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Metals
The elements which have 1, 2 or 3 electrons in their outermost orbit are called metal.
Ex- Na (11) – 2, 8, 1
Al (13) – 2, 8, 3
Mg (12) – 2, 8, 2 etc.
➢ Exceptions - H and He
Or,
The elements which form positive ions (Cations) by loosing electrons are called metals.
➢ It is also known as electropositive element.

Physical properties of metals

Physical properties of metals are given below : -
1. All metals are solid at room temperature.
2. Metals are malleable means they can be hammered into very thin pieces.
3. Metals are ductile means they can drown into thin wires.
4. Metals are good conductor of heat and electricity.
5. Metals are lustrous means they have a special shine that is called metallic lusture.
6. Metals can be polished.
7. Metals have high tensile strength means they are very strong and bear a lot of stress.
8. Most of the metals are hard.
Exceptions- Sodium and potassium both are soft metals so that it can be cut with knife.
9. Most of the metals have high melting point and boiling point.
Exception- Sodium and potassium
10. Metals have high densities.
Exceptions- Na and k
11. Metals are sonorous means it produce a metallic sound after hammering.
12. Metals have the property to mix with other metals and form alloy.

Chemical properties of metals

The Chemical properties of metals are given below : -
1. All metals react with oxygen and form metal oxides. The rate of reaction depends on different conditions
and reactivity of metal.
Ex -

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➢ Note : - Reactivity series of metal with oxygen(O2)

Na > Mg > Zn > Fe > Cu
2. All metallic oxides are basic in nature that react with water and form metal hydroxide.

Ex - Na2O + H2SO4 2NaOH (Sodium hydroxide)

Note - Metallic hydroxide may be acidic or basic

Ex -
i. ZnO + H2SO4 ZnSO4 + H2O (Basic property)
ii. ZnO + 2NaOH Na2ZnO2 + H2O (Acidic property)
3. Generally metals react with water under different conditions at different rate and produce Hydrogen gas.
Ex -
Cold
i. Na + 2H O 2 2NaOH + H O 2

Boiling
ii. Al + 6H2O 2Al(OH)3 + 3H2

Steam
iii. Zn + H2O ZnO + H2
➢ The reactivity series of metals with water is –
Na > Mg > Al > Fe > Cu
4. Metals react with acid and give out hydrogen gas-

Note : - High reactive metals displace hydrogen from dilute acid.

Ex- 2Na + 2HCl 2NaCl + H2

Fe + H2SO4 FeSO4 + H2

➢ The reactivity series of metal with dilute acid is-

Na > Mg > Zn > Fe > Cu
5. Metals react with the solution of other metal salts in which a more reactive metal can displace less reactive
metals from their solution.

Formation of metallic oxide

When a metal react with oxygen, it loses its valence electron to form +ve ion. On the other hand an atoms of oxygen
to form oxide (O2-) ion.
➢ These two oppositely charged ions combine together to form an ionic metal oxide.

Electro positivity
The tendency of an atom of an element to lose electrons is called electro positivity and such type of element is
known as electropositive element.
➢ The tendency of losing electrons depends upon the nature of the metal.
Ex - Most of the metal
➢ The metals which are more electropositive than hydrogen can displace H2 from dilute acid.

Electro negativity
The tendency of an atom of an element to gain electron is called electro negativity and such type of element is
known electronegative element.
Ex - Most of the non- metal

Non- metals
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The elements which have 5, 6 or 7 electrons in their outermost orbit are called non-metal.
Ex- Cl (17) - 2, 8, 7
P (15) - 2, 8, 5
S (16) - 2, 8, 6
➢ The elements which form negative ions (anion) by gaining electrons are called non-metals.
Ex -

Physical properties of non- metal

The Physical properties of non- metals are given below : -
1. Non-metals may be solid, liquid or gaseous.
Ex- Solid – Sulphur and phosphorous
Liquid – Bromine
Gaseous – Hydrogen, oxygen and etc.
2. Non- metals are neither malleable nor ductile.
3. Non- metals are brittle those break up after hammering.
4. Non- metals are insulator.
Exception – Graphite (good conductor of electricity)
5. Non- metals do not have lusture that can’t be polished.
Exception – Graphite and iodine has lusture
6. Non- metals have low tensile strength that can be easily broken.
7. Generally non-metals are soft.
Exception – Diamond
8. Most of non-metals have low boiling and melting point.
Exception – Graphite and Diamond
9. Non-metals have low densities.
10. Non-metals are non-sonorous.
11. Non-metals show allotropy means it exist in more than one structural form that is called allotropy.
Ex - Carbon exist in the form of graphite and diamond.

