OPERATOR MATH

REVIEW
CONTINUING EDUCATION
PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT COURSE
 2
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Printing and Saving Instructions
The best thing to do is to download this pdf document to your computer
desktop and open it with Adobe Acrobat DC reader.

Adobe Acrobat DC reader is a free computer software program and you can
find it at Adobe Acrobat’s website.

You can complete the course by viewing the course materials on your
computer or you can print it out. Once you’ve paid for the course, we’ll give
you permission to print this document.

Printing Instructions: If you are going to print this document, this document
is designed to be printed double-sided or duplexed but can be single-sided.

This course booklet does not have the assignment. Please visit our website
and download the assignment also.
Internet Link to Assignment…
http://www.abctlc.com/PDF/OperatorMathAss.pdf

State Approval Listing Link, check to see if your State accepts or has pre-
approved this course. Not all States are listed. Not all courses are listed. Do
not solely trust our list for it may be outdated. It is your sole responsibility to
ensure this course is accepted for credit. No refunds.

Professional Engineers; Most states will accept our courses for credit but
we do not officially list the States or Agencies acceptance or approvals.

State Approval Listing URL…

http://www.tlch2o.com/PDF/CEU%20State%20Approvals.pdf
You can obtain a printed version from TLC for an additional $59.95 plus
shipping charges.

All downloads are electronically tracked and monitored for security

purposes.

3
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Contributing Editors
Joseph Camerata has a BS in Management with honors (magna cum laude). He retired as a
Chemist in 2006 having worked in the field of chemical, environmental, and industrial hygiene
sampling and analysis for 40 years. He has been a professional presenter at an EPA analytical
conference at the Biosphere in Arizona and a presenter at an AWWA conference in Mesa,
Arizona. He also taught safety classes at the Honeywell and City of Phoenix, and is a
motivational/inspirational speaker nationally and internationally.

Dr. Eric Pearce S.M.E., chemistry and biological review.

Dr. Pete Greer, S.M.E., retired biology instructor.

Jack White, S.M.E., Environmental, Health, Safety expert. Art Credits.

Copyright Notice
©2000-2018 Technical Learning College (TLC). No part of this work may be reproduced or distributed in
any form or by any means without TLC’s prior written approval. Permission has been sought for all images
and text where we believe copyright exists and where the copyright holder is traceable and contactable. All
material that is not credited or acknowledged is the copyright of Technical Learning College. This information
is intended for educational purposes only. Most unaccredited photographs have been taken by TLC
instructors or TLC students. We will be pleased to hear from any copyright holder and will make proper
attribution for your work if any unintentional copyright infringements were made as soon as these issues are
brought to the editor's attention.

Every possible effort is made to ensure that all information provided in this course is accurate. All written,
graphic, photographic, or other material is provided for information only. Therefore, Technical Learning
College (TLC) accepts no responsibility or liability whatsoever for the application or misuse of any
information included herein. Requests for permission to make copies should be made to the following
address:

TLC, PO. Box 3060, Chino Valley, AZ 86323

Information in this document is subject to change without notice. TLC is not liable for errors or omissions
appearing in this document.

4
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Some States and many employers require the final exam to be proctored.

Do not solely depend on TLC’s Approval list for it may be outdated.

A second certificate of completion for a second State Agency $50 processing fee.

Most of our students prefer to do the assignment in Word and e-mail or fax the assignment
back to us. We also teach this course in a conventional hands-on class. Call us and
schedule a class today.

5
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
 6
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Technical Learning College’s Scope and Function
Welcome to the Program,

Technical Learning College (TLC) offers affordable continuing education for today’s working
professionals who need to maintain licenses or certifications. TLC holds several different
governmental agency approvals for granting of continuing education credit.

TLC’s delivery method of continuing education can include traditional types of classroom lectures
and distance-based courses or independent study. TLC’s distance based or independent study
courses are offered in a print- based format and you are welcome to examine this material on
your computer with no obligation. We will beat any other training competitor’s price for the same
CEU material or classroom training.

Our courses are designed to be flexible and for you do finish the material on your leisure. Students
can also receive course materials through the mail. The CEU course or e-manual will contain all
your lessons, activities and assignments. All of TLC’s CEU courses allow students to submit
assignments using e-mail or fax, or by postal mail. (See the course description for more
information.)

Students have direct contact with their instructor—primarily by e-mail or telephone. TLC’s CEU
courses may use such technologies as the World Wide Web, e-mail, CD-ROMs, videotapes and
hard copies. (See the course description.) Make sure you have access to the necessary
equipment before enrolling, i.e., printer, Microsoft Word and/or Adobe Acrobat Reader. Some
courses may require proctored closed-book exams depending upon your state or employer
requirements.

