Chapter 2 Data Model Database Systems: Design, Implementation, and Management, Sixth Edition, Rob and CoronelIn this chapter, you will learn: Why data models are important About the basic data-modeling building blocks What business rules are and how they affect database design How the major data models evolved, and their advantages and disadvantages How data models can be classified by level of abstractionThe Importance of Data Models Data model — Relatively simple representation, usually graphical, of complex real-world data structures — Communications tool to facilitate interaction among the designer, the applications programmer, and the end user Good database design uses an appropriate data model as its foundation End-users have different views and needs for data Data model organizes data for various usersData Model Basic Building Blocks Entity - is anything about which data are to be collected and stored Attribute — is a characteristic of an entity Relationship — describes an association among (two or more) entities — One-to-many (1:M) relationship — Many-to-many (M:N or M:M) relationship — One-to-one (1:1) relationship Constraint - a restriction placed on the data+ How do database designers go about determining the entities, attributes, and relationships that will build a data model? Business Rules + Business Rules — Brief, precise, and unambiguous description of a policy, procedure, or principle within a specific organization’s environmentBusiness Rules (continued) Must be rendered in writing Must be kept up to date Sometimes are external to the organization Must be easy to understand and widely disseminated Describe characteristics of the data as viewed by the companyExamples of Business Rules « Acustomer may generate many invoices. + Each invoice is generated by only one customer. ER model 1 M CUSTOMER et INVOICE. . Sources of Business Rules Company managers Policy makers Department managers Written documentation — Procedures — Standards — Operations manuals Direct interviews with end usersImportance of Business Rules Standardize company’s view of data Constitute a communications tool between users and designers Allow designer to understand the nature, role, and scope of data Allow designer to understand business processes Allow designer to develop appropriate relationship participation rules and constraintsTranslating Business Rules into — Model Components * Generally, nouns translate into entities * Verbs translate into relationships among entities * Relationships are bi-directional ER model 1 M CUSTOMER << INVOICE + Acustomer may generate many invoices. + Each invoice is generated by only one customer. 10The Evolution of Data Models ee eet ese et een Ty Tt id Rr Borers Demers a Spence toe 1 Compt erator persia Pe ae oct erro nem meeps c sparen Didar mn peneed ee 9 RS. iio Getwelaccte 3 am Tae RR STR RETREAT —| pio compet i cea TT a 2 Negus ean teat opener sees 2 Rhriasmin ndatraipapecuth nian mamaipnre | anche set ape } Onemcoemretath Gartierdiotedtemare” | 3 Severn Gugnretrchgs nasser mer. 1am au poe 5. Mc ernment 2S SISEAEES ewer ct ed st mn [= Lagat 9A aN a Tas =e TV Srasnal nkpenkees Bora Ree Eee thape sunin cur ache er pease page 2: Cevepal rey hn ny wri pd 2 reer atest imraceconans eye teen |” Sguciyanmpeet nd dune to posuere Femarccontdsanun mparoricenragree | tasanrw agnor mo 1 Rey poe Woe ci pt eh ad 2: Al gan candy hand Site conch doc dc ont ppt 1 ad tt ar ont i a oo Sereniepteeneseced be Ta = Titet net ptcrasyhear tay Ties Siebarreasalaprien een J walqrectonmantmcantncrmctionmd — | > thertinednsmmpmprersan J Vrcuad ne denmt aead a 3 Noro das wpe rouse 2 [Suis meet anc end ee ‘acs atnded gan Pe bron Inubonpensttn rae an = T eacaner saat Tas act grrte reat aaah Boome Ot 2 Setimpecetaon vin otc tamale hss man annpacnda 1 Mint nie eso 2 ER 2 Gfenerees Sor ese te asin sume ar sro ent te ie, he, tn a oe Ban emda tv pon tnd,The Evolution of Data Models Hierarchical Network Relational Entity relationship Object orientedThe Hierarchical Model * Developed in the 1960s to manage large amounts of data for complex manufacturing projects * Basic logical structure is represented by an upside-down “tree”Hierarchical Database Model + Logically represented by an upside down tree — Each parent can have many children — Each child has only one parent FIGURE __ A hierarchical structure 21 niirt <> Level 1 Segments (Root Children) * al Eo Level 2 Segments (Level 1 Children) en ke Level 3 Segments (Level 2 Children) —_ Part A } Part B Part C | Part D Part E |Hierarchical Database Model 7 + Advantages — Conceptual simplicity (The relationship between the various layers of the model is logically simple) — Database security and integrity — Data independence — Efficiency + Disadvantages — Complex implementation — Difficult to manage and lack of standards — Lacks structural independence — Applications programming and use complexity — Implementation limitations iThe Network Model * Created to — Represent complex data relationships more effectively — Improve database performance — Impose a database standardThe Network Model (continued) + Schema — Conceptual organization of entire database as viewed by the database administrator + Subschema — Defines database portion “seen” by the application programs that actually produce the desired information from data contained within the databaseThe Network Model (continued) * Schema Data Definition Language (DDL) — Enables database administrator to define schema components * Subschema DDL — Allows application programs to define database components that will be used +« Data Management Language (DML) — Defines the environment in which data can be managed — Works with the data in the databaseThe Network Model (continued) + Resembles hierarchical model + Collection of records in 1:M relationships + Set — Relationship — Composed of at least two record types + Owner — Equivalent to the hierarchical model’s parent + Member — Equivalent to the hierarchical model's childNetwork Database Model + Each record can have multiple parents — Composed of sets — Each set has owner record and member record — Member may have several owners FIGURE A network data model 2.2 ® Collection of records in 1:M relationships Commission set Sales set Payment set Inventory set Line setNetwork Database Model =a + Advantages — Conceptual simplicity — Handles more relationship types — Data access flexibility — Promotes database integrity — Data independence — Conformance to standards « Disadvantages — System complexity — Lack of structural independenceRelational Database Model Developed by Codd (IBM) in 1970 Perceived by user as a collection of tables for data storage Tables are a series of row/column intersections Tables related by sharing common entity characteristic(s) (Figure 2.4) Relational table is purely logical structure — How data are physically stored in the database is of no concern to the user or the designerLinking Relational Tables FIGURE 2.3 _INAME [AGENT_FNAME | AGENT INTIAL | AGENT_AREACODE | AGENT PHONE Alex 8 713 28-1249 502 Hahn Leah F 615 882-4244 503, Okon John T 615 123-5589 y 10010 Ramas 844-2573, 05-Apr-2006 10011 Dunne Leona K 713 894.1238 18-Jun-2008, 501 [] 10012! smth Kathy we 615 834-2285 29-Jan-2007 502 10013 Olowski Paul F 615 834-2180 14-Oct-2006 502 10014 Orlando | Myron 615 222-1672 28-Dec-2006 501 10015 Ofrian Amy 8 713 442.3081, 22-Sep-2006 503 10016 Brown James 6 615 297-1228 25-Mar-2006 502 10017 Willams | George 615 290-2556 47-Jul-2008 503 10018 Farris Anne 3 113 362-7185 03-Dec-2006) 501 10019 Smth Olette K 615 297-3603 14-Mar-2006 503The Relational Model (continued) Ala Relational diagram Representation of relational database’s entities, attributes within those entities, and relationships between those entities FIGURE ae * _The Relational Model (continued) * Rise to dominance due in part to its powerful ° and flexible query language Structured Query Language (SQL) allows the user to specify what must be done without specifying how it must be done SQL-based relational database application involves: — User interface —A set of tables stored in the database — SQL engineRelational Database Model + Advantages — Structural independence — Improved conceptual simplicity — Easier database design, implementation, management, and use — Ad hoc query capability with SQL — Powerful database management systemRelational Database Model * Disadvantages — Substantial hardware and system software overhead — Poor design and implementation is made easyEntity Relationship Model * Widely accepted and adapted graphical tool for data modeling * Introduced by Chen in 1976 * Graphical representation of entities