Chapter 1 | The Study of Life 9

1 | THE STUDY OF LIFE

Figure 1.1 This NASA image is a composite of several satellite-based views of Earth. To make the whole-Earth image,
NASA scientists combine observations of different parts of the planet. (credit: NASA/GSFC/NOAA/USGS)

Chapter Outline
1.1: The Science of Biology
1.2: Themes and Concepts of Biology

Introduction
Viewed from space, Earth offers no clues about the diversity of life forms that reside there. Scientists believe that
the first forms of life on Earth were microorganisms that existed for billions of years in the ocean before plants
and animals appeared. The mammals, birds, and flowers so familiar to us are all relatively recent, originating 130
to 250 million years ago. The earliest representatives of the genus Homo, to which we belong, have inhabited
this planet for only the last 2.5 million years, and only in the last 300,000 years have humans started looking like
we do today.

1.1 | The Science of Biology

By the end of this section, you will be able to do the following:
• Identify the shared characteristics of the natural sciences
• Summarize the steps of the scientific method
• Compare inductive reasoning with deductive reasoning
• Describe the goals of basic science and applied science
10 Chapter 1 | The Study of Life

(a) (b)
Figure 1.2 Formerly called blue-green algae, these (a) cyanobacteria, magnified 300x under a light microscope, are
some of Earth’s oldest life forms. These (b) stromatolites along the shores of Lake Thetis in Western Australia are
ancient structures formed by layering cyanobacteria in shallow waters. (credit a: modification of work by NASA; credit
b: modification of work by Ruth Ellison; scale-bar data from Matt Russell)

What is biology? In simple terms, biology is the study of living organisms and their interactions with one another
and their environments. This is a very broad definition because the scope of biology is vast. Biologists may
study anything from the microscopic or submicroscopic view of a cell to ecosystems and the whole living planet
(Figure 1.2). Listening to the daily news, you will quickly realize how many aspects of biology we discuss every
day. For example, recent news topics include Escherichia coli (Figure 1.3) outbreaks in spinach and Salmonella
contamination in peanut butter. Other subjects include efforts toward finding a cure for AIDS, Alzheimer’s
disease, and cancer. On a global scale, many researchers are committed to finding ways to protect the planet,
solve environmental issues, and reduce the effects of climate change. All of these diverse endeavors are related
to different facets of the discipline of biology.

Figure 1.3 Escherichia coli (E. coli) bacteria, in this scanning electron micrograph, are normal residents of our digestive
tracts that aid in absorbing vitamin K and other nutrients. However, virulent strains are sometimes responsible for
disease outbreaks. (credit: Eric Erbe, digital colorization by Christopher Pooley, both of USDA, ARS, EMU)

The Process of Science

Biology is a science, but what exactly is science? What does the study of biology share with other scientific
disciplines? We can define science (from the Latin scientia, meaning “knowledge”) as knowledge that covers
general truths or the operation of general laws, especially when acquired and tested by the scientific method. It
becomes clear from this definition that applying scientific method plays a major role in science. The scientific
method is a method of research with defined steps that include experiments and careful observation.
We will examine scientific method steps in detail later, but one of the most important aspects of this method is
the testing of hypotheses by means of repeatable experiments. A hypothesis is a suggested explanation for
an event, which one can test. Although using the scientific method is inherent to science, it is inadequate in
determining what science is. This is because it is relatively easy to apply the scientific method to disciplines

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Chapter 1 | The Study of Life 11

such as physics and chemistry, but when it comes to disciplines like archaeology, psychology, and geology, the
scientific method becomes less applicable as repeating experiments becomes more difficult.
These areas of study are still sciences, however. Consider archaeology—even though one cannot perform
repeatable experiments, hypotheses may still be supported. For instance, an archaeologist can hypothesize that
an ancient culture existed based on finding a piece of pottery. He or she could make further hypotheses about
various characteristics of this culture, which could be correct or false through continued support or contradictions
from other findings. A hypothesis may become a verified theory. A theory is a tested and confirmed explanation
for observations or phenomena. Therefore, we may be better off to define science as fields of study that attempt
to comprehend the nature of the universe.
Natural Sciences
What would you expect to see in a museum of natural sciences? Frogs? Plants? Dinosaur skeletons? Exhibits
about how the brain functions? A planetarium? Gems and minerals? Maybe all of the above? Science includes
such diverse fields as astronomy, biology, computer sciences, geology, logic, physics, chemistry, and
mathematics (Figure 1.4). However, scientists consider those fields of science related to the physical world and
its phenomena and processes natural sciences. Thus, a museum of natural sciences might contain any of the
items listed above.

Figure 1.4 The diversity of scientific fields includes astronomy, biology, computer science, geology, logic, physics,
chemistry, mathematics, and many other fields. (credit: “Image Editor”/Flickr)

There is no complete agreement when it comes to defining what the natural sciences include, however.
For some experts, the natural sciences are astronomy, biology, chemistry, earth science, and physics. Other
scholars choose to divide natural sciences into life sciences, which study living things and include biology, and
physical sciences, which study nonliving matter and include astronomy, geology, physics, and chemistry. Some
disciplines such as biophysics and biochemistry build on both life and physical sciences and are interdisciplinary.
Some refer to natural sciences as “hard science” because they rely on the use of quantitative data. Social
sciences that study society and human behavior are more likely to use qualitative assessments to drive
investigations and findings.
Not surprisingly, the natural science of biology has many branches or subdisciplines. Cell biologists study cell
12 Chapter 1 | The Study of Life