Flexible Learning
At TLC, there are no scheduled online sessions or passwords you need contend with, nor are you
required to participate in learning teams or groups designed for the "typical" younger campus
based student. You will work at your own pace, completing assignments in time frames that work
best for you. TLC's method of flexible individualized instruction is designed to provide each
student the guidance and support needed for successful course completion.

Course Structure
TLC's online courses combine the best of online delivery and traditional university textbooks. You
can easily find the course syllabus, course content, assignments, and the post-exam
(Assignment). This student friendly course design allows you the most flexibility in choosing when
and where you will study.

Classroom of One
TLC offers you the best of both worlds. You learn on your own terms, on your own time, but you
are never on your own. Once enrolled, you will be assigned a personal Student Service
Representative who works with you on an individualized basis throughout your program of study.
Course specific faculty members are assigned at the beginning of each course providing the
academic support you need to successfully complete each course.

7
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
No Data Mining Policy
Unlike most online training providers, we do not use passwords or will upload intrusive data mining
software onto your computer. We do not use any type of artificial intelligence in our program. Nor
will we sell you any other product or sell your data to others as with many of our competitors.
Unlike our training competitors, we have a telephone and we humanly answer.

Satisfaction Guaranteed
We have many years of experience, dealing with thousands of students. We assure you, our
customer satisfaction is second to none. This is one reason we have taught more than 20,000
students.

We welcome you to do the electronic version of the assignment and submit the answer key and
registration to us either by fax or e-mail. If you need this assignment graded and a certificate of
completion within a 48-hour turn around, prepare to pay an additional rush charge of $50.

Contact Numbers
Fax (928) 468-0675
Email [email protected]
Telephone (866) 557-1746

8
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
TLC’s CEU Course Description

OPERATOR MATH REVIEW CEU TRAINING COURSE

This course is a review of basic operator certification mathematics. Topics include simplifying
expressions, evaluating and solving equations. Real world applications are presented within the
course content and a function's approach is emphasized. This review course is designed to give
students the requisite skills that provide a foundation for all future mathematics. Throughout the
course, mathematical concepts will be taught with an emphasis on real-world operator
applications, treatment technologies, and cross-curricular interaction.

Another goal of this course is to prepare the operator for advanced math problems commonly
encountered in the certification examination. Many of these problems involve multiple steps and
the manipulation of formulas.

You will not need any other materials for this course.

Target Audience
The primary target audience for this course are certified water/wastewater operators including
water distribution workers, well drillers, pump installers, water treatment operators, and
wastewater treatment operators. Also included are people interested in working in a water
treatment/wastewater treatment or distribution facility and/or wishing to maintain CEUs for a
certification license or to learn how to perform operator math calculations. There are no
prerequisites, and no other materials are needed for this course.

Course Statement of Need

The understanding of the mathematics of water calculations including hydraulics (flows,
pressures, volumes, horsepower, velocities) and water/wastewater treatment (chlorination,
detention time, chemical dosage) is an important tool for all water/wastewater system operators
and is commonly used daily.

Prerequisite
Basic math knowledge on a high school level is recommended for successful completion of this
course.

Final Examination for Credit

Opportunity to pass the final comprehensive examination is limited to three attempts per course
enrollment.

Course Procedures for Registration and Support

All of Technical Learning College’s distance learning courses have complete registration and
support services offered. Delivery of services will include e-mail, web site, telephone, fax and
mail support. TLC will attempt immediate and prompt service.

When a student registers for a correspondence course, he/she is assigned a start date and an
end date. It is the student's responsibility to note dates for assignments and keep up with the
course work. If a student falls behind, he/she must contact TLC and request an end date
extension in order to complete the course. It is the prerogative of TLC to decide whether to grant
the request. All students will be tracked by a unique computer generated number assigned to the
student.
9
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Disclaimer and Security Notice
The student shall understand that it their responsibility to ensure that this CEU course is either
approved or accepted in my State for CEU credit. The student shall understand and follow State
laws and rules concerning distance learning courses and understand these rules change on a
frequent basis and will not hold Technical Learning College responsible for any changes. The
student shall understand that this type of study program deals with dangerous conditions and will
not hold Technical Learning College, Technical Learning Consultants, Inc. (TLC) liable for any
errors or omissions or advice contained in this CEU education training course or for any violation
or injury caused by this CEU education training course material. The student shall contact TLC
if they need help or assistance and double-check to ensure my registration page and assignment
has been received and graded.

Student Verification
The student shall submit a driver’s license for signature verification and track their time worked
on the assignment. The student shall sign an affidavit verifying they have not cheated and worked
alone on the assignment. All student attendance is tracked on the student attendance database.