Chemical properties of non- metals

The chemical properties of non- metals are given below : -
1. Non-metals react with oxygen to give non- metallic oxides those may be acidic or neutral.
Ex -
Complete burning
C + O2 CO2 (Acidic)
Uncompleted burning
C + O2 CO (Neutral)
2. Non- metals react with chlorine to form co-valent chloride that dissolves in water to give hydrochloride
acid.
Ex-

3. Generally non- metals do not react with water and acid.

Allotropy and allotropes

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The property of an element to exist in more than one structural form is called allotropy and the different form of
element is known as allotropes.
➢ There is two allotropes of carbon : -
i. Diamond
ii. Graphite

Reactivity series of metal

The arrangement of metals in a vertical column in order of decreasing reactivity is called reactivity series of
metals.
➢ Most reactive metal is places at the top whereas the least reactive metal is placed at the bottom.
➢ The electropositive character of metals decreases as we go down from top to bottom in the activity series.
➢ All metals which occur above the hydrogen in the activity series are more reactive than hydrogen and all
metals which occur below hydrogen in the reactivity series are less reactive than hydrogen.

Metals displacement reaction

A chemical reaction in which a more reactive metal displaces a less reactive metal from its salt solution is called a
metal displacement reaction.
Ex - Zn + CuSO4 ZnSO4 + Cu

Aqua- Regia
Aqua- regia is a freshly prepared mixture of 1 part of concentrated nitric acid (HNO 3) and 3 parts of concentrated
hydrochloric acid (HCl).
➢ Aqua- Regia can dissolve all metals even gold and platinum.

Octet rule
During chemical reaction atoms of all elements tend to achieve eight electrons in their outermost shell to gain
stability is called octet rule.
➢ To follow octet rule atoms have to loss or gain some electrons. The electronic configuration of the nearest
noble gas element.
Note - H and He need only two electron to complete their octet because both have only one orbit that contain
maximum two electrons.

Electron- dot structure

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The representation of the number of electron present in outermost orbit of an atom by the symbol of point ( ) is
called electron- dot structure.
Ex -

Ions
Electrically positive or negative charged element is called ion. Ion is formed by losing or gaining of electron of
outermost orbit.
➢ When an atom loses electrons from outer most orbit it forms +ve ion.
Ex -

➢ When an atom gain electrons in its outermost orbit it forms –ve ion.
Ex -

Properties of positive +ve ion (cation)

The properties of cation are described below : -
1. All positive ions have less electrons than their origin atom.
Ex -

2. Cations are positively charged because they have more proton than electron.
3. Atomic number of ions remains same because it depends on number of proton.
4. Size of cation is smaller than original atom.
5. Electronic configuration of ions is as same as their nearest inert gas.
Ex - Potassium ion (K+) Argon (Ar)
2, 8, 8 2, 8, 8

Characteristics of –ve ions (anion)

The characteristic of anions are described below : -
1. All anions have more electrons than their origin atom.
Ex -

2. Anion contains negative charge because they have more electron than proton.
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3. Atomic number of anion remains same.

4. Size of anion is larger than original atom.
5. Electronic configuration of anion is as same as their nearest inert gas.
Ex - Chlorin ion (Cl- ) Argon (Ar)
2, 8, 8 2, 8, 8

Difference between atoms and ions

Differences between atoms and ions are given below : -
Atoms Ions
1. Atoms are electrically neutral. Ions are electrically positive or negative.
2. In atoms number of electron and proton are In ions, number of electron and proton are unequal.
equal.
3. The number of electrons in outermost orbit The number of electron in outermost orbit remain
may vary. constant, it remain 8.
4. The properties of atom depend on valence The properties of ion depend on their charge.
electron.

