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Mass Coders - SQL Notes

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SQL Interview Questions

Easy SQL Interview Questions:

General Questions:
1. What is SQL?

SQL stands for Structured Query Language. It is used to interact with

databases, such as creating databases, tables, retrieving, updating, and
deleting data.

2. What is a database?

A database is an organized collection of data stored and accessed

electronically. It includes schemas, tables, queries, and views.

3. Does SQL support programming language features?

SQL is a command language and does not support traditional

programming features like loops and conditionals, but it allows data
manipulation through queries.

Mass Coders - SQL Notes 1

 4. What is the difference between CHAR and VARCHAR2 in SQL?

CHAR is for fixed-length strings, while VARCHAR2 is for variable-length

strings.

5. What do you mean by data definition language?

DDL includes commands like CREATE, DROP, and ALTER to define and
modify database structures.

6. What do you mean by data manipulation language?

DML includes commands like INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE, and SELECT

to manipulate data in the database.

7. What is a view in SQL?

A view is a virtual table created by a query, which can select data from
one or more tables.

8. What do you mean by a foreign key?

A foreign key is a field that uniquely identifies a row in another table,

creating a relationship between the two tables.

9. What are a table and a field?

A table is a collection of data organized into rows and columns. A field

is a column in a table.

10. What is the primary key?

A primary key uniquely identifies each row in a table and cannot have
null values.

11. What is a default constraint?

A default constraint assigns a default value to a column when no value

is provided during insert.

12. What is normalization?

Normalization is organizing data to minimize redundancy and improve

data integrity.

13. What is denormalization?

Mass Coders - SQL Notes 2

 Denormalization is the process of combining tables to improve read
performance.

14. What is a query?

A query is a request for data or information from a database.

15. What is a subquery?

A subquery is a query within another query.

16. What are the different operators available in SQL?

Arithmetic, logical, and comparison operators.

17. What is a constraint?

Constraints are rules applied to table columns to enforce data integrity.

18. What is data integrity?

Data integrity ensures data is accurate and consistent over its lifecycle.

19. What is auto increment?

Auto increment automatically generates a unique value for a new

record.

20. What is MySQL collation?

Collation is a set of rules for comparing characters in a character set.

21. What are user-defined functions?

Functions created by users to extend SQL's capabilities.

22. What are the types of user-defined functions?

Scalar, inline table-valued, and multi-statement table-valued functions.

23. What is a stored procedure?

A stored procedure is a set of SQL statements that can be executed as

a single unit.

24. What are aggregate and scalar functions?

Aggregate functions perform operations on multiple values to return a

single value, while scalar functions return a single value based on input.

Mass Coders - SQL Notes 3

 25. What is an ALIAS command?

Aliases are temporary names given to tables or columns for a particular

SQL query.

Intermediate SQL Interview Questions:

General Questions:
1. What are UNION, MINUS, and INTERSECT commands?

UNION combines results from multiple queries, MINUS returns rows

from the first query not found in the second, and INTERSECT returns
rows common to both queries.

2. What is T-SQL?

T-SQL (Transact-SQL) is an extension of SQL used in Microsoft SQL

Server.

3. What is ETL in SQL?

ETL stands for Extract, Transform, Load, a process in data warehousing

to extract data from different sources, transform it, and load it into a
data warehouse.

4. How do you copy tables in SQL?

Using the CREATE TABLE AS SELECT statement.

5. What is SQL injection?

SQL injection is a code injection technique used to attack data-driven

applications by inserting malicious SQL statements.

6. Can we disable a trigger?

Yes, using the ALTER TRIGGER statement with the DISABLE option.

7. What are the differences between SQL and PL/SQL?

SQL is a data-oriented language for querying databases, while PL/SQL

is a procedural language used in Oracle databases for creating
applications.

8. What is the difference between BETWEEN and IN operators in SQL?

Mass Coders - SQL Notes 4

 BETWEEN selects values within a range, while IN selects values from a
specified set.

9. Write an SQL query to find names of employees starting with ‘A’.

SELECT * FROM Employees WHERE EmpName LIKE 'A%';

10. What is the difference between primary key and unique constraints?

Primary key cannot have null values and there can be only one primary
key per table, while unique constraints can have null values and there
can be multiple unique constraints per table.

11. What is a join in SQL? What are the types of joins?

A join combines rows from two or more tables based on a related

column. Types: INNER JOIN, LEFT JOIN, RIGHT JOIN, FULL JOIN.

12. What is an index?

An index improves the speed of data retrieval operations on a table at

the cost of additional writes and storage space.

13. What is the ON DELETE CASCADE constraint?

It automatically deletes rows in the child table when corresponding

rows in the parent table are deleted.

14. Explain the WITH clause in SQL?

The WITH clause defines a temporary result set that can be used in a
SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE statement.

15. What are the different attributes of indexes?

Access types, access time, insertion time, deletion time, space

overhead.

16. What is a cursor?

A cursor is a database object used to retrieve, manipulate, and navigate

through a result set one row at a time.

17. Write down various types of relationships in SQL?

Mass Coders - SQL Notes 5

 One-to-One, One-to-Many, Many-to-One, Many-to-Many, Self-
Referencing.

18. What is a trigger?

A trigger is a set of SQL statements that automatically execute when an

event occurs in the database, such as INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE.

19. What is the difference between SQL DELETE and SQL TRUNCATE
commands?

DELETE removes rows one at a time and logs each row deletion, while
TRUNCATE deallocates entire data pages and is faster but cannot be
rolled back.

20. What is the difference between Clustered and Non-Clustered Index?

A clustered index determines the physical order of data in a table and

allows only one per table, while a non-clustered index creates a
separate structure from the table data and can have multiple per table.

21. What is a live lock?

A live lock occurs when two or more processes continuously change

their state in response to changes in the other processes without
making any progress.

22. What is the CASE WHEN statement in SQL?

The CASE WHEN statement is used to execute conditional logic in SQL

queries.

23. Name different types of case manipulation functions available in SQL.

LOWER, UPPER, INITCAP.

24. What are local and global variables and their differences?

Local variables are defined within functions and have local scope, while
global variables are defined outside functions and have global scope.

25. Name the function which is used to remove spaces at the end of a string?

The TRIM function.

2. Which operator is used in queries for pattern matching?

Mass Coders - SQL Notes 6

 The LIKE operator.

3. Define SQL ORDER BY statement?

The ORDER BY statement is used to sort the result set in ascending or

descending order based on one or more columns.

4. Explain SQL HAVING statement?

The HAVING statement is used to filter groups of rows based on a

condition, often used with aggregate functions.

6. Define BETWEEN statements in SQL?

The BETWEEN statement selects values within a given range.

SELECT * FROM Employees WHERE Salary BETWEEN 40000 AND 6

0000;

7. What are ACID properties?

ACID stands for Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, and Durability,

ensuring reliable database transactions.

Hard SQL Interview Questions:

General Questions:
1. What is the difference between TRUNCATE and DROP statements?