Feedback Mechanism (examination procedures)

Each student will receive a feedback or survey form as part of his or her study packet. You will
be able to find this form in the front of the assignment lesson. The student can e-mail, snail mail
or telephone TLC for any concern at any time. Most of these concerns will be answered in 2
hours but not more than 24 hours. TLC has three support staff administrators with modern
computers and all have excellent communication and computer skills able to respond and track
all students and required forms and assignment. We have a dedicated computer student tracking
system database that is backed-up on a daily based and this information is secured and stored
at a secure offsite location.

TLC Contact Information

All instructors and administrative staff are obligated to respond within 1 day by email, snail mail
or telephone providing proper guidance to successfully complete the assignment. Email and
telephone inquiries are handled quickly, generally within 2 hours of the call.

We encourage students to complete their work with less frustration and fewer delays by calling or
e-mailing us for any concern. We attempt to provide direct interaction similar to conventional
classroom training.

Security and Integrity

All students are required to do their own work. All lesson sheets and final exams are not returned
to the student to discourage sharing of answers. Any fraud or deceit and the student will forfeit
all fees and the appropriate agency will be notified. A random test generator will be implemented
to protect the integrity of the assignment.

Student Information Personal Data Security Procedures

All information regarding the student is strict and privileged only. This information is held in secure
databases and is not sold or provided to any one unless the student requests a copy or a State
agency does an audit. Even during audits, we restrict confidential information unless the Agency
can provide a legitimate excuse. Some of this security information and data is priority and details
are not provided. Students are not provided with any passwords at this time.

10
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Grading Criteria / Certificate of Completion
TLC will offer the student either pass/fail or a standard letter grading assignment. If TLC is not
notified, the student will only receive a pass/fail notice. In order to pass your final assignment, you
are required to obtain a minimum score of 70% on your assignment. The certificate of completion
will have all text in capital letters and there is a water mark of the Technical Learning College in
three colors along with anti-counterfeiting security measures on the edge of the certificate. An
electronic copy is assigned to the student’s electronic record with issue date.

Failure
If the student fails the examination, they are provided with two more chances to successfully pass
the exam with a score of 70% or better. The student may receive a different and randomly
generated exam. Upon failure of an exam, the student can submit their concerns in writing or
submit a survey form and has the option to receive instructor assistance that would be equivalent
to conventional classroom assistance in discovering the areas that are deficient. The instructor
has the option in describing the assistance method or procedure depending upon the student’s
deficiencies.

Forfeiture of Certificate (Cheating)

If a student is found to have cheated on an examination, the penalty may include--but is not limited
to--expulsion; foreclosure from future classes for a specified period; forfeiture of certificate for
course/courses enrolled in at TLC; or all of the above in accordance with TLC’s Student
Manual. A letter notifying the student’s sponsoring organization (State Agency) of the individual's
misconduct will be sent by the appropriate official at TLC. No refund will be given for paid courses.
An investigation of all other students that have taken the same assignment within 60 day period
of the discovery will be re-examined for fraud or cheating. TLC reserves the right to revoke any
published certificates and/or grades if cheating has been discovered for any reason and at any
time. Students shall sign affidavit agreeing with all security measures. The student shall submit
a driver’s license for signature verification and track their time worked on the assignment. The
student shall sign an affidavit verifying they have not cheated and worked alone on the
assignment.

Student Assistance
The student shall contact TLC if they need help or assistance and double-check to ensure my
registration page and assignment has been received and graded.

Instructions for Written Assignments

The Operator Math Review training CEU course uses multiple choice questions. Answers may be
written in this manual or typed out on a separate answer sheet. TLC prefers that students type
out and e-mail their answer sheets to [email protected], but they may be faxed to (928) 468-0675.

Final Examination for Credit

Opportunity to pass the final comprehensive examination is limited to three attempts per course
enrollment.

Required Texts
This course comes complete and does not require any other materials.

Feedback Mechanism (Examination Procedures)

A feedback form is included in the front of the study assignment packet.

11
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Environmental Terms, Abbreviations, and Acronyms
TLC provides a glossary in the rear of this manual that defines, in non-technical language,
commonly used environmental terms appearing in publications and materials, as well as
abbreviations and acronyms used throughout the EPA and other governmental agencies.

Record Keeping and Reporting Practices

TLC keeps all student records for a minimum of five years. It is the student’s responsibility to give
the completion certificate to the appropriate agencies.

ADA Compliance
TLC will make reasonable accommodations for persons with documented disabilities. Students
should notify TLC and their instructors of any special needs. Course content may vary from this
outline to meet the needs of these particular students.

