of superconductor

Depending upon on the magnetic properties, superconductors are divided into two types.

Type I superconductors: (Soft superconductor)

The Variation of magnetic field and magnetization for type I superconductor is shown in the figure.
Type I super conductor exhibits complete Meissner effect.
When field H increases, magnetization M also increases linearly up to Hc . At critical field Hc , M
suddenly decreases to zero and material changed to normal conductor.

In presence of an external magnetic field H<HC, type-I superconductor in superconducting state is a

perfect diamagnetic.
When H exceeds HC , the superconductor enters the normal state, i.e. it loses its diamagnetic property
completely. In this state, the magnetic flux penetrates throughout the superconductor. The critical field
value HC for type-I superconductor is found to be very low.
Examples: Aluminum, lead and iridium.

Type II superconductors (hard superconductor)

The type-ii superconductor is characterized by two critical fields HC1and HC2. The curve describes the
following features:
1. For the field strength below HC1, the superconductor expels the magnetic field from its body
completely and behaves as a perfect diamagnetic. HC1 is called lower critical field.

2. As the magnetic field increased from HC1, the magnetic field lines begin to penetrate the material.
The penetration increases until HC2 is reached. HC2 is called the upper critical field. At HC2,
magnetization vanishes completely, i.e. the external field has completely penetrated into
superconductor and destroyed the superconductivity.

3. In region from HC1 to HC2, the specimen assumes a complicated mixed structure of normal and
superconducting states. The superconductor is said to be in a mixed state which is commonly known
as vortex state. In the region HC1 and HC2, the material is in a magnetically mixed state but electrically
it is a superconductor.

The magnetic field is in the order 10T can penetrate the material and hence is called hard
superconductors. Example: Niobium, and Tantalum,etc.
BCS THEORY

BCS theory of superconductor was put forward by Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer in 1957 and hence
named as BCS theory. This theory could explain the effects such as zero resistivity, Meissner effect,
isotopic effect etc.

When an electron is passing nearer to a positive ion, the electron transfers some of its energy to the
positive ion. Due to this, there is a modification in the vibration of the positive ion. If another electron
passes nearer to this deformed positive ion, it interacts with the positive ion. The energy is transferred
from the positive ion to the second electron. It is an attractive interaction between two electrons and
this would not be arises if there is no positive ion. This type of interaction between two electrons
through lattice with exchange of phonons is known as “electron lattice electron interaction”.

In technical terms, one can they are called cooper pair. This interaction is strongest when two
Electrons have equal and opposite momentum and spin. Cooper pair has properties as that of a
Single particle. At low temperature since the lattice vibrations are minimum, these cooper pairs
Travel smoothly over the lattice without being scattered. Hence resistance is zero in the super
Conducting state.
High temperature superconductors (HTSC)

In 1986, Georg Bednorz and Alex Muller scientists discovered a new class of copper-oxide materials
that exhibited superconductivity, but at much higher temperatures than the metals and metal alloys
from earlier in the century. These materials are known as high-temperature superconductors.
High-temperature superconductors (abbreviated high-Tc or HTS) are materials that have a
superconducting transition temperature (Tc) above 30 K. HTSCs are all Type-II superconductors
having structures called Perovskite.
The high temperature superconductors are ceramic materials with layers of copper-oxide spaced by
layers containing barium and other atoms. In all the HTSCs 1 to 4 Cu-O layers are placed between
other layers.

Important features of High Temperature Superconductors (HTS):

1) They have high Tc.

2) They have PEROVSKITE crystal structure.
3) They are direction dependent
4) They are reactive, brittle and cannot be easily formed (or) joined.
5) The compounds of HTS almost consists more than three different chemical elements and the
Materials with the highest Tc have seven elements in the crystal lattice.

Ex: YBa2Cu3O7 (YBCO). YBCO has numerous advantages compared to other ceramic
Superconductors.

Quantum Tunneling:

Consider two superconductors separated by insulating barrier of thickness less than 10-20 Å, then
the cooper pairs tunneling through the insulating barrier is known as Josephson superconducting
quantum tunneling. The junction between the two superconductors with insulating barrier is
known as Josephson junction.
Josephson junction is an arrangement of two superconductors separated by an insulating barrier.
When the barrier is thin enough, cooper pairs from one superconductor can tunnel through the
barrier and reach the other superconductor.

Josephson proposed that this kind of tunneling leads to three kinds of effect, namely

1. dc Josephson effect
2. ac Josephson effect
3. quantum interference

Dc Josephson

Consider a Josephson junction having two superconducting films separated by a thin oxide
Barrier. The cooper pairs in Superconductors can be represented by a wave function and is same in all
cooper pairs. The cooper pair tunnels from one side of circuit to another side of circuit easily.