and their relationships in a database structureThe ER Model — Basic structural Entity relationship diagram (ERD) — Uses graphic representations to model database components — Entity is mapped to a relational table Entity instance (or occurrence) is row in the relational table Connectivity labels types of relationships — Diamond connected to related entities through a relationship line Entity set is collection of like entities Unfortunately, ERD designers use “entity” as a substitute for “entity set” and we ‘ll conform to that established practice.FIGURE 2.5 A One-to-Many (1:M) Relationship: a PAINTER can paint many PAINTINGs; each PAINTING is painted by one PAINTER. 1 M. PAINTER pains > PAINTING A Many-to-Many (M:N) Relationship: an EMPLOYEE can learn many SKILLs; each SKILL can be learned by many EMPLOYEEs. M N EMPLOYEE <> SKILL A One-to-One (1:1) Relationship: an EMPLOYEE manages one STORE; each STORE is managed by one EMPLOYEE. 1 1 EMPLOYEE <>The Entity Relationship Model FIGURE 2.6 A One-to-Many (1:M) Relationship: a PAINTER can paint many PAINTINGs; each PAINTING is painted by one PAINTER. PAINTER | paints He --2-- 4 A Many-to-Many (M:N) Relationship: an EMPLOYEE can learn many SKILLs; each SKILL can be learned by many EMPLOYEEs. EMPLOYEE SKILL Lb pee a tet A One-to-One (1:1) Relationship: an EMPLOYEE manages one STORE; each STORE is managed by one EMPLOYEE. EMPLOYEE STORE mana He -S=2- +41Relationships: The Basic Chen ERD v4 A One-to-Many (1:M) Relationship: a PAINTER can paint many PAINTINGs; each PAINTING is painted by one PAINTER 1 M } paneer pan in EMPLOYEE can learn many SKILLs; each SKILL can be learned by many EMPLOYEEs A Many-to-Many (M:N) Relations! M N EMPLOYEE << A One-to-One (1:1) Relationship: an EMPLOYEE manages one STORE; each STORE is managed by one EMPLOYEE 1 1 EMPLOYEE <> STORERelationships: The Basic Crow’s Foot ERD FIGURE 2.7 RELATIONSHIPS: THE Basic CRow’s Foot ERD ‘A One-to-Many (1:M) Relationshi PAINTER can paint many PAINTINGS; ‘each PAINTING is painted by one PAINTER paints PAINTER G PAINTING ‘A Many-to-Many (M:N) Relationship: an EMPLOYEE can learn many SKILLS; ‘each SKILL can be learned by many EMPLOYEES earns EMPLOYEE < SKILL ‘A One-to-One (1:1) Relationship: an EMPLOYEE manages one STORE; ‘each STORE is managed by one EMPLOYEE manai EMPLOYEE be STOREEntity Relationship Database Model * Complements the relational data model concepts * Represented in an entity relationship diagram (ERD) + Based on entities, attributes, and relationships 1 M PAINTER. Semantic data model (SDM) developed by Hammer and McLeod in 1981 The Object Oriented Model Modeled both data and their relationships in a single structure known as an object Object-oriented data model OODM is the basis for the object oriented database management system (OODBMS) OODM is said to be a semantic data model* An object is an abstraction of a real-world entity — Attributes describe properties of an object Object-Oriented Database Model — Objects that share similar characteristics are grouped in class — Classes are organized in a class hierarchy — Inheritance is ability of object to inherit attributes and methods of classes above itThe Object Oriented Model (contin FIGURE — A comparison of the OO model and the ER model 2.7 OO data model Soe! INV_DATE INV_NUMBER generates Na oes INV_TOTAL CUSTOMER ails+ Extended Relational Data Model (ERDM) — Semantic data model developed in response to increasing complexity of applications Other Models — DBMS based on the ERDM often described as an object/relational database management system (O/RDBMS) — Primarily geared to business applicationsDatabase Models and the Internet + Internet drastically changed role and scope of database market * OODM and ERDM-O/RDM have taken a backseat to development of databases that interface with Internet * Dominance of Web has resulted in growing need to manage unstructured informationData Models: A Summary * Each new data model capitalized on the shortcomings of previous models * Common characteristics: — Conceptual simplicity without compromising the semantic completeness of the database — Represent the real world as closely as possibleFIGURE The development of data models Data Models: A Summary Semantics in Data Model Comments least * Difficult to represent M:N relationships (hierarchical only) * Structural