TRUNCATE: Removes all rows from a table but keeps the table
structure for future use. It is faster and uses fewer system and
transaction log resources.

DROP: Deletes the table and its structure from the database completely.

2. Explain SQL AND OR statement with an example?

AND and OR are used to combine multiple conditions in a SQL query.

SELECT * FROM Employees WHERE Salary > 50000 AND Departm

ent = 'HR';

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 SELECT * FROM Employees WHERE Department = 'HR' OR Depar
tment = 'Sales';

3. Why do we use COMMIT and ROLLBACK commands?

COMMIT saves the changes made by a transaction to the database.

ROLLBACK undoes the changes made by a transaction before they are
committed.

4. Are NULL values the same as zero or a blank space?

No, NULL values represent missing or unknown data, different from

zero or blank space, which are actual values.

5. What is the need for group functions in SQL?

Group functions, like SUM, AVG, COUNT, MAX, MIN, perform

operations on multiple values to return a single summarizing value,
useful for statistical and summary reports.

6. What is the need for a MERGE statement?

The MERGE statement allows the combination of INSERT, UPDATE, and

DELETE operations in a single statement, particularly useful for
synchronizing tables.

7. How can you fetch common records from two tables?

Using the INNER JOIN operation.

SELECT a.column1, b.column2

FROM table1 a
INNER JOIN table2 b ON a.common_field = b.common_field;

8. What are the advantages of PL/SQL functions?

PL/SQL functions enhance SQL capabilities with procedural constructs,

promote code reusability, and improve performance by reducing the
number of calls between database and application.

9. What is the SQL query to display the current date?

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 SELECT CURRENT_DATE();

10. What are Nested Triggers?

Nested Triggers are triggers that execute other triggers directly or

indirectly, creating a cascading effect.

11. How to find the available constraint information in the table?

Using information_schema views or database-specific system tables,

such as INFORMATION_SCHEMA.TABLE_CONSTRAINTS.

12. How do we avoid getting duplicate entries in a query without using the
DISTINCT keyword?

By using GROUP BY or ROW_NUMBER() functions.

SELECT column1, column2

FROM table_name
GROUP BY column1, column2;

13. What is the difference between NVL and NVL2 functions?

NVL(expr1, expr2): Returns expr2 if expr1 is NULL.

NVL2(expr1, expr2, expr3): Returns expr2 if expr1 is not NULL,

otherwise returns expr3.

14. What is the difference between COALESCE() and ISNULL()?

COALESCE() returns the first non-NULL value from a list of

expressions.

ISNULL() replaces NULL with a specified replacement value.

15. Name the operator which is used in the query for appending two strings?

The CONCAT operator or the || operator.

Coding Questions:
1. Write a query to find employees with the highest salary in each
department.

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 SELECT Department, Name, Salary
FROM Employees e
WHERE Salary = (SELECT MAX(Salary) FROM Employees WHERE
Department = e.Department);

2. Write a query to retrieve the names of employees who have worked in

more than one department.

SELECT Name
FROM Employees
GROUP BY Name
HAVING COUNT(DISTINCT Department) > 1;

3. Write a query to list all departments along with the total number of
employees in each department.

SELECT Department, COUNT(*) AS TotalEmployees

FROM Employees
GROUP BY Department;

4. Write a query to find all employees whose name starts with 'J' and ends
with 'n'.

SELECT * FROM Employees WHERE Name LIKE 'J%n';

5. Write a query to find the second highest salary in the employees' table
without using LIMIT or TOP.

SELECT MAX(Salary) AS SecondHighestSalary

FROM Employees
WHERE Salary < (SELECT MAX(Salary) FROM Employees);

These questions should provide a comprehensive overview of SQL concepts

and practices, suitable for interview preparation at various levels.

Mass Coders - SQL Notes 10

 Questions based on Tables:
Employees Table:

EmployeeID Name Department Salary

1 Maheshwar Sales 50000

2 Prasad Engineering 60000

3 Harshitha Sales 45000

4 Naman HR 55000

5 Anvitha Engineering 75000

Products Table:

ProductID ProductName

1 Widget A

2 Widget B

Sales Table:

SaleID ProductID Quantity Price

1 1 10 20

2 1 15 20

3 2 5 30

Customers Table:

CustomerID CustomerName

1 Prasad

2 Maheshwar

3 Harshitha

Orders Table:

OrderID CustomerID ProductID Quantity

1 1 1 2

2 2 1 1

3 1 2 3

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 4 3 2 4

5 2 1 2

6 3 1 1

7 1 2 1

SQL Questions:
1. Basic SQL Queries:

Question 1: Write a SQL query to find the second highest salary from
the Employees table.

SELECT MAX(Salary)
FROM Employees
WHERE Salary < (SELECT MAX(Salary) FROM Employees);

Question 2: Retrieve the names of employees who have the highest

salary in each department.

SELECT Department, Name, Salary

FROM Employees
WHERE (Department, Salary) IN
(SELECT Department, MAX(Salary)
FROM Employees
GROUP BY Department);

2. Joins and Aggregations:

Question 3: Write a SQL query to find the total sales for each product.

SELECT Products.ProductID, Products.ProductName, SUM

(Sales.Quantity * Sales.Price) AS TotalSales
FROM Products
JOIN Sales ON Products.ProductID = Sales.ProductID
GROUP BY Products.ProductID, Products.ProductName;

Mass Coders - SQL Notes 12

 Question 4: Retrieve the list of customers who have made more than 5
purchases.

SELECT Customers.CustomerID, Customers.CustomerName

FROM Customers
JOIN Orders ON Customers.CustomerID = Orders.Customer
ID
GROUP BY Customers.CustomerID, Customers.CustomerName
HAVING COUNT(Orders.OrderID) > 5;

3. Advanced SQL Queries:

Question 5: Write a SQL query to delete duplicate records from a table,

keeping the one with the lowest ID.

DELETE FROM Employees

WHERE EmployeeID NOT IN
(SELECT MIN(EmployeeID)
FROM Employees
GROUP BY Name, Department, Salary);

Question 6: Find the employees who have the highest salary in their
respective departments, but the overall highest salary in the company.

WITH DeptMax AS (
SELECT Department, MAX(Salary) AS MaxSalary
FROM Employees
GROUP BY Department
)
SELECT e.Name, e.Department, e.Salary
FROM Employees e
JOIN DeptMax d ON e.Department = d.Department AND e.S
alary = d.MaxSalary
WHERE e.Salary = (SELECT MAX(Salary) FROM Employees);

Index

Mass Coders - SQL Notes 13

 1. Introduction to SQL

What is SQL?