The insulating oxide layer introduces phase difference between the wave function of cooper
pair when it moves through it. Due to this a super current appears across the junction even
though applied voltage is zero . This is called dc-Josephson effect.
The supercurrent is given by Is = IcSin𝜃0

AC Josephson Effect

If we apply DC voltage across the junction it introduces an additional phase difference

betweenthe Cooper pairs and an alternating current is generated. This is known as AC
Josephson Effect. The frequency of alternating current is directly proportional to applied
voltage V and is given by
𝜈 = 2𝑒𝑉 /ℎ

SQUIDS:

A superconducting quantum interface device (SQUID) is a device used to measure extremely

weak magnetic flux. It is basically made up from superconducting rings.
SQUIDs are widely used in research, Biological studies and other ultrasensitive electronic and
magnetic measurements.
There are two types in SQUID namely DC SQUID and RF SQUID (or AC SQUID)
DC - Squid
It has two Josephson junctions parallel to each other in superconducting loop. It depends on
the interference of current from each junction. Dc-Squid is biased with a dc current which is
two times of superconducting current IC. This creates the dc voltage across junction Change
in the flux penetrating the loop enhances the current through one JJ and reduces through
other. This results in on JJ working normally and another one will be superconducting.

DC SQUIDS are used in

 Measurement of magnetic fields as small as 10-21 T produced by biological currents in human heart
and brain can be measured.
 Geophysical measurements (connected with rocks, seismic waves etc)
 Nondestructive testing (testing the material without damaging it)
 Fabrication of qubits

RF-SQUID

The RF (Radio Frequency) SQUID is a one-junction SQUID loop and is used as a magnetic
field detector. Although it is less sensitive than the DC SQUID, it is cheaper and easier to
manufactureand is therefore more commonly used.
 RF SQUID loop is placed near a LC circuit which is connected to RF AC source as shown in
Fig(ii). The loop is immersed in a magnetic field whose flux is  (to be measured). Now pass
an oscillating current (I) through LC circuit from the RF source. It induces magnetic flux RF.
This flux is coupled with the loop. The total external flux is
Φ𝑒𝑥 = Φ + Φ𝑅𝐹
RF-SQUIDS are used in
*Bio magnetism (ie, to measure magnetic field produced by different organs of our body)
*geophysical measurements (connected with rocks, seismic waves etc)
* Nondestructive testing (testing the material without damaging it)

Charge Qubit
In quantum computing, charge qubit is also known as cooper pair box. In these qubits basis
States are charged states which represent the presence are absence of cooper pairs. The dotted
Region in the circuit represents the presence or absence of cooper pairs charged qubit is
Formed by a tiny superconductor coupled with Josephson junction.

Flux Qubit
Flux qubits are micro sized loops of superconductors that are interrupted by number of
Josephson junctions.
These devices work as quantum bits. They are designed in such a way that constant current will flow
when an external magnetic field is applied.
Using quantum mechanics one can show that this system is equivalent to a particle moving in a double
potential well .The lowest point of each well is treated as one energy state. Hence this system has two
basic states.
Phase qubit
Superconducting phase qubit is also known as current-biased Josephson junctions. It is nothing but
current biased Josephson junction operating at zero voltage state (ie, DC SQUID). The applied
magnetic flux introduces the phase difference between the cooper pairs across the junctions. Hence the
resultant super currents in the junctions (due to flow of Cooper pairs) interfere producing maxima and
minima. These maxima and minima are treated as two states and this two-state property is used in the
operation of phase qubit.
 Module- 5

Physics of Animation and Statistical Physics

Animation

The word Animation was derived from the word Animate, which means to bring life. It is a method of
photographing successive drawings, models, or even puppets, to create an illusion of movement in a
sequence.

The Taxonomy of Physics-Based Animation Methods

The physics-based animation and simulation can roughly be subdivided into two groups:

1. Kinematics is the study of motion without consideration of mass or forces.

2. Dynamics is the study of motion taking mass and forces into consideration.

Kinematics and dynamics come in two subgroups:

1. Inverse Motion: is the study of motion knowing the starting and ending points.

2. Forward Motion: is the study of motion when only the starting point is given.

Frames and Frames Per second:

Frame is a single image in a sequence of pictures. In animation successive drawings or pictures are
made. Each picture is treated as frame. The number of frames displayed in one second for smooth
movement effect is known as frame rate. In cinema, a frame rate 24 frames per second is often used. For
Tv frame rate is 30FPS.

Timings and Spacing.

Timing refers to the time it takes for an action to complete from the starting point to the end. Timing is
the amount of frames it takes for an action to take place.

Spacing is the distance an object moves within a defined time for that action (it is also the distance an
object moves for every frame of that action).

1. Elucidate the importance of size & scale and weight and strength in animations

Size is simply how small or big an element is in relation to other objects within a design. Generally,
we use size to make a particular element stand out or to give it importance.