structure and function, while biologists who study anatomy investigate the structure of an entire organism. Those
biologists studying physiology, however, focus on the internal functioning of an organism. Some areas of biology
focus on only particular types of living things. For example, botanists explore plants, while zoologists specialize
in animals.
Scientific Reasoning
One thing is common to all forms of science: an ultimate goal “to know.” Curiosity and inquiry are the driving
forces for the development of science. Scientists seek to understand the world and the way it operates. To do
this, they use two methods of logical thinking: inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning.
Inductive reasoning is a form of logical thinking that uses related observations to arrive at a general conclusion.
This type of reasoning is common in descriptive science. A life scientist such as a biologist makes observations
and records them. These data can be qualitative or quantitative, and one can supplement the raw data with
drawings, pictures, photos, or videos. From many observations, the scientist can infer conclusions (inductions)
based on evidence. Inductive reasoning involves formulating generalizations inferred from careful observation
and analyzing a large amount of data. Brain studies provide an example. In this type of research, scientists
observe many live brains while people are engaged in a specific activity, such as viewing images of food.
The scientist then predicts the part of the brain that “lights up” during this activity to be the part controlling
the response to the selected stimulus, in this case, images of food. Excess absorption of radioactive sugar
derivatives by active areas of the brain causes the various areas to "light up". Scientists use a scanner to observe
the resultant increase in radioactivity. Then, researchers can stimulate that part of the brain to see if similar
responses result.
Deductive reasoning or deduction is the type of logic used in hypothesis-based science. In deductive reason, the
pattern of thinking moves in the opposite direction as compared to inductive reasoning. Deductive reasoning
is a form of logical thinking that uses a general principle or law to forecast specific results. From those general
principles, a scientist can extrapolate and predict the specific results that would be valid as long as the general
principles are valid. Studies in climate change can illustrate this type of reasoning. For example, scientists may
predict that if the climate becomes warmer in a particular region, then the distribution of plants and animals
should change.
Both types of logical thinking are related to the two main pathways of scientific study: descriptive science and
hypothesis-based science. Descriptive (or discovery) science, which is usually inductive, aims to observe,
explore, and discover, while hypothesis-based science, which is usually deductive, begins with a specific
question or problem and a potential answer or solution that one can test. The boundary between these two forms
of study is often blurred, and most scientific endeavors combine both approaches. The fuzzy boundary becomes
apparent when thinking about how easily observation can lead to specific questions. For example, a gentleman
in the 1940s observed that the burr seeds that stuck to his clothes and his dog’s fur had a tiny hook structure. On
closer inspection, he discovered that the burrs’ gripping device was more reliable than a zipper. He eventually
experimented to find the best material that acted similar, and produced the hook-and-loop fastener popularly
known today as Velcro. Descriptive science and hypothesis-based science are in continuous dialogue.

The Scientific Method

Biologists study the living world by posing questions about it and seeking science-based responses. Known as
scientific method, this approach is common to other sciences as well. The scientific method was used even in
ancient times, but England’s Sir Francis Bacon (1561–1626) first documented it (Figure 1.5). He set up inductive
methods for scientific inquiry. The scientific method is not used only by biologists; researchers from almost all
fields of study can apply it as a logical, rational problem-solving method.

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Chapter 1 | The Study of Life 13

Figure 1.5 Historians credit Sir Francis Bacon (1561–1626) as the first to define the scientific method. (credit: Paul van
Somer)

The scientific process typically starts with an observation (often a problem to solve) that leads to a question. Let’s
think about a simple problem that starts with an observation and apply the scientific method to solve the problem.
One Monday morning, a student arrives at class and quickly discovers that the classroom is too warm. That is an
observation that also describes a problem: the classroom is too warm. The student then asks a question: “Why
is the classroom so warm?”
Proposing a Hypothesis
Recall that a hypothesis is a suggested explanation that one can test. To solve a problem, one can propose
several hypotheses. For example, one hypothesis might be, “The classroom is warm because no one turned on
the air conditioning.” However, there could be other responses to the question, and therefore one may propose
other hypotheses. A second hypothesis might be, “The classroom is warm because there is a power failure, and
so the air conditioning doesn’t work.”
Once one has selected a hypothesis, the student can make a prediction. A prediction is similar to a hypothesis
but it typically has the format “If . . . then . . . .” For example, the prediction for the first hypothesis might be, “If
the student turns on the air conditioning, then the classroom will no longer be too warm.”
Testing a Hypothesis
A valid hypothesis must be testable. It should also be falsifiable, meaning that experimental results can disprove
it. Importantly, science does not claim to “prove” anything because scientific understandings are always subject
to modification with further information. This step—openness to disproving ideas—is what distinguishes sciences
from non-sciences. The presence of the supernatural, for instance, is neither testable nor falsifiable. To test
a hypothesis, a researcher will conduct one or more experiments designed to eliminate one or more of the
hypotheses. Each experiment will have one or more variables and one or more controls. A variable is any part
of the experiment that can vary or change during the experiment. The control group contains every feature of
the experimental group except it is not given the manipulation that the researcher hypothesizes. Therefore, if
the experimental group's results differ from the control group, the difference must be due to the hypothesized
manipulation, rather than some outside factor. Look for the variables and controls in the examples that follow. To
test the first hypothesis, the student would find out if the air conditioning is on. If the air conditioning is turned
on but does not work, there should be another reason, and the student should reject this hypothesis. To test
the second hypothesis, the student could check if the lights in the classroom are functional. If so, there is no
power failure and the student should reject this hypothesis. The students should test each hypothesis by carrying
out appropriate experiments. Be aware that rejecting one hypothesis does not determine whether or not one
can accept the other hypotheses. It simply eliminates one hypothesis that is not valid (Figure 1.6). Using the
scientific method, the student rejects the hypotheses that are inconsistent with experimental data.
14 Chapter 1 | The Study of Life

While this “warm classroom” example is based on observational results, other hypotheses and experiments
might have clearer controls. For instance, a student might attend class on Monday and realize she had difficulty
concentrating on the lecture. One observation to explain this occurrence might be, “When I eat breakfast before
class, I am better able to pay attention.” The student could then design an experiment with a control to test this
hypothesis.
In hypothesis-based science, researchers predict specific results from a general premise. We call this type of
reasoning deductive reasoning: deduction proceeds from the general to the particular. However, the reverse
of the process is also possible: sometimes, scientists reach a general conclusion from a number of specific
observations. We call this type of reasoning inductive reasoning, and it proceeds from the particular to the
general. Researchers often use inductive and deductive reasoning in tandem to advance scientific knowledge
(Figure 1.7).