History and Evolution

Importance of SQL in Databases

Types of SQL Commands

DDL (Data Definition Language)

DML (Data Manipulation Language)

DCL (Data Control Language)

TCL (Transaction Control Language)

2. Basic SQL Commands

Creating a Database and Tables

CREATE DATABASE

CREATE TABLE

Data Types

Basic Data Manipulation

INSERT INTO

SELECT

UPDATE

DELETE

3. SQL Functions and Operators

String Functions

CONCAT

SUBSTRING

LENGTH

Numeric Functions

ABS

Mass Coders - SQL Notes 14

 ROUND

FLOOR

Date Functions

CURRENT_DATE

DATEADD

DATEDIFF

Operators

Arithmetic Operators

Comparison Operators

Logical Operators

4. SQL Clauses

WHERE Clause

Filtering Data

ORDER BY Clause

Sorting Data

GROUP BY Clause

Aggregating Data

HAVING Clause

Filtering Aggregated Data

5. Joins and Subqueries

Types of Joins

INNER JOIN

LEFT JOIN

RIGHT JOIN

FULL JOIN

CROSS JOIN

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 Subqueries

Single-Row Subqueries

Multi-Row Subqueries

Correlated Subqueries

6. Advanced SQL Concepts

Views

Creating and Managing Views

Indexes

Types and Uses of Indexes

Creating and Dropping Indexes

Stored Procedures

Creating and Executing Stored Procedures

Triggers

Creating and Managing Triggers

Transactions

ACID Properties

COMMIT, ROLLBACK, and SAVEPOINT

7. Performance Tuning and Optimization

Query Optimization

Understanding Execution Plans

Index Optimization

Database Normalization

Normal Forms (1NF, 2NF, 3NF, BCNF)

Common Performance Issues

Identifying and Resolving Bottlenecks

8. SQL Security

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 User Management

Creating and Managing Users

Roles and Permissions

Granting and Revoking Privileges

Introduction to SQL

What is SQL?
SQL, or Structured Query Language, is the standard language used to interact with
relational databases. It's the tool we use to communicate with a database, to
perform tasks such as retrieving data, updating records, and creating tables. Think
of SQL as a way to ask your database a question or give it an instruction. Whether
you want to find a list of customers, add a new order, or update a product's price,
SQL is the language that makes it happen.

History and Evolution

SQL was born out of the need for a standard method of managing and
manipulating relational databases. It all started in the early 1970s at IBM, where
Donald D. Chamberlin and Raymond F. Boyce developed SEQUEL (Structured
English Query Language) to interact with the company's System R, one of the first
relational database systems. SEQUEL was later renamed SQL due to trademark
issues.

By the late 1970s, SQL had gained traction and was adopted by several database
vendors. In 1986, the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) standardized
SQL, solidifying its role in the world of databases. Over the years, SQL has evolved,
adding new features and capabilities with each update. Major databases like
Oracle, MySQL, SQL Server, and PostgreSQL have their own versions and
extensions of SQL, but the core language remains the same.

Importance of SQL in Databases

SQL is vital because it provides a unified way to interact with and manage
databases. Here are some reasons why SQL is so important:

Mass Coders - SQL Notes 17

 1. Efficiency: SQL allows users to perform complex queries with simple
statements. For example, fetching data from multiple tables with just one query.

2. Standardization: Being a standardized language, SQL ensures consistency

across different database systems. If you learn SQL, you can work with any
relational database.

3. Data Manipulation: SQL lets you insert, update, delete, and retrieve data
efficiently. It also supports transaction processing, ensuring data integrity.

4. Security: SQL includes robust security features, such as user permissions and
roles, to protect sensitive data.

Real-life Example: Consider a large e-commerce platform like Amazon. SQL is

used to manage their massive database, which includes products, customers,
orders, and inventory. With SQL, they can quickly retrieve information about
product availability, update stock levels, and process millions of transactions daily.

Types of SQL Commands

SQL commands are divided into different categories based on their functionality.
Here’s a breakdown of the main types of SQL commands:

1. DDL (Data Definition Language)

DDL commands are used to define and modify the structure of database
objects like tables, indexes, and schemas. Key DDL commands include:

CREATE: Used to create a new table, index, or database.

ALTER: Modifies the structure of an existing table or database.

DROP: Deletes tables, indexes, or databases.

TRUNCATE: Removes all records from a table but retains the structure for
future use.

Real-life Example: When setting up a new customer management system, a

company would use DDL commands to create tables for storing customer
information, orders, and product details.

2. DML (Data Manipulation Language)

Mass Coders - SQL Notes 18

 DML commands are used to manipulate the data within database objects.
These include:

SELECT: Retrieves data from one or more tables.

INSERT: Adds new records to a table.

UPDATE: Modifies existing records in a table.

DELETE: Removes records from a table.

Real-life Example: A retail store using an inventory system would use DML
commands to update stock levels as products are sold and restocked.

3. DCL (Data Control Language)

DCL commands manage access permissions and control the security of the
database. These commands include:

GRANT: Gives a user permission to perform specific tasks.

REVOKE: Removes previously granted permissions from a user.

Real-life Example: In a banking system, administrators use DCL commands to

grant access to different levels of data to employees based on their roles and
responsibilities.

4. TCL (Transaction Control Language)

TCL commands are used to manage transactions in a database, ensuring that
operations are completed successfully before making changes permanent. Key
TCL commands include:

COMMIT: Saves all changes made during the current transaction.

ROLLBACK: Reverts the database to its previous state before the

transaction began.

SAVEPOINT: Sets a savepoint within a transaction to which you can later

roll back.

Real-life Example: During an online purchase, TCL commands ensure that

payment processing, order placement, and inventory updates are all completed
successfully. If any part of the process fails, a rollback ensures the database
remains consistent and accurate.

Mass Coders - SQL Notes 19

 Basic SQL Commands

Creating a Database and Tables

Creating databases and tables is the first step in organizing your data. Let's break
down the commands and concepts involved.

CREATE DATABASE
The CREATE DATABASE command is used to create a new database. A database is a
collection of tables and other objects that store and organize data.
Syntax:

CREATE DATABASE database_name;

Example:
Imagine you’re setting up a database for a Telugu movie rental store. You would
start by creating a database named
TeluguMoviesDB :

CREATE DATABASE TeluguMoviesDB;

Real-life Example:
Think of
CREATE DATABASEas setting up a new file cabinet for organizing all the documents
related to your project. Just like you would name a file cabinet, you give your
database a name that reflects its purpose.

CREATE TABLE
The CREATE TABLE command is used to create a new table within a database. A table
is a collection of related data held in a structured format within a database. It
consists of rows and columns.
Syntax:

Mass Coders - SQL Notes 20

 CREATE TABLE table_name (
column1 datatype constraints,
column2 datatype constraints,
...
);

Example:
Continuing with the Telugu movie rental store example, you might create a table for
movies:

CREATE TABLE Movies (

MovieID INT PRIMARY KEY,
Title VARCHAR(100),
Director VARCHAR(100),
ReleaseYear INT,
Genre VARCHAR(50)
);

Real-life Example:
Creating a table is like setting up a new drawer in your file cabinet with labeled
folders (columns) where each folder holds documents (rows) of a specific type.