Scaling: The ratio of animation size to the actual size of the object is known as scale or scale of
animation. It is also defined as the ratio of pixels of the animation to the physical units of length

Proportion and Scale

Creating a larger or smaller character is not just a matter of scaling everything about the character
uniformly. Example: When you scale a cube, its volume changes much more surface area. Let us say
each edge of the cube is 1 unit in length. The area of one side of the cube is 1 square unit, and the
volume of the cube is 1 cubed unit.
If you double the size of the cube along each dimension, its height increases by 2 times, the surface
area increases by 4 times and its volume increases by 8 times.

Strength and weight

The weight of a man depends on his body volume and the muscle strength depends on the cross
Sectional area. To increase a muscle or bone’s strength, you need to increase its cross-sectional area.

2. Sketch and explain the motion graphs for linear, easy ease, ease in and ease out cases of

animation.

The position, Velocity, acceleration, and time are the variables with motion. A graph that can be
plotted between any two variables is called a motion graph.

Linear Motion: a one-dimensional motion that takes place in a straight line. The animation has the
same speed from start to end. Linear animation means that there is no easing applied to an object.
In linear motion if the body travels without acceleration (or deceleration) then it is known as
uniform motion. Here the net force acting on the object is zero and distance travelled between
consecutive frames is same. Hence timing is very easy. If the speed is less the spacing between the
frames is less. If the speed is more the spacing is also more

Ex: a ball rolling on the inclined plane, a ball moving on a horizontal plane, a stone falling under
gravity etc

Easy -in- out (Easy ease)

The animation has a slow start, then fast, before it ends slowly. As an object approaches the next key
frame it will start to slow down. After arriving at the key frame it will ease back out.
A real-world example of this is a ball being thrown straight up in the air. As the ball is arriving at its
peak, it will begin to decrease in speed. Upon hitting the peak, gravity will bring the ball back down.

Ease-in animations: It is a process in which the object which the body is preparing for stopping.
The ease-in timing function starts the animation slowly and gradually accelerates toward the end.
The initial phase of the animation is slower, providing a smooth and gentle start.
Example: when the ball starts out slow and builds up speed.
 3

Easing out: means that an object will start slow and speed up towards the end.
The ease-out timing function starts the animation quickly and decelerates toward the end.
The initial phase of the animation is faster, and it slows down as it progresses, giving a smooth and gentle finish.
Example: when the ball starts out fast and gradually reduces speed.

3. Describe Jumping and parts of the jump.

A jump is an action in which the entire body of the character is in the air and the character's feet
leave the ground nearly at the same time.

1. Crouch: It is the bending position used to prepare for jumping.

2. Takeoff: The character pushes up fast and straightens their legs with their feet still on the ground.
The distance from the center of gravity in the crouch to the center of gravity in take-off position
is called push height. The amount of time needed for the push is called push time..

3. in the air: Both the feet are off the ground, and the character’s center of gravity (CG) moves in a parabolic
arc. First it reaches a maximum height (apex), and then falls back to the ground. The maximum height or
jump height, is measured from the CG at takeoff to the CG at the apex of the jump. The amount of time the
character is in the air from takeoff to apex is called the jump time.

4. Landing: Character touches the ground and bends knees to return to a crouch. The distance from the
character’s CG when her feet hit to the ground to the point where the character stops crouching is called the
stop height. The stop height is not always exactly the same as the push height.
 4

4. Illustrate the odd rule and odd rule multipliers with a suitable example
The distance traveled by the object between two successive frames is calculated by the odd rule.
According to this rule
“The distance traveled between two successive frames is obtained by multiplying the base
Distance by odd numbers 1,3,5,7 etc during accelerated motion and by multiplying the base
Distance by odd numbers 7,5,3,1 etc during decelerated motion (slow in).

Explanation: This rule is applicable to both vertical and horizontal motion. It is explained by a body
falling under gravity. Consider a ball falling under gravity with zero initial velocity.
For a falling object, the distance drawings follow a simple pattern called as Odd Rule because it uses odd
numbers. 1, 3, 5,7 etc. Here the difference between any two successive distances is an odd number. For ex,
4-1 = 3; 9-4 =5; 16-9 = 7 and so on. Hence the rule is named as an odd rule

Odd rule multipliers

The process of calculating the distance from the first frame to the current frame and using these
Distances to place the object on specific frames is known as the odd rule multiplier.
Let us consider the object between the last two frames.

Base distance = ½ (difference of distance covered in successive frames) = ½(0.5-0.35)=0.07

 5

To figure out how many frames are in the slow-in, divide the first distance by the base distance to find
out which odd number it corresponds to.
First distance / base distance = 0.5 /0.07 =7
For the ‘slow-in’ process we have to multiply in the reverse manner ie, 7, 5, 3, 1.