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Chapter 1 | The Study of Life 15

Figure 1.6 The scientific method consists of a series of well-defined steps. If a hypothesis is not supported by
experimental data, one can propose a new hypothesis.

In the example below, the scientific method is used to solve an everyday problem. Order the scientific
method steps (numbered items) with the process of solving the everyday problem (lettered items). Based
on the results of the experiment, is the hypothesis correct? If it is incorrect, propose some alternative
hypotheses.
1. Observation
2. Question
3. Hypothesis (answer)
4. Prediction
5. Experiment
6. Result
a. There is something wrong with the electrical outlet.
b. If something is wrong with the outlet, my coffeemaker also won’t work when plugged into it.
c. My toaster doesn’t toast my bread.
d. I plug my coffee maker into the outlet.
16 Chapter 1 | The Study of Life

e. My coffeemaker works.
f. Why doesn’t my toaster work?

Figure 1.7 Scientists use two types of reasoning, inductive and deductive reasoning, to advance scientific
knowledge. As is the case in this example, the conclusion from inductive reasoning can often become the premise
for deductive reasoning.

Decide if each of the following is an example of inductive or deductive reasoning.

1. All flying birds and insects have wings. Birds and insects flap their wings as they move through the air.
Therefore, wings enable flight.
2. Insects generally survive mild winters better than harsh ones. Therefore, insect pests will become more
problematic if global temperatures increase.
3. Chromosomes, the carriers of DNA, are distributed evenly between the daughter cells during cell
division. Therefore, each daughter cell will have the same chromosome set as the mother cell.
4. Animals as diverse as humans, insects, and wolves all exhibit social behavior. Therefore, social
behavior must have an evolutionary advantage.

The scientific method may seem too rigid and structured. It is important to keep in mind that, although scientists
often follow this sequence, there is flexibility. Sometimes an experiment leads to conclusions that favor a change
in approach. Often, an experiment brings entirely new scientific questions to the puzzle. Many times, science
does not operate in a linear fashion. Instead, scientists continually draw inferences and make generalizations,
finding patterns as their research proceeds. Scientific reasoning is more complex than the scientific method
alone suggests. Notice, too, that we can apply the scientific method to solving problems that aren’t necessarily
scientific in nature.

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Chapter 1 | The Study of Life 17

Two Types of Science: Basic Science and Applied Science

The scientific community has been debating for the last few decades about the value of different types of
science. Is it valuable to pursue science for the sake of simply gaining knowledge, or does scientific knowledge
only have worth if we can apply it to solving a specific problem or to bettering our lives? This question focuses
on the differences between two types of science: basic science and applied science.
Basic science or “pure” science seeks to expand knowledge regardless of the short-term application of that
knowledge. It is not focused on developing a product or a service of immediate public or commercial value. The
immediate goal of basic science is knowledge for knowledge’s sake, although this does not mean that, in the
end, it may not result in a practical application.
In contrast, applied science or “technology,” aims to use science to solve real-world problems, making it
possible, for example, to improve a crop yield, find a cure for a particular disease, or save animals threatened
by a natural disaster (Figure 1.8). In applied science, the problem is usually defined for the researcher.

Figure 1.8 After Hurricane Irma struck the Caribbean and Florida in 2017, thousands of baby squirrels like this one
were thrown from their nests. Thanks to applied science, scientists knew how to rehabilitate the squirrel. (credit:
audreyjm529, Flickr)

Some individuals may perceive applied science as “useful” and basic science as “useless.” A question these
people might pose to a scientist advocating knowledge acquisition would be, “What for?” However, a careful
look at the history of science reveals that basic knowledge has resulted in many remarkable applications
of great value. Many scientists think that a basic understanding of science is necessary before researchers
develop an application therefore, applied science relies on the results that researchers generate through basic
science. Other scientists think that it is time to move on from basic science in order to find solutions to actual
problems. Both approaches are valid. It is true that there are problems that demand immediate attention;
however, scientists would find few solutions without the help of the wide knowledge foundation that basic science
generates.
One example of how basic and applied science can work together to solve practical problems occurred after the
discovery of DNA structure led to an understanding of the molecular mechanisms governing DNA replication.
DNA strands, unique in every human, are in our cells, where they provide the instructions necessary for
life. When DNA replicates, it produces new copies of itself, shortly before a cell divides. Understanding DNA
replication mechanisms enabled scientists to develop laboratory techniques that researchers now use to identify
genetic diseases, pinpoint individuals who were at a crime scene, and determine paternity. Without basic
science, it is unlikely that applied science would exist.
Another example of the link between basic and applied research is the Human Genome Project, a study in
which researchers analyzed and mapped each human chromosome to determine the precise sequence of
DNA subunits and each gene's exact location. (The gene is the basic unit of heredity. An individual’s complete
collection of genes is his or her genome.) Researchers have studied other less complex organisms as part of this
project in order to gain a better understanding of human chromosomes. The Human Genome Project (Figure
1.9) relied on basic research with simple organisms and, later, with the human genome. An important end goal
18 Chapter 1 | The Study of Life

eventually became using the data for applied research, seeking cures and early diagnoses for genetically related
diseases.