Note to Students
Keep a copy of everything that you submit! If your work is lost, you can submit your copy for
grading. If you do not receive your certificate of completion or other results within two to three
weeks after submitting it, please contact your instructor.

Educational Mission
The educational mission of TLC is:
To provide TLC students with comprehensive and ongoing training in the theory and skills needed
for the environmental education field,

To provide TLC students with opportunities to apply and understand the theory and skills needed
for operator certification,

To provide opportunities for TLC students to learn and practice environmental educational skills
with members of the community for the purpose of sharing diverse perspectives and experience,

To provide a forum in which students can exchange experiences and ideas related to
environmental education,

To provide a forum for the collection and dissemination of current information related to
environmental education, and to maintain an environment that nurtures academic and personal
growth.

12
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Math Tables and Conversions

Math Conversion Factors..............................................15
Water Conversion Table............................................... 19
Metric System Conversions......................................... 23

General Math Concepts

Addition Section............................................................ 29
Subtraction Section..................................................... 35
Multiplication Section................................................... 41
Order of Operation........................................................ 45
Averages....................................................................... 50
Division Section............................................................ 53
Fractions....................................................................... 57
Subtraction of Fractions................................................ 58
Multiplication of Fractions............................................. 60
Decimal Section............................................................ 61
Conversion Factors....................................................... 67
Temperature................................................................. 73
Word Problems............................................................. 75
Circles........................................................................... 77
Area............................................................................. 78
Velocity Section............................................................ 83
Detention Time Section................................................ 89
Chemical Dosing.......................................................... 93
Chlorine Demand.......................................................... 97
Electrical Section.......................................................... 103

Operator Math Practice Section

Volume of a Cube........................................................ 119
Numbering Section....................................................... 131
Flow/Velocity Review................................................... 133
Treatment Plant…………………………………………. 147
Metric Math Section..................................................... 151
Temperature Review.................................................... 155
Treatment Filter Review............................................... 161
Chemical Dose Review................................................. 165
Area Review................................................................. 169
Collections Math Review.............................................. 171

Appendix
Math Glossary............................................................... 179
Math Appendix........................................................... 217
References................................................................. 239

13
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Key Math Terms
Area: Area is the number of square units that covers a shape or figure.

Decimal Point: A Decimal point is used to represent numbers that are not whole numbers. It
is used to indicate the portion of something which does not make up a whole unit.

Denominator: The denominator is the expression written below the line in a fraction. It
indicates the number of parts into which one whole is divided.

Density: Density is how much a certain volume of something weighs. Density of a liquid is
calculated by dividing the weight of the liquid by its volume. In the metric system, the density
of water is always 1.

Diameter: The diameter is the longest distance from one end of a circle to the other.

Fraction: A fraction is an expression that indicates the quotient of two quantities, such as 1/3.

Integer: An integer is the whole portion of a number. It does not include any part of the
decimal, which could be part of the number. For example, if a number is 25.33, the integer is
25.

Numerator: The numerator is the expression written above the line in a fraction. It indicates
the number of parts of the whole.

Radius: The radius is the distance from the center of a circle to any point on the circle. It is
equal to one-half of the diameter.

Rounding: Rounding is a technique used in conjunction with significant figures to properly

reflect the accuracy of a measurement. When rounding, you adjust a value to properly reflect
its intended usage.

Specific gravity: Specific gravity is a term used in chemical feed that refers to the density
of a substance compared to the density of water. In the metric system, specific gravity is equal
to density. In the English system it is calculated by dividing the density of a substance by the
density of water.

Volume: Volume is a measurement of space or capacity.

14
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Common Math Conversion Factors
1 PSI = 2.31 Feet of Water LENGTH
1 Foot of Water = .433 PSI 12 Inches = 1 Foot
1.13 Feet of Water = 1 Inch of Mercury 3 Feet = 1 Yard
454 Grams = 1 Pound 5,280 Feet = 1 Mile
2.54 CM =Inch
1 Gallon of Water = 8.34 Pounds AREA
1 mg/L = 1 PPM 144 Square Inches = 1 Square Foot
17.1 mg/L = 1 Grain/Gallon 43,560 Square Feet = 1 Acre
1% = 10,000 mg/L VOLUME
694 Gallons per Minute = MGD 1000 Milliliters = 1 Liter
1.55 Cubic Feet per Second = 1 MGD 3.785 Liters = 1 Gallon
60 Seconds = 1 Minute 231 Cubic Inches = 1 Gallon
1440 Minutes = 1 Day 7.48 Gallons = 1 Cubic Foot of Water
.746 kW = 1 Horsepower 62.38 Pounds = 1 Cubic Foot of Water