Frame Distance covered

No Frame multiplier
base distance X frame multiplier
1 7 7x0.07 =0.5m
2 5 5x0.07=0.35m
3 3 3x0.07=0.21m
4 1 1x0.07=0.07m

5. Describe walking and walk timing

Walking is nothing but a step-by-step movement. Each step is divided into 4 poses namely
Passing, step, contact, and lift.

Strides and Steps

A step means one step with one foot. A stride means two steps, one with each foot. Step length is the
distance between two successive steps and Stride length is the distance between two parts of the same
step. Step and stride length indicate lengthwise spacing for the feet during a walk.

While walking each foot is in contact with ground for 60% of time (ie, single support) and both the
feet will be in contact for 20 % of time (double support). In this connection we define a quantity called
Gait. It is the timing of the motion for each foot, including how long each foot is on the ground or in
the air. To walk faster, obviously one has to increase stride length and decrease the time of double
support.

Line of action and path of action

Line of action is an imaginary line that describes the direction and motion of a character’s body. A good
line of action improves character’s poses, makes the character look more dynamic, energetic and alive.

The path along which the object or character moves is known as path of action or arc. For ex, path
of bouncing ball, trajectory of projectile, jumping of ballet dancer, path of moving arm etc.
 Module-5 Statistical Physics for Computing
Introduction

Statistical Physics is a branch of physics that evolved from a foundation of statistical mechanics, which
uses methods of probability theory and statistics, particularly the mathematical tools for dealing with
large populations and approximations, in solving physical problems.

Descriptive statistics: The term “descriptive statistics” refers to summarizing and organizing the
characteristics of a data set. A data set is a collection of responses or observations from a sample or
entire population.
In quantitative research, after collecting data, the first step of statistical analysis is to describe
characteristics of the responses, such as the average of one variable (e.g., age), or the relation between
two variables (e.g., age and creativity).

Descriptive statistics comprises three main categories – Frequency Distribution, Measures of Central
Tendency, and Measures of Variability.

Inferential Statistics is a method that allows us to use information collected from a sample to make
decisions, predictions, or inferences from a population. The major inferential statistics are based on
statistical models such as Analysis of Variance, chi-square test, student’s t distribution, regression
analysis, etc.

6. Distinguish between Descriptive and Inferential statistics

SI. Descriptive Statistics Inferential Statistics

No.
1. It helps in organizing, analyzing, and to It allows us to compare data, and make hypotheses and
present data in a meaningful manner. predictions.
2. It is used to explain the chance of occurrence of an
It is used to describe a situation. event.

3. It explains already known data and is limited It attempts to reach the conclusion about the population.
to a sample or population having a small
size.
4. It can be achieved with the help of charts,
graphs, tables, etc. It can be achieved by probability
 A variable is any property, characteristic, number, or quantity that increases or decreases over time or
can take on different values in different situations.

Variables in a programming language are names given to computer memory locations in order to store
data in a program. This data can be known or unknown based on the assignment of value to the
variables.

Discrete Variable
A discrete variable is a mathematical term used to describe variable that can only take on a finite
number of values.

Examples

*The number of accidents in the twelve months.

*The number of mobile cards sold in a store within seven days.
*The number of patients admitted to a hospital over a specified period.

Continuous Variable
A continuous variable may take on an infinite number of intermediate values along a specified interval.
Examples are:

*The sugar level in the human body;

*Blood pressure reading;
*Temperature;
*Height or weight of the human body;
*Rate of bank interest;

7. Define and Explain Poisson distribution

Poisson distribution
A Poisson distribution is a discrete probability distribution. It gives the probability of an event
happening a certain number of times (k) within a given interval of time or space. A Poisson distribution
measures how many times an event is likely to occur within an “x” period of time.

Probability mass function

A Poisson distribution is a discrete probability distribution, meaning that it gives the probability of a
discrete (i.e., countable) outcome. For Poisson distributions, the discrete outcome is the number of times
an event occurs, represented by k. The Poisson distribution has only one parameter, λ (lambda), which is
the mean number of events.

A discrete Radom variable X is said to have a Poisson distribution, with parameter, if it has a
probability, Mass Function is given by

𝜆𝐾 𝑒 −𝜆
𝑓(𝑘, 𝜆) = 𝑃(𝑋 = 𝐾) =
𝐾!

Here k is the number of occurrences,

e is Euler’s Number,
! Is the factorial function.
The positive real number λ is equal to the expected value of X and also to its Variance.
Example of probability for Poisson distributions

On a particular river, overflow floods occur once every 100 years on average. Calculate the probability
of k = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6 overflow floods in a 100-year interval, assuming the Poisson model is
appropriate.