Inert or noble gas

The elements those never take a part in chemical reaction are called inert element (gas).
➢ There are 8 electrons present in the outermost orbit of inert gas.
Exception – He (2) – 2
Example – (Ne)Neon (10) – 2, 8
(Ar) Argon (18) – 2, 8
(kr) Krypton – 2, 8, 18, 8
(Xe) Xenon –
(Rn) Redon –

Chemical bond
The chemical forces that combine the atoms of a molecules or compounds altogether are called chemical bond.
➢ There are two types of chemical bond : -
1. Electrovalent bond or ionic bond
2. Covalent bond

Electrovalent Bond
The chemical bond formed by the transfer of electrons from one atom to another is called ionic bond.
1. An ionic bond is formed by when one of the atoms can donate or receive electrons to complete the octet.
2. The ionic bond is formed between metals and non-metals due to attraction of opposite ions.
Ex - Formation of Sodium Chloride : -
Na (11) – 2, 8, 1
Cl (17) – 2, 8, 7

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Ionic Compound
The compounds that are formed by ionic bond are called ionic compound.
Ex - NaCl, KCl, NH4Cl, MgCl2, CuSO4, etc.

Covalent Bond
The Chemical bond formed by the sharing of electrons between two or more atoms is known as covalent bond.
➢ The sharing of electrons takes places in such a way that each atom completes the octet.
➢ There are three types of covalent bond : -
1. Single covalent bond
2. Double covalent bond
3. Triple covalent bond

Single bond
A covalent bond that formed by the sharing of one pair or two electrons is called single covalent bond.
➢ It is denoted by single bond (-).
Ex - Formation of Chlorine Molecules (Cl2)
Cl (17) – 2, 8, 7

Double covalent bond

A covalent bond that formed by the sharing of two pair or four electrons is called Double covalent bond.
➢ It is denoted by double bond ( ).
Ex - Formation of CO2
C (6) – 2, 4
O (8) – 2, 6

Triple covalent bond

A covalent bond that formed by the sharing of three pairs or six electrons is called triple covalent bond.
➢ It is denoted by triple bond ( ).
Ex - Formation of Nitrogen molecules (N2)
N (7) – 2, 5

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Covalent Compound
The compound that are formed by covalent bond are called covalent compound.
Ex - CH4, H2O, NH3 , HCl, CCl4

Properties of ionic bond

The properties of ionic compound are given below : -
1. Ionic compounds are generally crystalline solids because of their oppositely charged ions attract one another
strongly and form a regular crystal structure.
2. Ionic compound have high melting point and boiling point due to strong force of attraction.
Ex - Sodium chloride- Melting point = 8000C
Boiling point = 14130C
3. Ionic compound is soluble in water but insoluble in organic solvent like ether, acetone, alcohol, kerosene etc.
4. Ionic compound conduct electricity when dissolved in water or melted because they contain free charged
particles called ion.

Properties of covalent compound

The properties of covalent compound are given below : -
1. Covalent compounds are generally liquids or gases. Only some of them are solids
Ex - Alcohol, ether, benzene, bromine (liquid)
Methane, ethane, chlorine (gases)
Glucose, cane sugar, urea, Naphthalene, iodine (solid)
2. Covalent compound have usually low melting and boiling point due to low force of attraction.
Ex – Naphthalene - Melting point = 800C
Carbon tetrachloride - Boiling point = 770C
3. Covalent compound are insoluble in water but soluble in organic compound.
Ex - Naphthalene is insoluble in water but soluble in ether.
Note – Some covalent compound like glucose, sugar, urea, ammonia, hydrogen chloride etc. are soluble in water.
4. Covalent compounds do not conduct electricity because they have not free ions.

Occurrence of metals in nature

The earth crust is the major source of metals but some metals are also found in sea water. Metals occur in nature in
the free as well as in combined state.
❖ All less reactive metals which are not reacting with water and air easily are found in free State.
Ex - silver, gold, platinum.
❖ All high reactive metals which are react with easily with water, air, carbon dioxide, oxygen, etc are found in
combined form as a compound.
Ex - Al, Fe, Ca, Zn, Mg, etc.

Minerals
Naturally occurring compounds of metals mixed with earthly materials that are found in the earth crust are called
minerals.
Ex - NaCl, CaCO3, ZnS, etc.