Data Types
Data types define the kind of data that can be stored in a column. Common data
types include:

INT: Integer numbers.

VARCHAR(size): Variable-length strings.

CHAR(size): Fixed-length strings.

DATE: Date values.

FLOAT: Floating-point numbers.

BOOLEAN: True/false values.

Mass Coders - SQL Notes 21

 Example:
In the
Movies table example above:

MovieID is an integer.

Title and Director are variable-length strings.

ReleaseYear is an integer.

Genre is a variable-length string.

Real-life Example:
Choosing data types is like deciding what kind of documents go into each folder in
your drawer. Some folders might hold numbers, others text, and some might have
dates.

Basic Data Manipulation

Once your database and tables are set up, you need to manipulate the data. This
includes inserting new records, selecting data to view, updating existing records,
and deleting records.

INSERT INTO
The INSERT INTO command is used to add new records to a table.
Syntax:

INSERT INTO table_name (column1, column2, ...)

VALUES (value1, value2, ...);

Example:
Adding a new Telugu movie to the
Movies table:

INSERT INTO Movies (MovieID, Title, Director, ReleaseYear, Gen

re)
VALUES (1, 'Baahubali: The Beginning', 'S. S. Rajamouli', 201
5, 'Action/Drama');

Mass Coders - SQL Notes 22

 Real-life Example:
Inserting a record is like adding a new document to one of the folders in your
drawer.

SELECT
The SELECT command is used to retrieve data from one or more tables. It's the most
commonly used SQL command.
Syntax:

SELECT column1, column2, ...

FROM table_name
WHERE condition;

Example:
Retrieving all movies directed by 'S. S. Rajamouli':

SELECT * FROM Movies

WHERE Director = 'S. S. Rajamouli';

Real-life Example:
Using
SELECT is like pulling out documents from your drawer that match a certain criteria.

UPDATE
The UPDATE command is used to modify existing records in a table.
Syntax:

UPDATE table_name
SET column1 = value1, column2 = value2, ...
WHERE condition;

Example:
Updating the genre of a movie:

Mass Coders - SQL Notes 23

 UPDATE Movies
SET Genre = 'Epic Action/Drama'
WHERE MovieID = 1;

Real-life Example:
Updating a record is like editing a document in one of your folders.

DELETE
The DELETE command is used to remove records from a table.

Syntax:

DELETE FROM table_name

WHERE condition;

Example:
Deleting a movie from the
Movies table:

DELETE FROM Movies

WHERE MovieID = 1;

Real-life Example:
Deleting a record is like removing a document from a folder and discarding it.

SQL Functions and Operators

String Functions
String functions allow you to manipulate text data in various ways. Here are some
of the most commonly used string functions in SQL:

CONCAT
The CONCAT function is used to combine two or more strings into one.

Mass Coders - SQL Notes 24

 Syntax:

CONCAT(string1, string2, ...);

Example:
Imagine you have a table
with columns
Actors FirstName and LastName . You want to create a full name for
each actor.

SELECT CONCAT(FirstName, ' ', LastName) AS FullName

FROM Actors;

Real-life Example:
Think of
CONCAT as pasting together different pieces of text to form a complete message. For

example, combining a first name and last name to form a full name.

SUBSTRING
The SUBSTRING function extracts a portion of a string.
Syntax:

SUBSTRING(string, start, length);

Example:
You have a table
Movies with a column Title . You want to extract the first three characters of each
title.

SELECT SUBSTRING(Title, 1, 3) AS ShortTitle

FROM Movies;

Real-life Example:
Using
SUBSTRINGis like taking a specific segment of text from a paragraph, such as
extracting the first word from a sentence.

Mass Coders - SQL Notes 25

 LENGTH
The LENGTH function returns the number of characters in a string.
Syntax:

LENGTH(string);

Example:
To find out the length of movie titles in the
Movies table:

SELECT Title, LENGTH(Title) AS TitleLength

FROM Movies;

Real-life Example:
Using
is similar to counting the number of characters in a sentence, including
LENGTH

spaces and punctuation.

Numeric Functions
Numeric functions perform operations on numerical data. Here are some key
numeric functions:

ABS
The ABS function returns the absolute value of a number, removing any negative
sign.

Syntax:

ABS(number);

Example:
If you have a column
in the Movies table that stores the change in revenue, and you want to
RevenueChange

get the absolute values:

Mass Coders - SQL Notes 26

 SELECT Title, ABS(RevenueChange) AS AbsoluteChange
FROM Movies;

Real-life Example:
Using
is like considering only the magnitude of a number without its sign, similar to
ABS

how we only care about distance in terms of positive values.

ROUND
The ROUND function rounds a number to a specified number of decimal places.

Syntax:

ROUND(number, decimal_places);

Example:
Rounding the revenue of movies to the nearest thousand in the
Movies table:

SELECT Title, ROUND(Revenue, -3) AS RoundedRevenue

FROM Movies;

Real-life Example:
Using
ROUNDis like rounding prices to the nearest dollar when shopping to simplify
calculations.

FLOOR
The FLOOR function returns the largest integer less than or equal to a number.
Syntax:

FLOOR(number);

Mass Coders - SQL Notes 27

 Example:
Finding the floor value of ratings in a
Movies table:

SELECT Title, FLOOR(Rating) AS FloorRating

FROM Movies;

Real-life Example:
Using
FLOOR is like rounding down a number to the nearest whole number, similar to
dropping any fractional part when dealing with counts.

Date Functions
Date functions are used to manipulate date and time values. Here are some
essential date functions:

CURRENT_DATE
The CURRENT_DATE function returns the current date.
Syntax:

SELECT CURRENT_DATE;

Example:
To get the current date in a report:

SELECT CURRENT_DATE AS TodayDate;

Real-life Example:
Using
CURRENT_DATE is like checking today’s date on your calendar.

DATEADD
The DATEADD function adds a specified number of intervals to a date.
Syntax:

Mass Coders - SQL Notes 28

 DATEADD(interval, number, date);

Example:
Adding 7 days to the current date:

SELECT DATEADD(day, 7, CURRENT_DATE) AS NextWeek;

Real-life Example:
Using
DATEADD is like scheduling a reminder for a week from today.

DATEDIFF
The DATEDIFF function returns the difference between two dates.
Syntax:

DATEDIFF(interval, start_date, end_date);

Example:
Calculating the number of days between the release date and today's date for
movies in the
Movies table:

SELECT Title, DATEDIFF(day, ReleaseDate, CURRENT_DATE) AS Days

SinceRelease
FROM Movies;

Real-life Example:
Using
is like calculating the number of days between two events, such as the
DATEDIFF

number of days left until a movie release.

Operators
Operators are used to perform operations on data. Here are some commonly used
SQL operators:

Mass Coders - SQL Notes 29

 Arithmetic Operators
Arithmetic operators perform mathematical operations.