Because the average event rate is one overflow flood per 100 years, λ = 1
𝜆𝐾 𝑒 −𝜆
𝑓(𝐾, 𝜆) = 𝑃(𝑋 = 𝐾) =
𝐾!
𝜆𝐾 𝑒 −𝜆 1𝐾 𝑒 −1
P (K overflow floods in 100 years) = 𝐾! = 𝐾!
𝜆𝐾 𝑒 −𝜆 10 𝑒 −1 𝑒 −1
P (K=0 overflow floods in 100 years) = = = = 0.368
𝐾! 0! 1
𝜆𝐾 𝑒 −𝜆 11 𝑒 −1 𝑒 −1
P (K=1 overflow floods in 100 years) = = = = 0.368
𝐾! 1! 1
𝜆𝐾 𝑒 −𝜆 12 𝑒 −1 𝑒 −1
P (K=2 overflow floods in 100 years) = = = = 0.184
𝐾! 2! 2

8. Explain Modeling the Probability for Proton Decay

Proton decay is a theoretical form of particle decay. Here proton disintegrates into two particles namely
pion and a positron with mean life of 1033 years which is very much greater than the age of the
universe!. If you have only one proton then you will have to wait for 1033 years to see the decay. But we
know the decay is a statistical process. If there are huge number of protons then some of them may
decay.

Despite many serious experiments and significant effort across the globe, even a single proton decay has
never been observed so far.

One such experiment is explained here In Super-K detector (JAPAN) 50,000 tons of ultra-pure water
containing 7×1033 protons is used. The 40% of the experimental area is covered by detector tubes to
count the ‘event’-decay

Consider the decay law 𝑁 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡

Where:

N0: is the initial quantity of the element

λ: is the radioactive decay constant
t: is time
N(t): is the quantity of the element remaining after time t.

Here 𝜆 = 1/𝜏 = 10−33 / 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 is the probability that any given proton will decay in a year.

Since the decay constant λ is so small, the exponential can be represented by the first two terms of the
Exponential Series.
Since  is very small we can approximate 𝑒−𝜆𝑡 = 1 − 𝜆𝑡
𝑁 = 𝑁0(1 − 𝜆𝑡) = 𝑁0 − 𝑁0𝜆𝑡
(𝑁0 − 𝑁) = 𝑁0𝜆𝑡

Put N0 = 7×1033, t = 1 year and  = 10-33 we get

𝑁0 − 𝑁 = (7 × 1033 )𝑋(10−33 )
𝑁0 − 𝑁 = 7

Proton decay has not been detected experimentally till now probably because of fact that the event is
extremely rare.

Assuming that λ = 3 observed decays per year is mean, then the Poisson distribution function tells us
that the probability for zero observations of decay is

𝜆𝐾 𝑒 −𝜆 30 𝑒 −3
𝑃(𝐾) = = = 0.05
𝐾! 0!

This low probability for a null result suggests that the proposed lifetime of 1033 years is too short.

Normal Distribution: The bell curve is a normal probability distribution of variables plotted on the
graph and is like a bell shape where the highest or top point of the curve represents the most probable
event out of all the series data.

9. Mention the CHARACTERISTICS of Normal distribution

1. The Normal Curve is Symmetrical: The normal probability curve is symmetrical around its
vertical axis called ordinate. The symmetry about the ordinate at the central point of the curve
implies that the size, shape, and slope of the curve on one side of the curve is identical to that of
the other. In other words, the left and right halves of the middle central point are mirror images,
as shown in the figure given here.

2. The Normal Curve is Unimodel: Since there is only one maximum point in the curve, thus the
normal probability curve is unimodal, i.e. it has only one mode.

3. The Normal Curve is Bilateral: The 50% area of the curve lies to the left side of the maximum
central ordinate and 50% of the area lies to the right side. Hence the curve is bilateral.

4. The Normal Curve is a mathematical model in behavioral Sciences: This curve is used as a
measurement scale. The measurement unit of this scale is ± 1σ (the unit standard deviation).
Monte-Carlo Method

Monte Carlo method

Monte Carlo method is a mathematical technique used to estimate the possible outcomes of an uncertain
events through repeated random sampling. It finds its application in many fields including business,
physics, artificial intelligence, astronomy and engineering.

Working
In this method, the repeated random sampling and recalculating the results again and again is
very important. However each time use different set of random numbers between the
minimum and maximum values. This exercise can be repeated thousands of times (or even more)
to obtain a large number of likely outcomes.

How to use Monte Carlo methods

10. Mention the general pattern of the Monte Carlo method and hence determine the value of π.

1. Set up the predictive model, identifying both the dependent variable to be predicted and the
independent variables that will drive the prediction.