Figure 1.9 The Human Genome Project was a 13-year collaborative effort among researchers working in several
different science fields. Researchers completed the project, which sequenced the entire human genome, in 2003.
(credit: the U.S. Department of Energy Genome Programs (http://genomics.energy.gov (http://openstax.org/l/
genomics_gov) )

While scientists usually carefully plan research efforts in both basic science and applied science, note that some
discoveries are made by serendipity, that is, by means of a fortunate accident or a lucky surprise. Scottish
biologist Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin when he accidentally left a petri dish of Staphylococcus
bacteria open. An unwanted mold grew on the dish, killing the bacteria. Fleming's curiosity to investigate the
reason behind the bacterial death, followed by his experiments, led to the discovery of the antibiotic penicillin,
which is produced by the fungus Penicillium. Even in the highly organized world of science, luck—when
combined with an observant, curious mind—can lead to unexpected breakthroughs.

Reporting Scientific Work

Whether scientific research is basic science or applied science, scientists must share their findings in order
for other researchers to expand and build upon their discoveries. Collaboration with other scientists—when
planning, conducting, and analyzing results—are all important for scientific research. For this reason, important
aspects of a scientist’s work are communicating with peers and disseminating results to peers. Scientists can
share results by presenting them at a scientific meeting or conference, but this approach can reach only the
select few who are present. Instead, most scientists present their results in peer-reviewed manuscripts that are
published in scientific journals. Peer-reviewed manuscripts are scientific papers that a scientist’s colleagues
or peers review. These colleagues are qualified individuals, often experts in the same research area, who judge
whether or not the scientist’s work is suitable for publication. The process of peer review helps to ensure that
the research in a scientific paper or grant proposal is original, significant, logical, and thorough. Grant proposals,
which are requests for research funding, are also subject to peer review. Scientists publish their work so other
scientists can reproduce their experiments under similar or different conditions to expand on the findings. The
experimental results must be consistent with the findings of other scientists.
A scientific paper is very different from creative writing. Although creativity is required to design experiments,
there are fixed guidelines when it comes to presenting scientific results. First, scientific writing must be brief,
concise, and accurate. A scientific paper needs to be succinct but detailed enough to allow peers to reproduce
the experiments.
The scientific paper consists of several specific sections—introduction, materials and methods, results, and
discussion. This structure is sometimes called the “IMRaD” format. There are usually acknowledgment and
reference sections as well as an abstract (a concise summary) at the beginning of the paper. There might be
additional sections depending on the type of paper and the journal where it will be published. For example, some

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Chapter 1 | The Study of Life 19

review papers require an outline.

The introduction starts with brief, but broad, background information about what is known in the field. A good
introduction also gives the rationale of the work. It justifies the work carried out and also briefly mentions the end
of the paper, where the researcher will present the hypothesis or research question driving the research. The
introduction refers to the published scientific work of others and therefore requires citations following the style of
the journal. Using the work or ideas of others without proper citation is plagiarism.
The materials and methods section includes a complete and accurate description of the substances the
researchers use, and the method and techniques they use to gather data. The description should be thorough
enough to allow another researcher to repeat the experiment and obtain similar results, but it does not have to be
verbose. This section will also include information on how the researchers made measurements and the types of
calculations and statistical analyses they used to examine raw data. Although the materials and methods section
gives an accurate description of the experiments, it does not discuss them.
Some journals require a results section followed by a discussion section, but it is more common to combine both.
If the journal does not allow combining both sections, the results section simply narrates the findings without any
further interpretation. The researchers present results with tables or graphs, but they do not present duplicate
information. In the discussion section, the researchers will interpret the results, describe how variables may be
related, and attempt to explain the observations. It is indispensable to conduct an extensive literature search to
put the results in the context of previously published scientific research. Therefore, researchers include proper
citations in this section as well.
Finally, the conclusion section summarizes the importance of the experimental findings. While the scientific
paper almost certainly answers one or more scientific questions that the researchers stated, any good research
should lead to more questions. Therefore, a well-done scientific paper allows the researchers and others to
continue and expand on the findings.
Review articles do not follow the IMRAD format because they do not present original scientific findings, or
primary literature. Instead, they summarize and comment on findings that were published as primary literature
and typically include extensive reference sections.

1.2 | Themes and Concepts of Biology

By the end of this section, you will be able to do the following:
• Identify and describe the properties of life
• Describe the levels of organization among living things
• Recognize and interpret a phylogenetic tree
• List examples of different subdisciplines in biology

Biology is the science that studies life, but what exactly is life? This may sound like a silly question with an
obvious response, but it is not always easy to define life. For example, a branch of biology called virology
studies viruses, which exhibit some of the characteristics of living entities but lack others. Although viruses can
attack living organisms, cause diseases, and even reproduce, they do not meet the criteria that biologists use
to define life. Consequently, virologists are not biologists, strictly speaking. Similarly, some biologists study the
early molecular evolution that gave rise to life. Since the events that preceded life are not biological events, these
scientists are also excluded from biology in the strict sense of the term.
From its earliest beginnings, biology has wrestled with three questions: What are the shared properties that
make something “alive”? Once we know something is alive, how do we find meaningful levels of organization in
its structure? Finally, when faced with the remarkable diversity of life, how do we organize the different kinds of
organisms so that we can better understand them? As scientists discover new organisms every day, biologists
continue to seek answers to these and other questions.

Properties of Life
All living organisms share several key characteristics or functions: order, sensitivity or response to the
environment, reproduction, adaptation, growth and development, regulation, homeostasis, energy processing,
and evolution. When viewed together, these nine characteristics serve to define life.
20 Chapter 1 | The Study of Life

Order

Figure 1.10 A toad represents a highly organized structure consisting of cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems.
(credit: “Ivengo”/Wikimedia Commons)

Organisms are highly organized, coordinated structures that consist of one or more cells. Even very simple,
single-celled organisms are remarkably complex: inside each cell, atoms comprise molecules. These in turn
comprise cell organelles and other cellular inclusions. In multicellular organisms (Figure 1.10), similar cells form
tissues. Tissues, in turn, collaborate to create organs (body structures with a distinct function). Organs work
together to form organ systems.
Sensitivity or Response to Stimuli

Figure 1.11 The leaves of this sensitive plant (Mimosa pudica) will instantly droop and fold when touched. After a few
minutes, the plant returns to normal. (credit: Alex Lomas)

Organisms respond to diverse stimuli. For example, plants can bend toward a source of light, climb on fences
and walls, or respond to touch (Figure 1.11). Even tiny bacteria can move toward or away from chemicals
(a process called chemotaxis) or light (phototaxis). Movement toward a stimulus is a positive response, while
movement away from a stimulus is a negative response.