Operators:

+ (Addition)

(Subtraction)

(Multiplication)

/ (Division)

% (Modulus)

Example:
Calculating the total revenue after applying a discount:

SELECT Title, Revenue, Revenue - (Revenue * 0.1) AS Discounted

Revenue
FROM Movies;

Real-life Example:
Using arithmetic operators is like calculating the total cost of items in your
shopping cart after applying discounts.

Comparison Operators
Comparison operators compare two values.
Operators:

= (Equal)

!= or <> (Not Equal)

> (Greater Than)

< (Less Than)

>= (Greater Than or Equal To)

<= (Less Than or Equal To)

Mass Coders - SQL Notes 30

 Example:
Finding movies released after 2015:

SELECT Title
FROM Movies
WHERE ReleaseYear > 2015;

Real-life Example:
Using comparison operators is like filtering search results based on criteria, such
as finding all movies released after a certain year.

Logical Operators
Logical operators are used to combine multiple conditions.
Operators:

AND

OR

NOT

Example:
Finding movies that are either action or drama and have a rating greater than 8:

SELECT Title
FROM Movies
WHERE (Genre = 'Action' OR Genre = 'Drama') AND Rating > 8;

Real-life Example:
Using logical operators is like refining your search criteria on a movie streaming
service to find movies that meet multiple conditions.

SQL Clauses

WHERE Clause

Mass Coders - SQL Notes 31

 The WHERE clause is used to filter records that meet a certain condition. It is
essential for retrieving specific data from a database.

Filtering Data
The WHERE clause allows you to specify conditions that the data must meet to be
included in the result set.

Syntax:

SELECT column1, column2, ...

FROM table_name
WHERE condition;

Example:
Imagine you have a table
TeluguMovies with columns MovieID , Title , Director , and ReleaseYear . To find all
movies directed by S. S. Rajamouli:

SELECT Title, ReleaseYear

FROM TeluguMovies
WHERE Director = 'S. S. Rajamouli';

Real-life Example:
Using the
WHEREclause is like applying a filter to your search results on a movie database to
only show movies by a specific director.

ORDER BY Clause
The ORDER BY clause is used to sort the result set by one or more columns, either in
ascending (default) or descending order.

Sorting Data
The ORDER BY clause arranges the records in a specified order.
Syntax:

Mass Coders - SQL Notes 32

 SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name
ORDER BY column1 [ASC|DESC], column2 [ASC|DESC], ...;

Example:
To list all movies sorted by their release year in descending order:

SELECT Title, ReleaseYear

FROM TeluguMovies
ORDER BY ReleaseYear DESC;

Real-life Example:
Using the
ORDER BY clause is like sorting your movie collection by release date to find the most

recent ones easily.

GROUP BY Clause
The GROUP BY clause groups rows that have the same values in specified columns
into summary rows, like "total", "average", "count", etc.

Aggregating Data
The GROUP BY clause is often used with aggregate functions (COUNT, MAX, MIN,
SUM, AVG) to group the result set by one or more columns.
Syntax:

SELECT column1, aggregate_function(column2)

FROM table_name
GROUP BY column1;

Example:
To find the number of movies directed by each director:

SELECT Director, COUNT(*) AS NumberOfMovies

FROM TeluguMovies

Mass Coders - SQL Notes 33

 GROUP BY Director;

Real-life Example:
Using
is like organizing your movie list by director and then counting how many
GROUP BY

movies each director has made.

HAVING Clause
The HAVING clause is used to filter groups based on a specified condition. It is
similar to the WHERE clause but is used for groups rather than individual rows.

Filtering Aggregated Data

The HAVING clause filters data after it has been grouped.
Syntax:

SELECT column1, aggregate_function(column2)

FROM table_name
GROUP BY column1
HAVING condition;

Example:
To find directors who have directed more than 3 movies:

SELECT Director, COUNT(*) AS NumberOfMovies

FROM TeluguMovies
GROUP BY Director
HAVING COUNT(*) > 3;

Real-life Example:
Using the
HAVINGclause is like filtering a summary report to only show entries that meet
certain criteria, such as showing only those directors who have made a significant
number of films.

Mass Coders - SQL Notes 34

 Detailed Breakdown with Telugu Movie Examples

WHERE Clause
Let's explore more about the WHERE clause with Telugu movie examples.
Example 1:
Finding movies released after the year 2010:

SELECT Title, ReleaseYear

FROM TeluguMovies
WHERE ReleaseYear > 2010;

Example 2:
Finding movies with the genre 'Action':

SELECT Title, Director

FROM TeluguMovies
WHERE Genre = 'Action';

Real-life Example:
Using
WHERE is like searching for movies in your personal collection that are only from the

action genre and released after 2010.

ORDER BY Clause
The ORDER BY clause helps organize your result set.
Example 1:
Sorting movies by title in ascending order:

SELECT Title, ReleaseYear

FROM TeluguMovies
ORDER BY Title ASC;

Example 2:
Sorting movies by release year and then by title:

Mass Coders - SQL Notes 35

 SELECT Title, ReleaseYear
FROM TeluguMovies
ORDER BY ReleaseYear ASC, Title ASC;

Real-life Example:
Using
ORDER BY is like sorting your movie shelf first by release year and then alphabetically

by title.

GROUP BY Clause
The GROUP BY clause helps summarize data.
Example 1:
Finding the average rating of movies by each director:

SELECT Director, AVG(Rating) AS AverageRating

FROM TeluguMovies
GROUP BY Director;

Example 2:
Counting the number of movies in each genre:

SELECT Genre, COUNT(*) AS NumberOfMovies

FROM TeluguMovies
GROUP BY Genre;

Real-life Example:
Using
GROUP BYis like categorizing your movies by genre and counting how many you
have in each category.

HAVING Clause
The HAVING clause refines your grouped data.

Mass Coders - SQL Notes 36

 Example 1:
Finding genres with more than 5 movies:

SELECT Genre, COUNT(*) AS NumberOfMovies

FROM TeluguMovies
GROUP BY Genre
HAVING COUNT(*) > 5;

Example 2:
Finding directors with an average movie rating above 7:

SELECT Director, AVG(Rating) AS AverageRating

FROM TeluguMovies
GROUP BY Director
HAVING AVG(Rating) > 7;

Real-life Example:
Using
HAVING is like filtering your movie summary report to only show genres that have a
significant number of movies or directors whose movies have high ratings.

Joins and Subqueries

Types of Joins
Joins are used to combine rows from two or more tables based on a related
column. Let's explore the different types of joins with examples.