2. Specify probability distributions of the independent variables.

3. Run simulations repeatedly, generating random values of the independent variables. Do this until
enough results are gathered to make up a representative sample of the nearly infinite number of
possible combinations.
Estimation of Pi
1.
Consider a square of side length l = 2m and enclosing a circle of radius r = 1m. The
center of both circle and square coincides at (0,0)
2. Generate a large number of uniformly distributed random points. These points can be
in any position within the square i.e. between (0,0) and (1,1).
3. Keep track of the total number of points (NT), and the number of points that are inside
the circle (Ni)
4. We can show that the ratio of Ni and NT is equal to the ratio of area of the circle and
the square

We know that the area of the circle πr2, while that of square 4r2. The ratio of these two areas is as
follows:

𝑁𝑖 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝜋r2

= 4𝑟 2
𝑁𝑇 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒
𝜋
= 4
𝑛𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒 𝜋
Now for a very large number of generated points = =
𝑛𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 4

𝑁
4 ∗ 𝑁𝑖 = π
𝑇
1. By substituting the values of Ni and NT in the above equation we get the value of 
2. When we only have a small number of points, the estimation is not very accurate,
but when we have hundreds of thousands of points, we get much closer to the
actual value - to within around 2 decimal places of accuracy. It can be verified
using following examples

i. If Ni = 169, & NT = 200 then  = 3.38

ii. If Ni =468, & NT = 600 then  = 3.12
iii. If Ni = 7067, & NT = 9000 then  = 3.14
 APPLIED PHYSICS HANDBOOK
P HYSICAL C ONSTANTS AND F ORMULAE

Basic Sciences and Humanities (Physics) Composite Board

Visveswaraya Technological Univesrsity
Jnana Sangama, VTU Main Rd, Machhe, Belagavi, Karnataka 590018
Contents

I PHYSICAL CONSTANTS and STANDARD VALUES 3

1 Physical constants and Standard Values for all Streams 5
1.1 Physical Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2 Stadard Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

II FORMULAE 7
2 Applied Physics for CSE Stream 9
2.1 Module-1 : LASER and Optical Fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.1.1 LASER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.1.2 Optical Fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2 Module-2 : Quantum Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.3 Module -3 : Quantum Computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.4 Module -4 : Electrical Properties of Materials and Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.4.1 Electrical conductivity in Solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.4.2 Superconductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.5 Module -5 : Application of Physics in Computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.5.1 Physics of Animation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.5.2 Statistical Physics for Computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

3 Applied Physics for EEE Stream 15

3.1 Module -1 : Quantum Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.2 Module-2 : Electrical Properties of Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.2.1 Electrical conductivity in Solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.2.2 Dielectrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.2.3 Superconductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.3 Module - 3 : LASER and Optical Fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.3.1 LASER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.3.2 Optical Fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.4 Module - 4 : Maxwell’s Equations and EM Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.4.1 Vector Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.5 Module - 5 : Semiconductors and Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.5.1 Electrical Conductivity in Semiconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.5.2 Hall Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

4 Applied Physics for CV Stream 21

4.1 Module-1 : Oscillations and Shock waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.1.1 Oscillations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.1.2 Shock Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.2 Module-2 : Elasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.3 Module-3 : Acoustics, Radiometry & Photometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.3.1 Acoustics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.4 Module -2 : LASER and Optical Fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.4.1 LASER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

2
Physical Constants and Formulae
4.4.2 Optical Fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.5 Module-5 : Natural Hazards and Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

5 Applied Physics for ME Stream 25

5.1 Module-1 : Oscillations and Shock waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
5.1.1 Oscillations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
5.1.2 Shock Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
5.2 Module-2 : Elasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
5.3 Module-3 : Thermoelectric Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
5.3.1 Thermoelectricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
5.4 Module-4 : Cryogenics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
5.5 Module-5 : Materials and Characterization Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Applied Physics-Hand Book 3 Visvesvaraya Technological University

 Part I

PHYSICAL CONSTANTS and

STANDARD VALUES

4
Chapter 1

Physical constants and Standard Values

for all Streams

1.1 Physical Constants

Acceleration due to Gravity 𝑔 = 9.8 𝑚𝑠−2

Avogadro Number 6.023 × 1026 𝐽 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 −1 𝐾 −1

Boltzmann Constant 𝑘 = 1.38 × 10−23 𝐽𝐾 −1

Charge on the electron 𝑒 = −1.6 × 10−19 𝐶

Charge on the Proton 𝑒 = 1.6 × 10−19 𝐶

Magnetic Peameability of Free Space 𝜇0 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 𝐻𝑚 −1

Permittivity of Free Space 𝜖 0 = 8.854 × 10−23 𝐹𝑚 −1

Planck’s Constant ℎ = 6.625 × 10−34 𝐽𝑠

Rest Mass of the Electron 𝑚 𝑒 = 9.1 × 10−31 𝐾𝑔

Rest Mass of the Proton 𝑚 𝑝 = 1.6726 × 10−27 𝐾𝑔

Rest Mass of the Neutron 𝑚 𝑛 = 1.6749 × 10−27 𝐾𝑔

Speed of Light 𝑐 = 3 × 108 𝑚𝑠−1

Universal Gas constant 𝑅 = 8.314𝐽𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 −1 𝐾 −1