Watch this video (http://openstaxcollege.org/l/movement_plants) to see how plants respond to a

stimulus—from opening to light, to wrapping a tendril around a branch, to capturing prey.

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Chapter 1 | The Study of Life 21

Reproduction
Single-celled organisms reproduce by first duplicating their DNA, and then dividing it equally as the cell prepares
to divide to form two new cells. Multicellular organisms often produce specialized reproductive germline, gamete,
oocyte, and sperm cells. After fertilization (the fusion of an oocyte and a sperm cell), a new individual develops.
When reproduction occurs, DNA containing genes are passed along to an organism’s offspring. These genes
ensure that the offspring will belong to the same species and will have similar characteristics, such as size and
shape.
Growth and Development
Organisms grow and develop as a result of genes providing specific instructions that will direct cellular growth
and development. This ensures that a species’ young (Figure 1.12) will grow up to exhibit many of the same
characteristics as its parents.

Figure 1.12 Although no two look alike, these kittens have inherited genes from both parents and share many of the
same characteristics. (credit: Rocky Mountain Feline Rescue)

Regulation
Even the smallest organisms are complex and require multiple regulatory mechanisms to coordinate internal
functions, respond to stimuli, and cope with environmental stresses. Two examples of internal functions
regulated in an organism are nutrient transport and blood flow. Organs (groups of tissues working together)
perform specific functions, such as carrying oxygen throughout the body, removing wastes, delivering nutrients
to every cell, and cooling the body.
Homeostasis

Figure 1.13 Polar bears (Ursus maritimus) and other mammals living in ice-covered regions maintain their body
temperature by generating heat and reducing heat loss through thick fur and a dense layer of fat under their skin.
(credit: “longhorndave”/Flickr)

In order to function properly, cells require appropriate conditions such as proper temperature, pH, and
appropriate concentration of diverse chemicals. These conditions may, however, change from one moment to
the next. Organisms are able to maintain internal conditions within a narrow range almost constantly, despite
22 Chapter 1 | The Study of Life

environmental changes, through homeostasis (literally, “steady state”). For example, an organism needs to
regulate body temperature through the thermoregulation process. Organisms that live in cold climates, such as
the polar bear (Figure 1.13), have body structures that help them withstand low temperatures and conserve
body heat. Structures that aid in this type of insulation include fur, feathers, blubber, and fat. In hot climates,
organisms have methods (such as perspiration in humans or panting in dogs) that help them to shed excess
body heat.
Energy Processing

Figure 1.14 The California condor (Gymnogyps californianus) uses chemical energy derived from food to power flight.
California condors are an endangered species. This bird has a wing tag that helps biologists identify the individual.
(credit: Pacific Southwest Region U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service)

All organisms use a source of energy for their metabolic activities. Some organisms capture energy from the
sun and convert it into chemical energy in food. Others use chemical energy in molecules they take in as food
(Figure 1.14).

Levels of Organization of Living Things

Living things are highly organized and structured, following a hierarchy that we can examine on a scale
from small to large. The atom is the smallest and most fundamental unit of matter. It consists of a nucleus
surrounded by electrons. Atoms form molecules. A molecule is a chemical structure consisting of at least
two atoms held together by one or more chemical bonds. Many molecules that are biologically important are
macromolecules, large molecules that are typically formed by polymerization (a polymer is a large molecule
that is made by combining smaller units called monomers, which are simpler than macromolecules). An example
of a macromolecule is deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) (Figure 1.15), which contains the instructions for the
structure and functioning of all living organisms.

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Chapter 1 | The Study of Life 23

Figure 1.15 All molecules, including this DNA molecule, are comprised of atoms. (credit: “brian0918”/Wikimedia
Commons)

Watch this video (http://openstaxcollege.org/l/rotating_DNA) that animates the three-dimensional

structure of the DNA molecule in Figure 1.15.

Some cells contain aggregates of macromolecules surrounded by membranes. We call these organelles.
Organelles are small structures that exist within cells. Examples of organelles include mitochondria and
chloroplasts, which carry out indispensable functions: mitochondria produce energy to power the cell, while
chloroplasts enable green plants to utilize the energy in sunlight to make sugars. All living things are made
of cells. The cell itself is the smallest fundamental unit of structure and function in living organisms. (This
requirement is why scientists do not consider viruses living: they are not made of cells. To make new viruses,
they have to invade and hijack the reproductive mechanism of a living cell. Only then can they obtain the
materials they need to reproduce.) Some organisms consist of a single cell and others are multicellular.
Scientists classify cells as prokaryotic or eukaryotic. Prokaryotes are single-celled or colonial organisms that
do not have membrane-bound nuclei. In contrast, the cells of eukaryotes do have membrane-bound organelles
and a membrane-bound nucleus.
In larger organisms, cells combine to make tissues, which are groups of similar cells carrying out similar or
related functions. Organs are collections of tissues grouped together performing a common function. Organs
24 Chapter 1 | The Study of Life

are present not only in animals but also in plants. An organ system is a higher level of organization that
consists of functionally related organs. Mammals have many organ systems. For instance, the circulatory system
transports blood through the body and to and from the lungs. It includes organs such as the heart and blood
vessels. Organisms are individual living entities. For example, each tree in a forest is an organism. Single-celled
prokaryotes and single-celled eukaryotes are also organisms, which biologists typically call microorganisms.
Biologists collectively call all the individuals of a species living within a specific area a population. For example,
a forest may include many pine trees, which represent the population of pine trees in this forest. Different
populations may live in the same specific area. For example, the forest with the pine trees includes populations
of flowering plants, insects, and microbial populations. A community is the sum of populations inhabiting a
particular area. For instance, all of the trees, flowers, insects, and other populations in a forest form the forest’s
community. The forest itself is an ecosystem. An ecosystem consists of all the living things in a particular area
together with the abiotic, nonliving parts of that environment such as nitrogen in the soil or rain water. At the
highest level of organization (Figure 1.16), the biosphere is the collection of all ecosystems, and it represents
the zones of life on Earth. It includes land, water, and even the atmosphere to a certain extent.