Dimensions
SQUARE: Area (sq.ft.) = Length X Width
Volume (cu.ft.) = Length (ft) X Width (ft) X Height (ft)

CIRCLE: Area (sq.ft.) = 3.14 X Radius (ft) X Radius (ft)

CYLINDER: Volume (Cu. Ft.) = 3.14 X Radius (ft) X Radius (ft) X Depth (ft)

PIPE VOLUME: .785 X Diameter 2 X Length = ? To obtain gallons multiply by 7.48

SPHERE: (3.14) (Diameter)3 Circumference = 3.14 X Diameter

(6)

General Conversions
Flowrate
Multiply —> to get
to get <— Divide
cc/min 1 mL/min
cfm (ft3/min) 28.31 L/min
cfm (ft3/min) 1.699 m3/hr
cfh (ft3/hr) 472 mL/min
cfh (ft3/hr) 0.125 GPM
GPH 63.1 mL/min
GPH 0.134 cfh
GPM 0.227 m3/hr
GPM 3.785 L/min
oz/min 29.57 mL/min

15
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
POUNDS PER DAY= Flow (MG) X Concentration (mg/L) X 8.34
AKA Solids Applied Formula = Flow X Dose X 8.34

PERCENT EFFICIENCY = In – Out X 100

In

TEMPERATURE: 0F = (0C X 9/5) + 32 9/5 =1.8

0C = (0F - 32) X 5/9 5/9 = .555

CONCENTRATION: Conc. (A) X Volume (A) = Conc. (B) X Volume (B)

FLOW RATE (Q): Q = A X V (Quantity = Area X Velocity)

FLOW RATE (gpm): Flow Rate (gpm) = 2.83 (Diameter, in)2 (Distance, in)
Height, in
% SLOPE = Rise (feet) X 100
Run (feet)

ACTUAL LEAKAGE = Leak Rate (GPD)

Length (mi.) X Diameter (in)

VELOCITY = Distance (ft)

Time (Sec)

HYDRAULIC RADIUS (ft) = Cross Sectional Area of Flow (ft)

Wetted pipe Perimeter (ft)

WATER HORSEPOWER = Flow (gpm) X Head (ft)

3960

BRAKE HORSEPOWER = Flow (gpm) X Head (ft)

3960 X Pump Efficiency

MOTOR HORSEPOWER = Flow (gpm) X Head (ft)

3960 X Pump Eff. X Motor Eff.

MEAN OR AVERAGE = Sum of the Values

Number of Values

TOTAL HEAD (ft) = Suction Lift (ft) X Discharge Head (ft)

SURFACE LOADING RATE = Flow Rate (gpm)

(gal/min/sq.ft) Surface Area (sq. ft)

MIXTURE = (Volume 1, gal) (Strength 1, %) + (Volume 2, gal) (Strength 2,%)

STRENGTH (%) (Volume 1, gal) + (Volume 2, gal)

INJURY FREQUENCY RATE = (Number of Injuries) 1,000,000

Number of hours worked per year

16
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
DETENTION TIME (hrs.) = Volume of Basin (gals) X 24 hrs.
Flow (GPD)

SLOPE = Rise (ft) SLOPE (%) = Rise (ft) X 100

Run (ft) Run (ft)

POPULATION EQUIVALENT (PE):

1 PE = .17 Pounds of BOD per Day
1 PE = .20 Pounds of Solids per Day
1 PE = 100 Gallons per Day

LEAKAGE (GPD/inch) = Leakage of Water per Day (GPD)

Sewer Diameter (inch)

CHLORINE DEMAND (mg/L) = Chlorine Dose (mg/L) – Chlorine Residual (mg/L)

MANNING’S EQUATION
Q = Allowable time for decrease in pressure from 3.5 PSI to 2.5 PSI
q = As below

Q = (0.022) (d12L1)/Q q = [ 0.085] [(d12L1)/(d1L1)]

q

Q = 2.0 cfm air loss

 = .0030 cfm air loss per square foot of internal pipe surface
 = Pipe diameter (inches)
L = Pipe Length (feet)

V = 1.486 R 2/3 S 1/2


V = Velocity (ft./sec.)
 = Pipe Roughness
R = Hydraulic Radius (ft)
S= Slope (ft/ft)

HYDRAULIC RADIUS (ft) = Flow Area (ft. 2)

Wetted Perimeter (ft.)