level dependency * No ad hoc queries (record-at-a-time access) * Access path predefined (navigational access) + Conceptual simplicity (structual independence) * Provides ad hoc queries (SQU) * Set-oriented access * Easy to understand (more semantics) ETS + Limited to conceptual modeling (no implementation component) *+ More semantics in data model * Support for complex objects + Inheritance (class hierarchy) a RL Cn ys benavion bee era Teak) | * Unstructured data XML) mostDegrees of Data Abstraction a + Way of classifying data models « American National Standards Institute/Standards Planning and Requirements Committee (ANSI/SPARC) — Classified data models according to their degree of abstraction (1970s): + Conceptual + External + InternalDegrees of Data Abstraction FIGURE 2.9) End-User View End-User View Degree of Abstraction Characteristics High > oR | Afardware-independent KC software-independent Hardware-independent Software-dependent Logical independence Hardware-dependent Software-dependent Physical independence+ End users’ view of the data environment The External Model + Requires that the modeler subdivide set of requirements and constraints into functional modules that can be examined within the framework of their external modelsThe External Model (continued FIGURE 2.10 Student Registration ‘A student may take up to six classes per registration. Thi isin bide LTE ‘A.class is limited to 35 students, ‘Class Scheduling ‘Aroom may be used to | ROOM teach many classes, Each class is taught in only one room, Each class is taught by one professor. ‘A professor may teach upto three classes.. . The Conceptual Model Represents global view of the entire database Representation of data as viewed by the entire organization Basis for identification and high-level description of main data objects, avoiding details Most widely used conceptual model is the entity relationship (ER) modelo so ° = i) = 2 a ® o c 3° oO ® = Fe FIGURE 2.11The Conceptual Model (continued) + Provides a relatively easily understood macro level view of data environment - Independent of both software and hardware — Does not depend on the DBMS software used to implement the model — Does not depend on the hardware used in the implementation of the model — Changes in either hardware or DBMS software have no effect on the database design at the conceptual level 48The Internal Model Representation of the database as “seen” by the DBMS Maps the conceptual model to the DBMS Internal schema depicts a specific representation of an internal model Hardware Independent Software Dependent (DBMS Dependent) 49The Internal Model FIGURE 2.12 CONCEPTUAL MODEL _ || INTERNAL MODEL | ‘Create Table PROFESSOR( PROF_ID NUMBER PRIMARY KEY, PROF_LNAME CHAR(15), PROF_INITIAL CHAR(1), PROF_FNAME CHAR(15), mp Create Table CLASS( CLASS_ID NUMBER PRIMARY KEY, 6 for CRS_ID CHAR(8) REFERENCES COURSE, PROF_ID NUMBER REFERENCES PROFESSOR, ROOM_ID ‘CHAR(8) REFERENCES ROOM, ‘ger ‘Create Table ROOM( ROOM_ID CHAR(8) PRIMARY KEY, ROOM_TYPE CHAR(3), d; [eoonaa] se} Create Table COURSE, CRS_ID CHAR(8) PRIMARY KEY, CRS_NAME — CHAR(25), CRS_CREDITS NUMBER,The Physical Model + Operates at lowest level of abstraction, describing the way data are saved on storage media such as disks or tapes + Software and hardware dependent + Requires that database designers have a detailed knowledge of the hardware and software used to implement database designLevels of Data Abstraction Levels of Data Abstraction OVE vt vat) Ae aU eT Tl Ender views Hardvare and software C- at gad aces mtd | Neier dren taeSummary + A good DBMS will perform poorly with a poorly designed database + A data model is a (relatively) simple abstraction of a complex real-world data-gathering environment * Basic data modeling components are: — Entities — Attributes — RelationshipsSummary (continued) « Hierarchical model — Based on a tree structure composed of a root segment, parent segments, and child segments — Depicts a set of one-to-many (I:M) relationships between a parent and its children — Does not include ad hoc querying capabilitySummary (continued) Network model attempts to deal with many of the hierarchical model’s limitations Relational model: - Current database implementation standard — Much simpler than hierarchical or network design Object is basic modeling structure