Ores
The minerals from which a metal can be extracted easily on a commercial scale are called ores.
Note – All ores are minerals but all minerals are not ores.
➢ Common ores of iron
1. Hematite (Fe2O3), Magnetite (Fe3O4), Limonite (Fe2O3.13H2O) – Oxide ores
2. Siderite (FeCO3) – Carbon ores
3. Iron pyrites (FeS2) - Sulphide ores
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➢ Common ores of aluminum

1. Bauxite (Al2O3.H2O), Corundum (Al2O3) – Oxide ores
2. Cryolite (Na3AlF6) – Fluoride ore
3. Feldspar (KAlSi3O8) – Silicate ores
➢ Common ores of Zinc
1. Zinc blende (ZnS)
2. Calamine (ZnCO3)
3. Zincite (ZnO)
➢ Common ores of copper
1. Cuprite (Cu2O)
2. Copper glance (Cu2S)
➢ Common ores of mercury is Cinnabar (HgS)
➢ Common ores of sodium is Sodium chloride (NaCl)
➢ Common ores of manganese is Pyrolusite (MnO2)

Gangue
The unwanted earthly material (impurities) such as soil, sand, stone, etc present in an ore is called gangue.
➢ It may be acidic or basic.

Flux
A substance which combines with the gangue during smelting to form fusible slag is called flux.
Ex- Silica (SiO2) – Acidic
Lime (CaO) and Limestone (CaCO3) – Basic

Metallurgy
The process of extracting pure metal from their ores is called metallurgy.
➢ The steps involved in extraction of metals are given below : -
1. Crushing and pulverization of ores.
2. Concentration of ores.
3. Obtaining metallic oxide from concentrated ores.
4. Extraction of metals.
5. Refining of metals.

Crushing and Pulverization

The process of breaking down the big lamps of ores into smaller pieces by hammering is called crushing.
➢ It is done in hammer mill.
➢ The process of making fine powder of crushed ores is called pulverization.

Concentration or dressing of ores

The process of removing unwanted earthly materials from an ores is called concentration of ores.
➢ On the basis of different gangue, following methods are used for concentrated of ores : -
1. Hydraulic washing method
2. Magnetic separation method
3. Froth flotation process
4. Leaching process
5. Gravity separation method
6. Liquation method
7. Hand picking method
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Dressing of ores by hydraulic washing method

In this method, crushed ores is washed with steam of water after that lighter gangue particles are washed away
and heavier mineral particles settle down to the bottom that can be removed.

Dressing of ores by magnetic separation method

This method is use to concentrate only when either of the two ores or gangue is magnetic.
➢ The powdered ore is dropped over a conveyor belt moving over two rollers one of which is roller, the
magnetic materials falls near the roller and non magnetic material falls far from the roller.

Dressing of ores by froth floatation method

This method is used to concentrating sulphide ores of zinc, copper and lead that is based on the difference in the
wetting properties of the ores and gangue particles.
➢ In this method, the powered ore is mixed with water and little pine oil. The mixture is vigorously stirred by
passing compressed air, after that froth produced arise to the surface and carries the ores particles along
with it that is removed easily and gangue is left behind on the bottom.

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Dressing of ores by leaching method

This method is used to concentrate such type of ores which have different chemical properties of ore and gangue.
It is also known as chemical separation method.
➢ In this method, the metal compound present in the ore is chemically converted into a form so that it can be
separated from the gangue easily.
Ex - Bauxite purified by the leaching process
➢ Bauxite is the main ore of aluminum that contain aluminum oxide (Al 2O3) which dissolve in NaOH while the
gangue does not.
➢ Bauxite is soal up (digested) with concentrated solution of NaOH (caustic soda) at 150o c after that aluminum
oxide dissolves leaving behind insoluble impurities that are removed by filtration.

➢ The hot solution of NaAlO2 is treated with freshly prepared Al(OH)3 : -

➢ The precipitate of Al (OH)3 is removed, washed, dried and heated strongly to get pure alumina.

Dressing of ores by gravity separation method

This method is used to concentrate the metal ores which is heavier than the gangue associated with them.