WIDTH OF TRENCH (ft) = Base (ft) + (2 Sides) X Depth (ft 2)

Slope

17
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
 18
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Common Water Formulas/Conversion Table
Acid Feed Rate = (Waste Flow) ( Waste Normality)
Acid Normality

Alkalinity = (mL of Titrant) ( Acid Normality) ( 50,000)

mL of Sample

Amperage = Voltage ÷ Ohms

Area of Circle = (0.785)(Diameter2) OR (π)(Radius2)

Area of Rectangle = (Length)(Width)

Area of Triangle = (Base) (Height)

2

C Factor Slope = Energy loss, ft. ÷ Distance, ft.

C Factor Calculation = Flow, GPM ÷ [193.75 (Diameter, ft.)2.63(Slope)0.54]

Chemical Feed Pump Setting, % Stroke = (Desired Flow) (100%)

Maximum Flow

Chemical Feed Pump Setting, mL/min =

(Flow, MGD) Dose, mg/L) (3.785L/gal) (1,000,000 gal/MG)
(Liquid, mg/mL) (24 hr / day) (60 min/hr)

Chlorine Demand (mg/L) = Chlorine dose (mg/L) – Chlorine residual (mg/L)

Circumference of Circle = (3.141)(Diameter)

Composite Sample Single Portion = (Instantaneous Flow) (Total Sample Volume)

(Number of Portions) (Average Flow)

Detention Time = Volume

Flow

Digested Sludge Remaining, % = (Raw Dry Solids) (Ash Solids) (100%)

(Digested Dry Solids) (Digested Ash Solids)

Discharge = Volume
Time

Dosage, lbs/day = (mg/L)(8.34)(MGD)

Dry Polymer (lbs.) = (gal. of solution)(8.34 lbs/gal)(% polymer solution)

Efficiency, % = (In – Out) (100%)

In
19
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Feed rate, lbs/day = (Dosage, mg/L) (Capacity, MGD) (8.34 lbs/gals)
(Available fluoride ion) (Purity)

Feed rate, gal/min (Saturator) = (Plant capacity, gal/min.) (Dosage, mg /L)

18,000 mg/L

Filter Backwash Rate = Flow

Filter Area

Filter Yield, lbs/hr/sq. ft = (Solids Loading, lbs/day) (Recovery, % / 100%)

(Filter operation, hr/day) ( Area, ft2)

Flow, cu. ft./sec. = (Area, Sq. Ft.)(Velocity, ft./sec.)

Gallons/Capita/Day = Gallons / day

Population

Hardness = (mL of Titrant) (1,000)

mL of Sample

Horsepower (brake) = (Flow, gpm) (Head, ft)

(3,960) (Efficiency)

Horsepower (motor) = (Flow, gpm) (Head, ft)

(3960) (Pump, Eff) (Motor, Eff)

Horsepower (water) = (Flow, gpm) (Head, ft)

(3960)

Hydraulic Loading Rate = Flow

Area

Leakage (actual) = Leak rate (GPD) ÷ [Length (mi.) x Diameter (in.)]

Mean = Sum of values ÷ total number of values

Mean Cell Residence Time (MCRT) = Suspended Solids in Aeration System, lbs
SS Wasted, lbs / day + SS lost, lbs / day

Organic Loading Rate = Organic Load, lbs BOD / day

Volume

Oxygen Uptake = Oxygen Usage

Time

Pounds per day = (Flow, MGD) (Dose, mg/L) (8.34)

Population Equivalent = (Flow MGD) (BOD, mg/L) (8.34 lbs / gal)

Lbs BOD / day / person

20
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
RAS Suspended Solids, mg/l = 1,000,000
SVI

RAS Flow, MGD = (Infl. Flow, MGD) (MLSS, mg/l)

RAS Susp. Sol., mg/l – MLSS, mg/l

RAS Flow % = (RAS Flow, MGD) (100 %)

Infl. Flow, MGD

Reduction in Flow, % = (Original Flow – Reduced Flow) (100%)

Original Flow

Slope = Drop or Rise

Run or Distance

Sludge Age = Mixed Liquor Solids, lbs

Primary Effluent Solids, lbs / day

Sludge Index = % Settleable Solids

% Suspended Solids

Sludge Volume Index = (Settleable Solids, %) (10,000)

MLSS, mg/L

Solids, mg/L = (Dry Solids, grams) (1,000,000)

mL of Sample

Solids Applied, lbs/day = (Flow, MGD)(Concentration, mg/L)(8.34 lbs/gal)

Solids Concentration = Weight

Volume

Solids Loading, lbs/day/sq ft = Solids Applied, lbs / day

Surface Area, sq ft

Surface Loading Rate = Flow

Rate

Total suspended solids (TSS), mg/L =

(Dry weight, mg)(1,000 mL/L) ÷ (Sample vol., mL)

Velocity = Flow OR Distance

Area Time
Volatile Solids, % = (Dry Solids - Ash Solids) (100%)
Dry Solids

Volume of Cone = (1/3)(0.785)(Diameter2)(Height)