of object oriented model Data modeling requirements are a function of different data views (global vs. local) and level of data abstractionEntity Relationship Database Model * Complements the relational data model concepts « Represented in an entity relationship diagram (ERD) + Based on entities, attributes, and relationships 1 MEntity Relationship Database Model Advantages — Exceptional conceptual simplicity — Visual representation — Effective communication tool — Integrated with the relational database model Disadvantages — Limited constraint representation — Limited relationship representation (relationships between attributes within entities cannot be represented) — No data manipulation language (DML) — Loss of information contentOO Data Model » Advantages — Adds semantic content — Visual presentation includes semantic content — Database integrity — Both structural and data independence + Disadvantages — Lack of OODM standards — Complex navigational data access — Steep learning curve — High system overhead slows transactionsDatabase Models and the Internet * Characteristics of “Internet age” databases — Flexible, efficient, and secure Internet access — Easily used, developed, and supported — Supports complex data types and relationships — Seamless interfaces with multiple data sources and structures — Relative conceptual simplicity to make database design and implementation less cumbersome — Many database design, implementation, and application development tools — Powerful DBMS GUI make DBA job easierThe conceptual model represents a global view of the data. The Conceptual Model It is an enterprise-wide representation of data as viewed by high-level managers. ¢ Entity-Relationship (E-R) model is the most widely used conceptual model. The conceptual model is_ software independence hardware independence 602 A Conceptual Model for Tiny College = PROFESSORAdvantages of Conceptual Model + Provides a relatively easily understood macro level view of data environment * Independent of both software and hardware — Does not depend on the DBMS software used to implement the model — Does not depend on the hardware used in the implementation of the model — Changes in either the hardware or the DBMS software have no effect on the database design at the conceptual levelRepresentation of the database as “seen” by the DBMS The Internal Model ¢ Once a specific DBMS has been selected, the internal model adapts the conceptual model to the DBMS. The internal model is software-dependent hardware-independence. 63y) The External Model a @ End users’ views of data environment ¢ Each external model is then represented by its own external schema. @ Provides subsets of internal view @ Makes application program development easier @ The external model is DBMS-dependent hardware-independence. * CREATE VIEW CLASS VIEW AS SELECT (ctass_1p, CLASS_NAME, PROF_NAME, CLASS TIME, ROOM ID) FROM CLASS, PROFESSOR, ROOM WHERE CLASS.PROF_ID = PROFESSOR.PROF_ID AND CLASS .ROOM_ID = ROOM.ROOM_ID; 64A Division of an Internal Model into External Models Internal External Programmer Jim eeThe External Models for Tiny College Daten uneeeoeaen A student may take up to six classes per registration. A class Is limited to 35 students. Class Scheduling A room may be used to teach many classes. Each class is taug! Each class is taug! in only one room. by one professor. A professor may teach up to three classes.The Physical Model ¢ The physical model operates at the lowest level of abstraction, describing the way data is saved on storage media such as disks or tapes. @ Requires that database designers have a detailed knowledge of the hardware and software used to implement database design @ The physical model is_ software-dependent hardware-dependent. 67nw Database Models * Collection of logical constructs used to represent data structure and data relationships within the database — Conceptual models: logical nature of data representation * focus on the logical nature of the data representation. They are concerned with whatis represented rather than howit is represented. + E.g. E-R model — Implementation models: emphasis on how the data are represented in the database * place the emphasis on how the data are represented in the database or on how the data structures are implemented. ¢ E.g. relational database model