INNER JOIN
An INNER JOIN returns only the rows that have matching values in both tables.
Syntax:

SELECT columns
FROM table1

Mass Coders - SQL Notes 37

 INNER JOIN table2
ON table1.column = table2.column;

Example:
Suppose we have two tables,
Movies and Directors :

CREATE TABLE Movies (

MovieID INT,
Title VARCHAR(100),
DirectorID INT,
ReleaseYear INT
);

CREATE TABLE Directors (

DirectorID INT,
DirectorName VARCHAR(100)
);

INSERT INTO Movies (MovieID, Title, DirectorID, ReleaseYear) V

ALUES
(1, 'Baahubali: The Beginning', 101, 2015),
(2, 'Eega', 101, 2012),
(3, 'Ala Vaikunthapurramuloo', 102, 2020);

INSERT INTO Directors (DirectorID, DirectorName) VALUES

(101, 'S. S. Rajamouli'),
(102, 'Trivikram Srinivas');

To get a list of movies along with their directors:

SELECT Movies.Title, Directors.DirectorName

FROM Movies
INNER JOIN Directors
ON Movies.DirectorID = Directors.DirectorID;

Mass Coders - SQL Notes 38

 Result (Varies on the input data you entered):

Title DirectorName

Baahubali: The Beginning S. S. Rajamouli

Eega S. S. Rajamouli

Ala Vaikunthapurramuloo Trivikram Srinivas

Real-life Example:
An
INNER JOIN is like finding books in a library that are written by authors present in the

authors' list.

LEFT JOIN
A LEFT JOIN returns all rows from the left table and the matched rows from the right
table. If there is no match, the result is NULL on the right side.
Syntax:

SELECT columns
FROM table1
LEFT JOIN table2
ON table1.column = table2.column;

Example:
To get a list of all movies along with their directors, including movies without a
director in the
Directors table:

SELECT Movies.Title, Directors.DirectorName

FROM Movies
LEFT JOIN Directors
ON Movies.DirectorID = Directors.DirectorID;

Result (Varies on the input data you entered):

Title DirectorName

Mass Coders - SQL Notes 39

 Baahubali: The Beginning S. S. Rajamouli

Eega S. S. Rajamouli

Ala Vaikunthapurramuloo Trivikram Srinivas

Vinaya Vidheya Rama NULL

Real-life Example:
A
LEFT JOINis like getting a list of students and their grades, including those who
haven't taken any exams yet.

RIGHT JOIN
A RIGHT JOIN returns all rows from the right table and the matched rows from the left
table. If there is no match, the result is NULL on the left side.
Syntax:

SELECT columns
FROM table1
RIGHT JOIN table2
ON table1.column = table2.column;

Example:
To get a list of all directors and the movies they have directed, including directors
with no movies:

SELECT Movies.Title, Directors.DirectorName

FROM Movies
RIGHT JOIN Directors
ON Movies.DirectorID = Directors.DirectorID;

Result (Varies on the input data you entered):

Title DirectorName

Baahubali: The Beginning S. S. Rajamouli

Eega S. S. Rajamouli

Mass Coders - SQL Notes 40

 Ala Vaikunthapurramuloo Trivikram Srinivas

NULL Sukumar

Real-life Example:
A
RIGHT JOINis like getting a list of all courses and the students enrolled in them,
including courses with no students enrolled.

FULL JOIN
A FULL JOIN returns all rows when there is a match in either the left or right table. If
there is no match, the result is NULL from the side where there is no match.
Syntax:

SELECT columns
FROM table1
FULL JOIN table2
ON table1.column = table2.column;

Example:
To get a complete list of all movies and directors, including those with no matching
records:

SELECT Movies.Title, Directors.DirectorName

FROM Movies
FULL JOIN Directors
ON Movies.DirectorID = Directors.DirectorID;

Result (Varies on the input data you entered):

Title DirectorName

Baahubali: The Beginning S. S. Rajamouli

Eega S. S. Rajamouli

Ala Vaikunthapurramuloo Trivikram Srinivas

NULL Sukumar

Mass Coders - SQL Notes 41

 Vinaya Vidheya Rama NULL

Real-life Example:
A
is like merging two lists of employees and departments, showing all
FULL JOIN

employees and all departments, including those without a corresponding match.

CROSS JOIN
A CROSS JOIN returns the Cartesian product of the two tables, combining all rows
from the left table with all rows from the right table.
Syntax:

SELECT columns
FROM table1
CROSS JOIN table2;

Example:
To get all possible combinations of movies and directors:

SELECT Movies.Title, Directors.DirectorName

FROM Movies
CROSS JOIN Directors;

Result (Varies on the input data you entered):

Title DirectorName

Baahubali: The Beginning S. S. Rajamouli

Baahubali: The Beginning Trivikram Srinivas

Eega S. S. Rajamouli

Eega Trivikram Srinivas

Ala Vaikunthapurramuloo S. S. Rajamouli

Ala Vaikunthapurramuloo Trivikram Srinivas

Real-life Example:
A

Mass Coders - SQL Notes 42

 is like creating all possible pairs of shirts and pants to see every possible
CROSS JOIN

outfit combination.

Subqueries
Subqueries are queries nested inside another query. They can be used to perform
operations that require multiple steps or to simplify complex queries.

Single-Row Subqueries
A single-row subquery returns one row. It is typically used with comparison
operators like = , < , > , etc.
Example:
Finding the director of the most recent movie:

SELECT DirectorName
FROM Directors
WHERE DirectorID = (SELECT DirectorID
FROM Movies
ORDER BY ReleaseYear DESC
LIMIT 1);

Result (Varies on the input data you entered):

DirectorName

Trivikram Srinivas

Real-life Example:
A single-row subquery is like finding the best-performing student in a class and
then getting their details.

Multi-Row Subqueries
A multi-row subquery returns multiple rows. It is typically used with operators like
IN , ANY , ALL .

Example:
Finding all movies directed by directors who have directed more than one movie:

Mass Coders - SQL Notes 43

 SELECT Title
FROM Movies
WHERE DirectorID IN (SELECT DirectorID
FROM Movies
GROUP BY DirectorID
HAVING COUNT(*) > 1);

Result (Varies on the input data you entered):

Title

Baahubali: The Beginning

Eega

Real-life Example:
A multi-row subquery is like finding all courses taught by professors who teach
multiple courses.

Correlated Subqueries
A correlated subquery is a subquery that uses values from the outer query. It is
executed once for each row processed by the outer query.
Example:
Finding movies where the director has directed another movie in the same year:

SELECT Title
FROM Movies m1
WHERE EXISTS (SELECT 1
FROM Movies m2
WHERE m1.DirectorID = m2.DirectorID
AND m1.ReleaseYear = m2.ReleaseYear
AND m1.MovieID <> m2.MovieID);

Result (Varies on the input data you entered):

Title

Mass Coders - SQL Notes 44

 Eega

Real-life Example:
A correlated subquery is like checking each student's score and comparing it with
the class average to identify above-average students.

Advanced SQL Concepts

Views
A view is a virtual table based on the result set of an SQL query. Views simplify
complex queries, enhance security, and make data more accessible.

Creating and Managing Views

Creating a View
A view is created using the CREATE VIEW statement.
Syntax:

CREATE VIEW view_name AS

SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;

Example:
Imagine we have a table
TeluguMovies and we want to create a view that shows only movies directed by 'S. S.