1.2 Stadard Values

Youngs Modulus of Steel 𝐸 = 200𝐺𝑃𝑎

Rigidity Modulus of Steel 𝐾 = 80𝐺𝑃𝑎

5
Physical Constants and Formulae
Bulk Modulus of Steel 𝐾 = 160𝐺𝑃𝑎

Fermi Energy of Copper 𝐸 𝐹 = 7𝑒𝑉

Horizontal Component of Earth’s Magnetic Field 𝐵 𝐻 = 0.3 × 10−4𝑇

Applied Physics-Hand Book 6 Visvesvaraya Technological University

 Part II

FORMULAE

7
Ignore this page
Chapter 2

Applied Physics for CSE Stream

2.1 Module-1 : LASER and Optical Fibers

2.1.1 LASER
𝑃𝑡𝜆
1. Expression for the number of photons emitted per 𝑡 seconds 𝑁 = ℎ𝑐 Photons.
𝑃 is LASER Power Output in watt, 𝑡 is the time in second,
𝜆 is the wavelength of LASER in m,
ℎ is Planck’s Constant and
𝑐 is the speed of light.
ℎ𝑐
2. The Boltzmann relation 𝑁2 = 𝑁1 𝑒 − 𝜆𝑘𝑇
𝑁2 is the Number of Atoms in the higher energy state.
𝑁1 is the Number of Atoms in the Lower Energy State,
𝜆 is the wavelength of LASER,
𝑘is Boltzmann Constant,
𝑇 is Absolute Temperature.

2.1.2 Optical Fibers

√︂
𝑛21 −𝑛22
1. Expression for Numerical Aperture of an Optical Fiber 𝑁 𝐴 = 𝑛20
𝑛0 is the RI of the surrounding medium,
𝑛1 is the RI of the Core,
𝑛2 is the RI of Cladding.

2. The Acceptance Angle 𝜃 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛−1 (𝑁 𝐴)

 
3. Attenuation Co-efficient 𝛼 = −10 𝐿 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑃𝑜
10 𝑃𝑖 𝑑𝐵/𝑘𝑚
𝐿 is the length of the fiber in km.
𝑃𝑜 is the Power Output of the fiber in 𝑊.

9
Physical Constants and Formulae
𝑃𝑖 is the Power input of the fiber in 𝑊.
𝑑𝐵 is the unit in decibel.

2.2 Module-2 : Quantum Mechanics

𝑝2
1. The relation between Kinetic Energy and Momentum 𝐸 = 2𝑚 ,
𝑚 is the mass of the particle in 𝑘𝑔,
𝑝 is the momentum of the particle in 𝑁 𝑠.
2. Energy of the photon 𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 = ℎ𝑐 𝜆 ,
ℎ is Planck’s Constant,
𝜈 is the frequency of the radiation in 𝐻𝑧,
𝜆 is the wavelength of the radiation in 𝑚, 𝑐 is the speed of light.
3. de Broglie Wavelength 𝜆 = ℎ𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣 ℎ
in 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
ℎ is Planck’s Constant,
𝑚 is mass of the particle in kg,
𝑣 is the velocity of the particle 𝑚𝑠−1 .
4. de Broglie Wavelength 𝜆 = √ ℎ
2𝑚𝐸
ℎ is Planck’s Constant,
𝑚 is mass of the particle in kg,
𝐸 is the Kinetic Energy of the particle in 𝐽.
5. de Broglie Wavelength 𝜆 = √ ℎ
2𝑚𝑞𝑉
ℎ is Planck’s Constant,
𝑚 is the mass of the particle in kg,
𝑞 is the charge on the particle in 𝐶 ,
𝑉 is the accelerating potential in 𝑉.
−10
6. de Broglie Wavelength 𝜆 = √2𝑚ℎ 𝑒𝑉 = 12.27×10√ 𝑚
𝑒 𝑉
ℎ is Planck’s Constant,
𝑚 𝑒 is the mass of the electron in kg,
𝑒 is the charge on the electron in 𝐶 ,
𝑉 is the electron accelerating potential in 𝑉.
7. Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
ℎ
Δ𝑥Δ𝑝 𝑥 ≥ 4𝜋
ℎ
Δ𝐸Δ𝑇 ≥ 4𝜋
Δ𝑥 is the uncertainty in the measurement of Position,
Δ𝑃 is the uncertainty in the measurement of Momentum,
Δ𝐸 is the uncertainty in the measurement of Energy,
Δ𝑇 is the uncertainty inn the measurement of transition time.

