Wireless LAN (WLAN)

A WLAN is a local area network using wireless connectivity. Wireless connectivity entails the
use of high-frequency radio waves which are transmitted through an access point. An access
point is a hardware device that's used as a hub to propagate wireless signals. Think of a large
fountain with a single spout, which we can think of as the access point. As long as you stay
within a certain distance of the center of the spout (this is the coverage distance), you will always
get wet (which is to maintain signal connection). The same is true for the wireless access point.
The access point allows all connected devices within a certain coverage area to maintain a
network connection while in operation.
Like every other network, wireless data transmissions are governed by certain protocols which
characterize the type and function of the network. WLAN protocols originated from the 802.11
standard protocol developed by the IEEE Standards Committee. Subsequent protocols emerged
from this standard. Thus, IEEE 802.11 or WiFi has a number of variations.
Carrier sense multiple access/collision avoidance (CSMA/CA)
This is a protocol for Media Access Control (MAC) in 802.11 networks. It was developed to
minimize the potential of a collision occurring when two or more stations send their signals over
a data link layer.

In this scenario, CSMA requires each station to first check the state of the medium before
initiating a transmission. This helps to avert potential collisions by listening to the
broadcasting nodes and then informing devices to transmit when the channel is free. The rules
are as follows:

1. A station with a frame to transmit senses the medium. If the medium is idle, it waits to see if
the medium remains idle for a time equal to inter-frame space (IFS). If so, the station may
transmit immediately.
2. If the medium is busy (either because the station initially finds the medium busy or because
the medium becomes busy during the IFS idle time), the station defers transmission and
continues to monitor the medium until the current transmission is over.
3. Once the current transmission is over, the station delays another period equal IFS. If the
medium remains idle for this period, then the station backs off a random amount of time and
again senses the medium. If the medium is still idle, the station may transmit. During the back-
off time, if the medium becomes busy, the backoff timer is halted and resumes when the medium
becomes idle.
4. If the transmission is unsuccessful, which is determined by the absence of an
acknowledgment, then it is assumed that a collision has occurred.

Spread spectrum
Spread spectrum designates techniques by which a signal generated with a particular bandwidth
is deliberately spread in the frequency domain, resulting in a signal with a wider bandwidth. This
technique is used in WLANs.

Spread spectrum techniques

1. Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)

In this technique, the carrier changes frequency (HOPS) according to a pseudorandom Sequence.
Pseudorandom sequence is a list of frequencies. The carrier hops through this list of frequencies
raising the signal resistance to interference compared to the case when the signal is transmitted at
a single carrier frequency. The carrier then repeats this pattern. During Dwell Time the carrier
remains at a certain frequency. During Hop Time the carrier hops to the next frequency. The
Dwell time per frequency is around 100 ms (The FCC specifies a dwell time of 400 ms per
carrier frequency in any 30 second time period). Longer dwell time = greater throughput. Shorter
dwell time = less throughput.

2. Direct Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

DSSS spreads the signal by adding redundant bits to the signal prior to transmission which
spreads the signal across 22 Mhz. The procedure of adding redundant information to the signal is
called Processing Gain. The redundant information bits are called Pseudorandom Numbers (PN).
DSSS works by uniting information signal bits with higher data rate bit sequence (PN). The PN
is also called a Chipping Code (eg. the Barker chipping code).The result are called chips. The
higher processing gain (more chips) rises the signal's resistance to interference by spreading it
through a greater number of frequencies. IEEE has set their minimum processing gain to 11. The
number of chips in the chipping code associates to the signal spreading ratio. Doubling the
chipping speed doubles the signal spread and the required bandwidth. The Spreader employs an
encoding scheme (Barker or Complementary Code Keying (CCK).The spread signal is then
modulated by a carrier employing either Differential Binary Phase Shift Keying (DBPSK), or
Differential Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (DQPSK).
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM)

DSSS and FHSS are the two main components of spread spectrum technology. However, new
wireless LAN technology uses a modulation technique known as Orthogonal Frequency Division
Multiplexing (OFDM). OFDM makes use of multiple frequencies as a way to increase the
bandwidth or throughput in a wireless system. Instead of using a single carrier way to transmit
data, OFDM breaks down data information into several streams that are broadcast
simultaneously, on different frequencies, to a receiver that collects and reassembles them. This
multi-channel approach makes OFDM less susceptible to multipath and other RF interference.

Suppose we have a data stream operating at R bps and an available bandwidth of Nfb , centered
at f0. The entire bandwidth could be used to send the data stream, in which case each bit duration
would be 1/R. The alternative is to split the data stream into N substreams, using a serial-to-
parallel converter. Each substream has a data rate of R/N bps and is transmitted on a separate
subcarrier, with a spacing between adjacent subcarriers of f0. Now the bit
duration is N/R.
To gain a clearer understanding of OFDM, let us consider the scheme in terms of its base
frequency, f. This is the lowest-frequency subcarrier. All of the other subcarriers are integer
multiples of the base frequency, namely 2fb, 3fb, and so on, as shown in Figure. The OFDM
scheme uses advanced digital signal processing techniques to distribute the data over multiple
carriers at precise frequencies. The relationship among the subcarriers is referred to as
orthogonality.

OFDM and EEE 802.11

WiFi (or IEEE 802.11): Each Wi-Fi channel occupies 16.25 MHz of bandwidth at the 2.4GHz
frequency range. Each channel is divided into 52 sub-carriers of 312.5 kHz. These sub-carriers
overlap to fully utilize the 16.25 MHz channel bandwidth dedicated per channel. In addition,
each sub-carrier can use a unique modulation scheme. Wi-Fi can use BPS, QPSK, 16-QAM, or
64-QAM depending on the characteristics of the physical channel.

OFDM and EEE 802.16

WiMAX (or IEEE 802.16): An internet communications protocol specifically designed to

provide internet access across long wireless communications links. WiMAX can have data
throughputs of up to 75 Mbps and operates in the 2.5 GHz, 3.5GHz, and 5.8 GHz bands.
WiMAX can be used to transmit data distances of up to 50 Km. Each WiMAX OFDM channel
consists of 128 to 2048 sub-carriers and can occupy bandwidths from 1.25 MHz to 20 MHz.