Figure 1.16 shows the biological levels of organization of living things. From a single organelle to the entire
biosphere, living organisms are parts of a highly structured hierarchy. (credit “organelles”: modification of work by
Umberto Salvagnin; credit “cells”: modification of work by Bruce Wetzel, Harry Schaefer/ National Cancer Institute;
credit “tissues”: modification of work by Kilbad; Fama Clamosa; Mikael Häggström; credit “organs”: modification
of work by Mariana Ruiz Villareal; credit “organisms”: modification of work by "Crystal"/Flickr; credit “ecosystems”:
modification of work by US Fish and Wildlife Service Headquarters; credit “biosphere”: modification of work by
NASA)

Which of the following statements is false?

a. Tissues exist within organs which exist within organ systems.
b. Communities exist within populations which exist within ecosystems.
c. Organelles exist within cells which exist within tissues.
d. Communities exist within ecosystems which exist in the biosphere.

The Diversity of Life

The fact that biology, as a science, has such a broad scope has to do with the tremendous diversity of life on
earth. The source of this diversity is evolution, the process of gradual change during which new species arise
from older species. Evolutionary biologists study the evolution of living things in everything from the microscopic
world to ecosystems.
A phylogenetic tree (Figure 1.17) can summarize the evolution of various life forms on Earth. It is a diagram

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Chapter 1 | The Study of Life 25

showing the evolutionary relationships among biological species based on similarities and differences in genetic
or physical traits or both. Nodes and branches comprise a phylogenetic tree. The internal nodes represent
ancestors and are points in evolution when, based on scientific evidence, researchers believe an ancestor has
diverged to form two new species. The length of each branch is proportional to the time elapsed since the split.

Figure 1.17 Microbiologist Carl Woese constructed this phylogenetic tree using data that he obtained from sequencing
ribosomal RNA genes. The tree shows the separation of living organisms into three domains: Bacteria, Archaea, and
Eukarya. Bacteria and Archaea are prokaryotes, single-celled organisms lacking intracellular organelles. (credit: Eric
Gaba; NASA Astrobiology Institute)
26 Chapter 1 | The Study of Life

Carl Woese and the Phylogenetic Tree

In the past, biologists grouped living organisms into five kingdoms: animals, plants, fungi, protists, and
bacteria. They based the organizational scheme mainly on physical features, as opposed to physiology,
biochemistry, or molecular biology, all of which modern systematics use. American microbiologist Carl
Woese's pioneering work in the early 1970s has shown, however, that life on Earth has evolved along three
lineages, now called domains—Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya. The first two are prokaryotic cells with
microbes that lack membrane-enclosed nuclei and organelles. The third domain contains the eukaryotes
and includes unicellular microorganisms (protists), together with the three remaining kingdoms (fungi,
plants, and animals). Woese defined Archaea as a new domain, and this resulted in a new taxonomic tree
(Figure 1.17). Many organisms belonging to the Archaea domain live under extreme conditions and are
called extremophiles. To construct his tree, Woese used genetic relationships rather than similarities based
on morphology (shape).
Woese constructed his tree from universally distributed comparative gene sequencing that are present
in every organism, and conserved (meaning that these genes have remained essentially unchanged
throughout evolution). Woese’s approach was revolutionary because comparing physical features are
insufficient to differentiate between the prokaryotes that appear fairly similar in spite of their tremendous
biochemical diversity and genetic variability (Figure 1.18). Comparing homologous DNA and RNA
sequences provided Woese with a sensitive device that revealed the extensive variability of prokaryotes,
and which justified separating the prokaryotes into two domains: bacteria and archaea.

Figure 1.18 These images represent different domains. The (a) bacteria in this micrograph belong to Domain
Bacteria, while the (b) extremophiles (not visible) living in this hot vent belong to Domain Archaea. Both the
(c) sunflower and (d) lion are part of Domain Eukarya. (credit a: modification of work by Drew March; credit b:
modification of work by Steve Jurvetson; credit c: modification of work by Michael Arrighi; credit d: modification of
work by Leszek Leszcynski)

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Chapter 1 | The Study of Life 27

Branches of Biological Study

The scope of biology is broad and therefore contains many branches and subdisciplines. Biologists may
pursue one of those subdisciplines and work in a more focused field. For instance, molecular biology and
biochemistry study biological processes at the molecular and chemical level, including interactions among
molecules such as DNA, RNA, and proteins, as well as the way they are regulated. Microbiology, the study of
microorganisms, is the study of the structure and function of single-celled organisms. It is quite a broad branch
itself, and depending on the subject of study, there are also microbial physiologists, ecologists, and geneticists,
among others.

Forensic Scientist
Forensic science is the application of science to answer questions related to the law. Biologists as well
as chemists and biochemists can be forensic scientists. Forensic scientists provide scientific evidence for
use in courts, and their job involves examining trace materials associated with crimes. Interest in forensic
science has increased in the last few years, possibly because of popular television shows that feature
forensic scientists on the job. Also, developing molecular techniques and establishing DNA databases have
expanded the types of work that forensic scientists can do. Their job activities are primarily related to crimes
against people such as murder, rape, and assault. Their work involves analyzing samples such as hair,
blood, and other body fluids and also processing DNA (Figure 1.19) found in many different environments
and materials. Forensic scientists also analyze other biological evidence left at crime scenes, such as insect
larvae or pollen grains. Students who want to pursue careers in forensic science will most likely have to take
chemistry and biology courses as well as some intensive math courses.