Applied Physics-Hand Book 10 Visvesvaraya Technological University

Physical Constants and Formulae
8. The uncertainty in the measurement of momentum Δ𝑃 = 𝑚Δ𝑣.
Δ𝑣 is the uncertainty in the measurement of velocity.

9. Eigen Energy Values for a Particle in a one dimensional potential well of infinite depth
𝑛2 ℎ 2
𝐸 𝑛 = 8𝑚𝑎 2,

𝑛 = 1, 2, 3... for the Ground, First and Second energy states etc.,
ℎ is Planck’s Constant,
𝑚 is the mass of the particle in 𝑘𝑔,
𝑎 is the width of the potential well in 𝑚.

2.3 Module -3 : Quantum Computing

1. The wave !function in Ket notation |𝜓⟩ (Ket Vector), 𝜓 is the wave function.
𝛼1
|𝜓⟩ =
𝛼2

2. The matrix
! for of the states
! |0⟩ and |1⟩.
1 0
|0⟩ = and |1⟩ =
0 1
!
1 0
3. Identity Operator 𝐼 =
0 1

4. Pauli Matrices
!
1 0
• 𝜎0 = 𝐼 = .
0 1
!
0 1
• 𝜎1 = 𝜎𝑥 = 𝑋 = .
1 0
!
0 −𝑖
• 𝜎2 = 𝜎𝑦 = 𝑌 = .
𝑖 0
!
1 0
• 𝜎3 = 𝜎𝑧 = 𝑍 = .
0 −1

5. A Matrix is said to be Unitary Matrix is 𝑈 †𝑈 = 𝐼,

Here 𝑈 † is the conjugate-transpose of a matrix 𝑈.

6. A matrix 𝐴 is Hermitian if 𝐴† = 𝐴

7. The wave
 function
 in Bra notation ⟨𝜓| (bra Vector), 𝜓 is the wave function.
⟨𝜓| = 𝛼1∗ 𝛼2∗

Applied Physics-Hand Book 11 Visvesvaraya Technological University

Physical Constants and Formulae
8. Inner Product ⟨𝜓|𝜙⟩ = ⟨𝜓| ∗ |𝜙⟩. Here ⟨𝜓| is a Row Vector and |𝜙⟩ is a Column Vector.
The result is always a scalar product.

9. The product ⟨𝜓|𝜓⟩ = |𝜓| 2 , the probability density.

10. Orthogonality ⟨𝜓|𝜙⟩ = 0

2.4 Module -4 : Electrical Properties of Materials and Applications

2.4.1 Electrical conductivity in Solids

1
1. The Fermi Factor 𝑓 (𝐸) = 
𝐸 −𝐸𝐹

𝑘𝑇
𝑒 +1
𝐸 is the energy of the level above or below fermi level in, 𝐸 𝐹 is the Fermi Energy, 𝑘 is
Boltzmann Constant, 𝑇 is Absolute Temperature.

2.4.2 Superconductivity
h 2
i
1. The variation of Critical Field with Temperature 𝐻𝑐 = 𝐻0 1 − 𝑇𝑇 2 tesla,
𝑐
𝐻𝑐 is the critical field at a temperature 𝑇 less than the critical temperature 𝑇𝑐 ,
𝐻0 is the critical field at 0𝐾.

2.5 Module -5 : Application of Physics in Computing

2.5.1 Physics of Animation

1. The Odd Rule :When acceleration is constant, one can use the Odd Rule to time the
frames. With this method, one calculate the distance the object moves between frames
using a simple pattern of odd numbers. Between consecutive frames, the distance the
object moves is a multiple of an odd number. For acceleration, the distance between
frames increases by multiples of 1, 3, 5, 7,...

2. The Odd number multiplier for consecutive frames= (( 𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒# − 1) ∗ 2) − 1

3. Multiplier for distance from first frame to current frame = (𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒# − 1)2

𝑇 𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
4. 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = (𝐿𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟−1)2

𝐽𝑢𝑚 𝑝 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝐽𝑢𝑚 𝑝 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑃𝑢𝑠ℎ 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

5. Jump Magnification 𝐽 𝑀 = 𝑃𝑢𝑠ℎ 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 𝑃𝑢𝑠ℎ 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝐽𝑢𝑚 𝑝 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑃𝑢𝑠ℎ 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
6. 𝐽𝐻 = 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Applied Physics-Hand Book 12 Visvesvaraya Technological University

Physical Constants and Formulae
2.5.2 Statistical Physics for Computing
𝜆 𝑘 𝑒 −𝜆
1. Poisson Distribution Probability Mass Function = 𝑓 (𝑘; 𝜆) = 𝑃(𝑋 = 𝑘) = 𝑘!

2. The Decay Equation 𝑁 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡

𝜆 is decay constant,
𝑡 is the time, 𝑁0 is Initial Number of Events,
𝑁 is number of events after time 𝑡.

Applied Physics-Hand Book 13 Visvesvaraya Technological University