➢ In this method the powdered ore in a current of water flow on wifely table that is vibrating table usually with
longitudinal grooves in its surface. After that the lighter rocky impurities can be washed away and the ores
heavy particles are left behind the grooves.
➢ Hematite and cerussite are concentrated by this method.

Dressing of ores by liquation method

This method is used to concentrate the metals of ores which have the different boiling point of ores and gangue.
➢ In this method ores are heated to temperature where one of the constituents melt and the other remains
solid. The liquid constituents can b drained off.
➢ It is used to concentrate the antimony and mixture
of silver and copper.

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Obtaining metallic oxide from concentrated ores

To extract the metal first it has to change into metallic oxide from concentrated ores because only from metallic
oxides metal can be extracted.
➢ It is done by two methods : -
1. Calcination
2. Roasting

Calcination
The process of heating an ore strongly on the presence of very limited quantity of air or in the absence of air is
called calcinations.
➢ During calcinations the ore becomes porous and dry. It is suitable for sulphide and carbonate ores.
Ex -

Roasting
The process of heating an ore strongly below its melting point in the presence of an excess of air is called roasting.
➢ Roasting is suitable for sulphide ores.
Ex -

Extraction of metal from metallic oxide

Extraction of metals from metallic oxide done by different method that is depend upon the reactivity series.
➢ Highly reactive metal extract by electrolytic reduction method.
As – K, Ba, Ca, Na, Mg, Al, etc.
Example of extraction by electrolytic reduction method

➢ Moderately reactive metals extracted by heating with carbon or aluminum from it metallic oxide.
Ex - Reduction of metal oxide with carbon : -

PbO + C Pb + CO

Fe2 O3 + 3C 2Fe + 3CO

Ex - Reduction of metal oxide with aluminum

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➢ Less reactive metal extracted by reduced by heat alone.

Ex - Reduction of metal by direct heating

Thermite welting process or thermite reaction

Thermite reaction is a welding process utilizing heat generated by exothermic reaction between the components
of thermite that is a mixture of metal oxide and aluminum powder.
➢ It is used to join steel parts and plug-hole. For this ribbon of magnesium burn to produce het up to 25000C.
After that liquid iron fills the hole and aluminum oxide floating up that is removed from the weld surface.

Amphoteric oxide
Some oxides of metals have the properties of both acid and base which can react with both as an acid and as a
base those are called amphoteric oxide.
Ex - Al2O3, ZnO, etc.

Refining of concentrated metals

Metal obtain by reduction is not pure. It has small quantities of various impurities. So, it has to refine for
obtaining pure metal.
➢ The process of removing impurities from the metals extracted from ores is called refining of metals.
➢ The different methods of refining metals are : -
1. By liquation method
2. By distillation method
3. By electrolytic refining method

Extraction of sodium
Sodium is extracted by the electrolytic reduction of liquid sodium chloride (NaCl). It is also known as Down’s process.
❖ Since melting point of NaCl is very high (820o C). So, CaCl2 is mixed to reduce its melting point. Sodium metal
is obtained on cathode and chlorine gas on anode after electrolytic reduction of mixture.

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Extraction of Zinc
Zinc (30) is mainly extracted by calamine (ZnCO 3) and zinc blende (ZnS).
➢ Extraction of Zinc by calamine (ZnCO 3) : -
STEP-1. Concentrated calamine is calcinated to obtain zinc oxide (ZnO).

STEP-2. ZnO is heated with carbon (Coal) to obtain zinc metal.

➢ Extraction of zinc by zinc belende (ZnS)

Step- 1. Concentrated zinc blende is roasted at high temperature to obtain zinc oxide (ZnO).

Step- 2. ZnO is heated with carbon to obtain zinc metal.

➢ Pure zinc is refines by electrolytic reduction method.

Extraction of mercury
Hg (80) is extracted by cinnabar ore.
Step – 1. Concentrated cinnabar ore is roasted at high temperature to obtain mercury oxide.

Step – 2. Hgo is heated with charcoal (carbon) to obtain mercury.

HgO + C Hg + CO2

➢ Pure mercury is refine by the condensation of the mixture of mercury vapor, CO and CO2

Extraction of copper
Cu (29) is extracted usually by copper glance (Cu 2S).
Step – 1. The concentrated copper glance is roasted in air to copper oxide.