Rajamouli'.

CREATE VIEW RajamouliMovies AS

SELECT Title, ReleaseYear
FROM TeluguMovies
WHERE Director = 'S. S. Rajamouli';

To query the view:

Mass Coders - SQL Notes 45

 SELECT * FROM RajamouliMovies;

Managing Views
Views can be updated, dropped, or replaced as needed.
Updating a View

CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW RajamouliMovies AS

SELECT Title, ReleaseYear, Genre
FROM TeluguMovies
WHERE Director = 'S. S. Rajamouli';

Dropping a View

DROP VIEW RajamouliMovies;

Real-life Example:
Creating a view is like setting up a specific filter or report in your software
application that shows only relevant data to the user without them needing to write
complex queries.

Indexes
Indexes improve the speed of data retrieval operations on a database table at the
cost of additional storage space and slower write operations.

Types and Uses of Indexes

Types of Indexes

1. Clustered Index: Determines the physical order of data in a table. Each table
can have only one clustered index.

2. Non-Clustered Index: Does not alter the physical order of the data. Each table
can have multiple non-clustered indexes.

3. Unique Index: Ensures all values in the index are unique.

4. Full-Text Index: Used for performing full-text searches.

Mass Coders - SQL Notes 46

 Uses of Indexes

Indexes are used to:

Speed up the retrieval of rows.

Enforce uniqueness with unique indexes.

Improve performance of search queries with full-text indexes.

Example:
Creating an index on the
Title column of the TeluguMovies table.

CREATE INDEX idx_title ON TeluguMovies (Title);

Creating and Dropping Indexes

Creating an Index
Syntax:

CREATE [UNIQUE] INDEX index_name ON table_name (column1, colum

n2, ...);

Example:
Creating a unique index on the
MovieID column.

CREATE UNIQUE INDEX idx_movie_id ON TeluguMovies (MovieID);

Dropping an Index
Syntax:

DROP INDEX index_name;

Example:
Dropping the index on the
Title column.

Mass Coders - SQL Notes 47

 DROP INDEX idx_title;

Real-life Example:
Using an index is like having a detailed table of contents in a book that allows you
to quickly find the information you need without flipping through every page.

Stored Procedures
Stored procedures are a collection of SQL statements that can be executed as a
single unit. They help in reusing code and improving performance.

Creating and Executing Stored Procedures

Creating a Stored Procedure
Syntax:

CREATE PROCEDURE procedure_name

AS
BEGIN
SQL statements;
END;

Example:
Creating a stored procedure to add a new movie.

CREATE PROCEDURE AddMovie

@Title VARCHAR(100),
@DirectorID INT,
@ReleaseYear INT,
@Genre VARCHAR(50)
AS
BEGIN
INSERT INTO TeluguMovies (Title, DirectorID, ReleaseYear,
Genre)

Mass Coders - SQL Notes 48

 VALUES (@Title, @DirectorID, @ReleaseYear, @Genre);
END;

Executing a Stored Procedure

EXEC AddMovie 'RRR', 101, 2021, 'Action/Drama';

Real-life Example:
A stored procedure is like a macro in Excel that performs a series of actions
automatically when you run it.

Triggers
Triggers are special types of stored procedures that automatically execute in
response to certain events on a table or view.

Creating and Managing Triggers

Creating a Trigger
Syntax:

CREATE TRIGGER trigger_name

ON table_name
AFTER INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE
AS
BEGIN
SQL statements;
END;

Example:
Creating a trigger that logs changes to the
TeluguMovies table.

CREATE TRIGGER LogMovieChanges

ON TeluguMovies
AFTER INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE

Mass Coders - SQL Notes 49

 AS
BEGIN
INSERT INTO MovieLog (ChangeType, MovieID, ChangeDate)
VALUES (CASE
WHEN EXISTS (SELECT * FROM INSERTED) AND EXIST
S (SELECT * FROM DELETED) THEN 'UPDATE'
WHEN EXISTS (SELECT * FROM INSERTED) THEN 'INS
ERT'
WHEN EXISTS (SELECT * FROM DELETED) THEN 'DELE
TE'
END,
COALESCE((SELECT MovieID FROM INSERTED), (SELECT M
ovieID FROM DELETED)),
GETDATE());
END;

Real-life Example:
A trigger is like a notification system that alerts you whenever specific changes
happen in your database.

Transactions
Transactions are used to ensure that a series of SQL operations are executed as a
single unit of work. They follow the ACID properties.

ACID Properties
1. Atomicity: Ensures that all operations within a transaction are completed
successfully. If not, the transaction is aborted and no changes are made.

2. Consistency: Ensures that a transaction brings the database from one valid
state to another.

3. Isolation: Ensures that concurrent transactions do not affect each other.

4. Durability: Ensures that the results of a transaction are permanently stored in

the system.

Mass Coders - SQL Notes 50

 Real-life Example:
Consider a banking system where transferring money from one account to another
must be a single transaction to ensure the money is either fully transferred or not at
all.

COMMIT, ROLLBACK, and SAVEPOINT

COMMIT
The COMMIT statement is used to save all changes made during the current
transaction.
Syntax:

COMMIT;

Example:

BEGIN TRANSACTION;
UPDATE TeluguMovies SET ReleaseYear = 2020 WHERE MovieID = 1;
COMMIT;

ROLLBACK

The ROLLBACK statement is used to undo changes made during the current
transaction.
Syntax:

ROLLBACK;

Example:

BEGIN TRANSACTION;
UPDATE TeluguMovies SET ReleaseYear = 2020 WHERE MovieID = 1;
ROLLBACK;

SAVEPOINT

Mass Coders - SQL Notes 51

 The SAVEPOINT statement sets a point within a transaction to which you can later roll
back.

Syntax:

SAVEPOINT savepoint_name;

Example:

BEGIN TRANSACTION;
UPDATE TeluguMovies SET ReleaseYear = 2020 WHERE MovieID = 1;
SAVEPOINT Savepoint1;
UPDATE TeluguMovies SET Genre = 'Drama' WHERE MovieID = 2;
ROLLBACK TO Savepoint1;
COMMIT;

Real-life Example:
Using
, ROLLBACK , and SAVEPOINT is like writing in pencil. You can save your work
COMMIT

(COMMIT), erase mistakes (ROLLBACK), and set bookmarks to go back to

(SAVEPOINT).

Performance Tuning and Optimization

Query Optimization
Query optimization is the process of improving the efficiency of SQL queries. This
involves using strategies to reduce the time and resources required to execute
queries.

Understanding Execution Plans

An execution plan is a roadmap for how SQL Server will execute a query. It helps
you understand the steps SQL Server takes to retrieve or modify data. Execution
plans can be viewed using SQL Server Management Studio (SSMS).