Figure 1.19 This forensic scientist works in a DNA extraction room at the U.S. Army Criminal Investigation
Laboratory at Fort Gillem, GA. (credit: United States Army CID Command Public Affairs)

Another field of biological study, neurobiology, studies the biology of the nervous system, and although it
is a branch of biology, it is also an interdisciplinary field of study known as neuroscience. Because of its
interdisciplinary nature, this subdiscipline studies different nervous system functions using molecular, cellular,
developmental, medical, and computational approaches.
28 Chapter 1 | The Study of Life

Figure 1.20 Researchers work on excavating dinosaur fossils at a site in Castellón, Spain. (credit: Mario Modesto)

Paleontology, another branch of biology, uses fossils to study life’s history (Figure 1.20). Zoology and botany
are the study of animals and plants, respectively. Biologists can also specialize as biotechnologists, ecologists,
or physiologists, to name just a few areas. This is just a small sample of the many fields that biologists can
pursue.
Biology is the culmination of the achievements of the natural sciences from their inception to today. Excitingly,
it is the cradle of emerging sciences, such as the biology of brain activity, genetic engineering of custom
organisms, and the biology of evolution that uses the laboratory tools of molecular biology to retrace the earliest
stages of life on Earth. A scan of news headlines—whether reporting on immunizations, a newly discovered
species, sports doping, or a genetically-modified food—demonstrates the way biology is active in and important
to our everyday world.

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Chapter 1 | The Study of Life 29

KEY TERMS
abstract opening section of a scientific paper that summarizes the research and conclusions

applied science form of science that aims to solve real-world problems

atom smallest and most fundamental unit of matter

basic science science that seeks to expand knowledge and understanding regardless of the short-term
application of that knowledge

biochemistry study of the chemistry of biological organisms

biology the study of living organisms and their interactions with one another and their environments

biosphere collection of all the ecosystems on Earth

botany study of plants

cell smallest fundamental unit of structure and function in living things

community set of populations inhabiting a particular area

conclusion section of a scientific paper that summarizes the importance of the experimental findings

control part of an experiment that does not change during the experiment

deductive reasoning form of logical thinking that uses a general inclusive statement to forecast specific results

descriptive science (also, discovery science) form of science that aims to observe, explore, and investigate

discussion section of a scientific paper in which the author interprets experimental results, describes how
variables may be related, and attempts to explain the phenomenon in question

ecosystem all the living things in a particular area together with the abiotic, nonliving parts of that environment

eukaryote organism with cells that have nuclei and membrane-bound organelles

evolution process of gradual change during which new species arise from older species and some species
become extinct

falsifiable able to be disproven by experimental results

homeostasis ability of an organism to maintain constant internal conditions

hypothesis suggested explanation for an observation, which one can test

hypothesis-based science form of science that begins with a specific question and potential testable answers

inductive reasoning form of logical thinking that uses related observations to arrive at a general conclusion

introduction opening section of a scientific paper, which provides background information about what was
known in the field prior to the research reported in the paper

life science field of science, such as biology, that studies living things

macromolecule large molecule, typically formed by the joining of smaller molecules

materials and methods section of a scientific paper that includes a complete description of the substances,
methods, and techniques that the researchers used to gather data

microbiology study of the structure and function of microorganisms

30 Chapter 1 | The Study of Life

molecular biology study of biological processes and their regulation at the molecular level, including
interactions among molecules such as DNA, RNA, and proteins

molecule chemical structure consisting of at least two atoms held together by one or more chemical bonds

natural science field of science that is related to the physical world and its phenomena and processes

neurobiology study of the biology of the nervous system

organ collection of related tissues grouped together performing a common function

organ system level of organization that consists of functionally related interacting organs

organelle small structures that exist within cells and carry out cellular functions

organism individual living entity

paleontology study of life’s history by means of fossils

peer-reviewed manuscript scientific paper that a scientist’s colleagues review who are experts in the field of
study

phylogenetic tree diagram showing the evolutionary relationships among various biological species based on
similarities and differences in genetic or physical traits or both; in essence, a hypothesis concerning
evolutionary connections

physical science field of science, such as geology, astronomy, physics, and chemistry, that studies nonliving
matter

plagiarism using other people’s work or ideas without proper citation, creating the false impression that those
are the author’s original ideas

population all of the individuals of a species living within a specific area

prokaryote single-celled organism that lacks organelles and does not have nuclei surrounded by a nuclear
membrane

results section of a scientific paper in which the author narrates the experimental findings and presents relevant
figures, pictures, diagrams, graphs, and tables, without any further interpretation

review article paper that summarizes and comments on findings that were published as primary literature

science knowledge that covers general truths or the operation of general laws, especially when acquired and
tested by the scientific method

scientific method method of research with defined steps that include observation, formulation of a hypothesis,
testing, and confirming or falsifying the hypothesis

serendipity fortunate accident or a lucky surprise

theory tested and confirmed explanation for observations or phenomena

tissue group of similar cells carrying out related functions

variable part of an experiment that the experimenter can vary or change

zoology study of animals

CHAPTER SUMMARY
1.1 The Science of Biology

Biology is the science that studies living organisms and their interactions with one another and their

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Chapter 1 | The Study of Life 31

environments. Science attempts to describe and understand the nature of the universe in whole or in part by
rational means. Science has many fields. Those fields related to the physical world and its phenomena are
natural sciences.
Science can be basic or applied. The main goal of basic science is to expand knowledge without any
expectation of short-term practical application of that knowledge. The primary goal of applied research,
however, is to solve practical problems.
Science uses two types of logical reasoning. Inductive reasoning uses particular results to produce general
scientific principles. Deductive reasoning is a form of logical thinking that predicts results by applying general
principles. The common thread throughout scientific research is using the scientific method, a step-based
process that consists of making observations, defining a problem, posing hypotheses, testing these
hypotheses, and drawing one or more conclusions. The testing uses proper controls. Scientists present their
results in peer-reviewed scientific papers published in scientific journals. A scientific research paper consists of
several well-defined sections: introduction, materials and methods, results, and, finally, a concluding
discussion. Review papers summarize the conducted research in a particular field over a period of time.