Step – 2. In the absence of air copper oxide reacts with copper sulphide to obtain copper metal.

Step – 3. Pure copper is refined by electrolytic method after that pure copper is obtain on cathode and
impure copper is obtained on anode.

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Alloys
A homogeneous mixture of a metal with other metal or non- metal is called an alloy.
➢ Alloy is prepared by mixing the various metals in melted state in required proportion and cooling their
mixture to room temperature.
Ex- Brass – (Copper and metal)
Steel – (Fe + Cr + Ni)
Gun metal – (Cu + Sn + Zn + Pb)
➢ The properties of alloys are given below : -
1. Alloys are stronger and harder than the metals from which they are made.
2. Alloys are more resistant to corrosion.
3. Alloy may have high or low melting point than the parent metal.
4. Alloy is lower conductor of electricity than their constituents.

Alloying of gold
The purity of gold is expressed in carats and the pure gold is 24 carats that is too soft to make jewelry. To make it
harder and suitable for jewelry, we have to mix copper or silver with them that make them alloy.
➢ In India, gold ornaments are made of 22 carats gold means those 22 parts pure gold alloyed with 2 parts of
either silver or copper for making ornaments. So, 22 carats gold is an alloy of gold with silver or copper.

The iron pillar of Delhi

Near Qutab Minar in Delhi an Iron pillar is present that is made up of wrought iron (low carbon steel). It was made
around 400 BC which weight is about 6000 kg.
➢ The rusting has been prevented till now due to the formation of thin layer (film) of magnetic oxide of iron
(Fe3O4) on the surface as result of finishing treatment given to the pillar. It was painted with the mixture of
different slats then heating and rapid cooling. It is about 8m in height that stands in good condition more
than 2000 years after it was made. It is a wonder of ancient Indian metallurgy.

Corrosion
The slow destruction of metals by the action of air, moisture or acid on their surface is called corrosion.
➢ The corrosion of iron is called rusting.
➢ After the corrosion of iron, it gets covered with a red brown flaky substance that is called rust.
➢ Corrosion takes place on the exposed surface. When the upper layer of the metal gets corroded then inner
surface of the metal gets exposed and the corrosion then continues up to certain depth.
➢ Copper and brass get green- colored deposit after corrosion.

Necessary condition for the corrosion

➢ Necessary conditions for the corrosion are : -
1. Presence of air (oxygen)
2. Presence of moisture or water vapor
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Factors that affect the rate of corrosion or rusting

The following factors accelerate the rate of corrosion : -
1. The presence of reactive gas as CO2, SO2, SO3, NO, NO2 increase the rate of rusting.
2. The presence of electrolytes in water such as NaCl increases the rate of corrosion so that iron rust faster in
sea water than in distillated water.
3. The presence of impurities of less electropositive metal increases the rate of corrosion.

Prevention from corrosion

Corrosion can be prevented by : -
1. Corrosion can be prevented by surface coating with oil, grease paint, etc. It is also prevented by depositing a
thin layer of any other metal which does not corrode. Such as zinc, nickel or chromium.
2. It can be prevented by connecting the metal to a more electropositive metal.
Ex - Iron can be prevented by connecting it to zinc or magnesium.

Rusting of iron
Rusting of iron is a slow destructive process in which iron gets covered with layer of brown powdery material. It
occurs in the presence of moist air.

➢ Rusting continues and over a long period of time iron loses its strength.

Galvanization
The process of depositing a thin layer of zinc or iron is called galvanization.
➢ The iron coated with thin layer of zinc is called galvanized iron (GI).

Tinning
The process of coating of an iron object with a thin layer of tin is called tinning.
➢ Iron sheet coated with tin is called tin plate.

Prevention of rusting of iron

It can be prevented by the following method : -
1. By surface coating with oil, grease, paint and varnish.
2. It can be prevented by galvanization.
3. By electroplating iron with any corrosion resistant metal as nickel and chromium.
4. It is prevented by tinning.
5. Iron can be prevented by alloying with chromium and nickel.
6. By connecting iron to a more electropositive metal.

BY - AFZAL HUSAIN