Example:

Mass Coders - SQL Notes 52

 EXPLAIN SELECT Title, ReleaseYear
FROM TeluguMovies
WHERE Director = 'S. S. Rajamouli';

Steps to View Execution Plan:

1. In SSMS, write the query you want to optimize.

2. Click on "Display Estimated Execution Plan" or "Include Actual Execution Plan."

3. Execute the query to see the plan.

Real-life Example:
Reading an execution plan is like following a recipe to see each step involved in
cooking a dish. It helps identify where you might save time or improve efficiency.

Index Optimization
Indexes improve query performance by allowing faster data retrieval. However, too
many indexes or poorly designed indexes can degrade performance.
Creating Effective Indexes:

1. Use Indexes on Columns Frequently Used in WHERE, JOIN, and ORDER BY

Clauses.

CREATE INDEX idx_director ON TeluguMovies (Director);

2. Avoid Indexing Columns with High Cardinality (Many Unique Values).

3. Regularly Monitor and Maintain Indexes with REORGANIZE and REBUILD.

ALTER INDEX idx_director ON TeluguMovies REBUILD;

Real-life Example:
Using indexes effectively is like having an optimized filing system where frequently
accessed files are easy to find, improving overall efficiency.

Database Normalization

Mass Coders - SQL Notes 53

 Normalization is the process of organizing data to minimize redundancy and
improve data integrity. It involves dividing large tables into smaller, related tables.

Normal Forms
1. First Normal Form (1NF): Ensures that each column contains atomic
(indivisible) values and each entry in a column is of the same data type.
Example:
Before 1NF:

MovieID Director

1 S. S. Rajamouli, S. S. Rajamouli

After 1NF:

MovieID Director

1 S. S. Rajamouli

1 S. S. Rajamouli

2. Second Normal Form (2NF): Achieves 1NF and ensures that non-key columns
are fully dependent on the primary key.
Example:
Before 2NF:

MovieID Title DirectorID DirectorName

1 Baahubali 101 S. S. Rajamouli

2 Eega 101 S. S. Rajamouli

After 2NF:

MovieID Title DirectorID

1 Baahubali 101

2 Eega 101

DirectorID DirectorName

101 S. S. Rajamouli

Mass Coders - SQL Notes 54

 3. Third Normal Form (3NF): Achieves 2NF and ensures that non-key columns
are not dependent on other non-key columns.

Example:
Before 3NF:

MovieID Title DirectorID DirectorName DirectorAge

1 Baahubali 101 S. S. Rajamouli 47

After 3NF:

MovieID Title DirectorID

1 Baahubali 101

DirectorID DirectorName DirectorAge

101 S. S. Rajamouli 47

4. Boyce-Codd Normal Form (BCNF): A stronger version of 3NF, ensures every

determinant is a candidate key.
Example:
Consider a table where one column depends on another non-primary key:

MovieID Title DirectorID Country

1 Baahubali 101 India

If DirectorID determines Country, split the table:

MovieID Title DirectorID

1 Baahubali 101

DirectorID Country

101 India

Real-life Example:
Normalization is like organizing your library by genres, authors, and publication
years to avoid duplication and ensure easy access to books.

Common Performance Issues

Mass Coders - SQL Notes 55

 Understanding and identifying common performance issues helps maintain an
efficient database system.

Identifying and Resolving Bottlenecks

1. Slow Queries:Resolution:

Optimize queries by reducing complexity.

Use indexes appropriately.

Example:
Identifying a slow query:

SELECT Title, ReleaseYear

FROM TeluguMovies
WHERE Director = 'S. S. Rajamouli';

Add an index:

CREATE INDEX idx_director ON TeluguMovies (Director);

2. Locking and Blocking:Resolution:

Reduce transaction scope and duration.

Use appropriate isolation levels.

Example:
Using a transaction with a smaller scope:

BEGIN TRANSACTION;
UPDATE TeluguMovies
SET ReleaseYear = 2021
WHERE MovieID = 1;
COMMIT;

3. Insufficient Hardware Resources:Resolution:

Upgrade hardware.

Mass Coders - SQL Notes 56

 Optimize resource usage.

4. High Disk I/O:Resolution:

Optimize queries to reduce disk access.

Use indexing and caching strategies.

5. Suboptimal Schema Design:Resolution:

Normalize database schema.

Use appropriate data types and constraints.

Real-life Example:
Resolving performance bottlenecks is like fixing a traffic jam by identifying the
cause (slow cars, roadblocks) and taking corrective actions (building a bypass,
managing traffic flow).

SQL Security

User Management
Effective user management is crucial for database security. It involves creating and
managing database users and ensuring that only authorized individuals have
access to the database.

Creating and Managing Users

Creating users and assigning appropriate privileges helps control access to the
database.

Creating a User
Syntax:

CREATE USER 'username'@'host' IDENTIFIED BY 'password';

Example:
Creating a user named
telugu_movie_admin :

Mass Coders - SQL Notes 57

 CREATE USER 'telugu_movie_admin'@'localhost' IDENTIFIED BY 'se
curepassword';

Managing Users

You can manage users by changing their passwords, renaming them, or deleting
them.

Changing User Password

ALTER USER 'telugu_movie_admin'@'localhost' IDENTIFIED BY 'new

securepassword';

Renaming a User

RENAME USER 'telugu_movie_admin'@'localhost' TO 'telugu_movie_

manager'@'localhost';

Deleting a User

DROP USER 'telugu_movie_manager'@'localhost';

Real-life Example:
Creating and managing users is like giving employees their own access cards to
enter different parts of a building, and ensuring their access is updated or revoked
as needed.

Roles and Permissions

Roles simplify the management of permissions by grouping privileges and
assigning them to users.

Granting and Revoking Privileges

Granting Privileges

Syntax:

Mass Coders - SQL Notes 58

 GRANT privilege_name ON database_name.table_name TO 'usernam
e'@'host';

Example:
Granting SELECT and INSERT privileges to
telugu_movie_admin on the TeluguMoviesDB :

GRANT SELECT, INSERT ON TeluguMoviesDB.* TO 'telugu_movie_admi

n'@'localhost';

Revoking Privileges
Syntax:

REVOKE privilege_name ON database_name.table_name FROM 'userna

me'@'host';

Example:
Revoking INSERT privilege from
telugu_movie_admin :

REVOKE INSERT ON TeluguMoviesDB.* FROM 'telugu_movie_admin'@'l

ocalhost';

Creating Roles
Roles are created to group specific privileges and then granted to users.

Syntax:

CREATE ROLE 'role_name';

GRANT privilege_name ON database_name.table_name TO 'role_nam
e';
GRANT 'role_name' TO 'username'@'host';

Example:
Creating a role for read-only access and assigning it to a user:

Mass Coders - SQL Notes 59

 CREATE ROLE 'read_only';
GRANT SELECT ON TeluguMoviesDB.* TO 'read_only';
GRANT 'read_only' TO 'telugu_movie_viewer'@'localhost';

Real-life Example:
Granting and revoking privileges is like giving an employee keys to certain rooms in
a building and taking back keys when they no longer need access.

Mass Coders - SQL Notes 60