Volume of Cylinder = (0.785)(Diameter2)(Height) OR (π)(r2)(h)

21
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Volume of Rectangle = (Length)(Width)(Height)

Volume of Sphere = [(π)(diameter3)] ÷ 6

Waste Milliequivalent = (mL) (Normality)

Waste Normality = (Titrant Volume) (Titrant Normality)

Sample Volume

Weir Overflow Rate = Flow

Weir Length

Other Conversion Factors

1 acre = 43,560 square feet
1 cubic foot = 7.48 gallons
1 foot = 0.305 meters
1 gallon = 3.785 liters
1 gallon = 8.34 pounds
1 grain per gallon = 17.1 mg/L
1 horsepower = 0.746 kilowatts
1 million gallons per day = 694.45 gallons per minute
1 pound = 0.454 kilograms
1 pound per square inch = 2.31 feet of water
1% = 10,000 mg/L
Degrees Celsius = (Degrees Fahrenheit - 32) (5/9)
Degrees Fahrenheit = (Degrees Celsius * 9/5) + 32
64.7 grains = 1 cubic foot
1,000 meters = 1 kilometer
1,000 grams = 1 kilogram
1,000 milliliters = 1 liter
144 square inches = 1 square foot
1.55 cubic feet per second = 1 MGD
1 meter = 3.28 feet
π = 3.141

Metric System
Prefixes and Symbol Meaning
Symbols Prefix
Micro- μ 0.000 001
Milli- M 0.001
Centi- C 0.01
Deci- D 0.1
Unit 1
Deka- Da 10
Hecto- H 100
Kilo- K 1,000
Mega- M 1,000,000

22
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Metric System
Length Weight
1 centimeter (cm) = 10 millimeters (mm) 1 milligram (mg) = 0.001 grams (g)
1 inch = 2.54 centimeters (cm) 1 gram (g) = 0.001 kilograms (kg)
1 foot = 0.3048 meters (m) 1 gram (g) ≅ 0.035273962 ounces
1 foot = 12 inches 1 ounce = 28.34952312 grams (g)
1 yard = 3 feet 1 ounce = 0.0625 pounds
1 meter (m) = 100 centimeters (cm) 1 pound (lb) = 16 ounces
1 meter (m) ≅ 3.280839895 feet 1 pound (lb) = 0.45359237 kilograms (kg)
1 furlong = 660 feet 1 kilogram (kg) = 1000 grams
1 kilometer (km) = 1000 meters (m) 1 kilogram (kg) ≅ 35.273962 ounces
1 kilometer (km) ≅ 0.62137119 miles 1 kilogram (kg) ≅ 2.20462262 pounds (lb)
1 mile = 5280 ft 1 stone = 14 pounds
1 mile = 1.609344 kilometers (km) 1 short ton = 2000 pounds
1 nautical mile = 1.852 kilometers (km) 1 metric ton = 1000 kilograms (kg)

Area Temperature
1 square foot = 144 square inches
1 square foot = 929.0304 square centimeters
1 square yard = 9 square feet
1 square meter ≅ 10.7639104 square feet
1 acre = 43,560 square feet
1 hectare = 10,000 square meters
1 hectare ≅ 2.4710538 acres
1 square kilometer = 100 hectares
1 square mile ≅ 2.58998811 square kilometers
1 square mile = 640 acres

Speed
1 mile per hour (mph) ≅ 1.46666667 feet per second (fps)
1 mile per hour (mph) = 1.609344 kilometers per hour
1 knot ≅ 1.150779448 miles per hour
1 foot per second ≅ 0.68181818 miles per hour (mph)
1 kilometer per hour ≅ 0.62137119 miles per hour (mph)

Volume
1 US tablespoon = 3 US teaspoons
1 US fluid ounce ≅ 29.57353 milliliters (ml)
1 US cup = 16 US tablespoons
1 US cup = 8 US fluid ounces
1 US pint = 2 US cups
1 US pint = 16 US fluid ounces
1 liter (l) ≅ 33.8140227 US fluid ounces
1 liter (l) = 1000 milliliters (ml)
1 US quart = 2 US pints
1 US gallon = 4 US quarts
1 US gallon = 3.78541178 liters

23
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
 24
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Common Water Related Metric Conversions
Temperature Conversion
Metric temperature units include degrees Celsius and degrees Kelvin (degrees Celsius plus
273.1). At sea level, the freezing temperature of water is 0 degrees Celsius and the boiling point
of water is 100 degrees Celsius.