1.2 Themes and Concepts of Biology

Biology is the science of life. All living organisms share several key properties such as order, sensitivity or
response to stimuli, reproduction, growth and development, regulation, homeostasis, and energy processing.
Living things are highly organized parts of a hierarchy that includes atoms, molecules, organelles, cells,
tissues, organs, and organ systems. In turn, biologists group organisms as populations, communities,
ecosystems, and the biosphere. The great diversity of life today evolved from less-diverse ancestral organisms
over billions of years. We can use a phylogenetic tree to show evolutionary relationships among organisms.
Biology is very broad and includes many branches and subdisciplines. Examples include molecular biology,
microbiology, neurobiology, zoology, and botany, among others.

VISUAL CONNECTION QUESTIONS

1. Figure 1.6 In the example below, the scientific 1. All flying birds and insects have wings. Birds
method is used to solve an everyday problem. Order and insects flap their wings as they move
the scientific method steps (numbered items) with the through the air. Therefore, wings enable
process of solving the everyday problem (lettered flight.
items). Based on the results of the experiment, is the 2. Insects generally survive mild winters better
hypothesis correct? If it is incorrect, propose some than harsh ones. Therefore, insect pests will
alternative hypotheses. become more problematic if global
1. Observation temperatures increase.
2. Question 3. Chromosomes, the carriers of DNA,
3. Hypothesis (answer) separate into daughter cells during cell
4. Prediction division. Therefore, each daughter cell will
5. Experiment have the same chromosome set as the
6. Result mother cell.
4. Animals as diverse as humans, insects, and
a. There is something wrong with the electrical wolves all exhibit social behavior. Therefore,
outlet. social behavior must have an evolutionary
b. If something is wrong with the outlet, my advantage.
coffeemaker also won’t work when plugged 3. Figure 1.16 Which of the following statements is
into it. false?
c. My toaster doesn’t toast my bread. a. Tissues exist within organs which exist
d. I plug my coffee maker into the outlet. within organ systems.
e. My coffeemaker works. b. Communities exist within populations which
f. Why doesn’t my toaster work? exist within ecosystems.
2. Figure 1.7 Decide if each of the following is an c. Organelles exist within cells which exist
example of inductive or deductive reasoning. within tissues.
d. Communities exist within ecosystems which
exist in the biosphere.
32 Chapter 1 | The Study of Life

REVIEW QUESTIONS
4. The first forms of life on Earth were ________. 10. The smallest unit of biological structure that
meets the functional requirements of “living” is the
a. plants ________.
b. microorganisms a. organ
c. birds b. organelle
d. dinosaurs c. cell
d. macromolecule
5. A suggested and testable explanation for an event
is called a ________. 11. Viruses are not considered living because they
a. hypothesis ________.
b. variable a. are not made of cells
c. theory b. lack cell nuclei
d. control c. do not contain DNA or RNA
d. cannot reproduce
6. Which of the following sciences is not considered a
natural science? 12. The presence of a membrane-enclosed nucleus
a. biology is a characteristic of ________.
b. astronomy a. prokaryotic cells
c. physics b. eukaryotic cells
d. computer science c. living organisms
d. bacteria
7. The type of logical thinking that uses related
observations to arrive at a general conclusion is 13. A group of individuals of the same species living
called ________. in the same area is called a(n) ________.
a. deductive reasoning a. family
b. the scientific method b. community
c. hypothesis-based science c. population
d. inductive reasoning d. ecosystem
8. The process of ________ helps to ensure that a 14. Which of the following sequences represents the
scientist’s research is original, significant, logical, and hierarchy of biological organization from the most
thorough. inclusive to the least complex level?
a. publication a. organelle, tissue, biosphere, ecosystem,
b. public speaking population
c. peer review b. organ, organism, tissue, organelle, molecule
d. the scientific method c. organism, community, biosphere, molecule,
tissue, organ
9. A person notices that her houseplants that are
d. biosphere, ecosystem, community,
regularly exposed to music seem to grow more
population, organism
quickly than those in rooms with no music. As a
result, she determines that plants grow better when 15. Where in a phylogenetic tree would you expect to
exposed to music. This example most closely find the organism that had evolved most recently?
resembles which type of reasoning?
a. inductive reasoning a. at the base
b. deductive reasoning b. within the branches
c. neither, because no hypothesis was made c. at the nodes
d. both inductive and deductive reasoning d. at the branch tips

CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS

16. Although the scientific method is used by most of would fall outside the realm of biology.
the sciences, it can also be applied to everyday 19. Thinking about the topic of cancer, write a basic
situations. Think about a problem that you may have science question and an applied science question
at home, at school, or with your car, and apply the that a researcher interested in this topic might ask.
scientific method to solve it.
20. Select two items that biologists agree are
17. Give an example of how applied science has had necessary in order to consider an organism “alive.”
a direct effect on your daily life.
For each, give an example of a nonliving object that
18. Name two topics that are likely to be studied by otherwise fits the definition of “alive.”
biologists, and two areas of scientific study that

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Chapter 1 | The Study of Life 33

21. Consider the levels of organization of the 22. You go for a long walk on a hot day. Give an
biological world, and place each of these items in example of a way in which homeostasis keeps your
order from smallest level of organization to most body healthy.
encompassing: skin cell, elephant, water molecule, 23. Using examples, explain how biology can be
planet Earth, tropical rainforest, hydrogen atom, wolf studied from a microscopic approach to a global
pack, liver. approach.
34 Chapter 1 | The Study of Life

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