The temperature unit commonly used in the US is Fahrenheit. At sea level, the freezing
temperature of water is 32 degrees Fahrenheit and the boiling point of water is 212 degrees
Fahrenheit.
Temperature Conversion Table
Metric Units English Units
Celsius Kelvin Fahrenheit
-273.1 0 -459.7
-50 223.1 -58
-40 233.1 -40
-30 243.1 -22
-20 253.1 -4
-10 263.1 14
0 273.1 32
10 283.1 50
20 293.1 68
30 303.1 86
40 313.1 104
50 323.1 122
100 373.1 212

To convert from Celsius to Fahrenheit, first multiply by 9/5, then add 32.

To convert from Fahrenheit to Celsius, first subtract 32, then multiply by 5/9

25
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Distance or Length
Length Conversion
Metric length units include the meter, the kilometer (1,000 meters), the decimeter (0.1 meters),
the centimeter (0.01 meters), the millimeter (0.001 meters), the micron (0.000001 meters), the
nanometer (0.000000001 or 1e-9 meters), and the angstrom (0.0000000001 or 1e-10 meters).

The conversion for feet to meters is:

1 ft = 0.3048 m

So, the length conversion is to multiply by 0.3048

And the Volume Conversion must be to multiply by 0.3048, and multiply by 0.3048 and multiply
by 0.3048 again:

30 × 0.3048 × 0.3048 × 0.3048 = 0.85

So, 30 ft3 = 0.85 m3

Length Conversion Table

Metric Units English Units
Kilometers Meters Millimeters Inches Feet Yards Miles
1 1,000 1,000,000 39,370 3,281 1,094 0.6214
0.001 1 1,000 39.37 3.281 1.094 0.0006214
0.000001 0.001 1 0.03937 0.003281 0.001094 6.214e-7

0.0000254 0.0254 25.4 1 0.08333 0.02778 1.578e-5

0.0003048 0.3048 304.8 12 1 0.3333 0.0001894
0.0009144 0.9144 914.4 36 3 1 0.0005682
1.609 1,609 1,609,000 63,360 5,280 1,760 1

26
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Area Conversion
Metric area units include the acre and the hectare (100 acres). One square kilometer is
equivalent to 100 hectares.

The area unit commonly used in the USA is the acre (4840 square yards). One square mile is
equivalent to 640 acres.

Area Conversion Table

Metric Units English Units
Square Square Square
Hectares Ares Acres
Kilometers Yards Miles
1 100 10,000 1,196,000 247.1 000.386
0.01 1 100 11,960 2.471 0.00386
0.0001 0.01 1 119.6 0.02471 0.0000386

8.361e-7 0.00008361 0.008361 1 0.0002066 3.228e-7

0.004047 0.4047 40.47 4,840 1 0.0015625
2.59 259 25,900 3,097,600 640 1

Area - Square feet to Meters

The conversion for feet to meters is:
1 ft = 0.3048 m

So the Length conversion is to multiply by 0.3048

And so the Area conversion must be to multiply by 0.3048 and multiply by 0.3048 again:

30 × 0.3048 × 0.3048 = 2.79

So, 30 ft2 = 2.79 m2

27
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Volume Conversion
Metric volume units include the liter, the decaliter (10 liters), the hectoliter (100 liters), the
deciliter (0.1 liters), the centiliter (0.01 liters), the milliliter (0.001 liters), and the microliter
(0.000001 liters. A liter is equivalent to 1 cubic decimeter.

Liquid measure units commonly used in the USA include the fluid ounce, the pint (16 fluid
ounces), the quart (32 fluid ounces), the gallon (128 fluid ounces), and the petroleum barrel
(5376 fluid ounces). A gallon is equivalent to 231 cubic inches.

Volume Conversion Table (Liquid Measure)

Metric Units U.S. Liquid Measure Units
Fluid
Liters Milliliters Quarts Gallons
Ounces
1 1,000 33.81 1.057 0.2642
0.001 1 0.03381 0.001057 0.0002642

0.02957 29.57 1 0.03125 0.007813

0.9464 946.4 32 1 0.25
3.785 3785 128 4 1

Weight Conversion
Metric weight units include the gram, the kilogram (1,000 grams), the tonne (1,000,000 grams),
the carat (0.2 grams), the centigram (0.01 grams), the milligram (0.001 grams), and the
microgram (0.000001 grams).

Avoirdupois weight units commonly used in the USA include the pound, the stone (14 pounds),
the short hundredweight (100 pounds), the short ton (2,000 pounds), the ounce (1/16th pound),
the dram (1/256th pound), and the grain (1/7000th pound).

Weight Conversion Table

Metric Units Avoirdupois Units
Tonnes Kilograms Grams Ounces Pounds Short Tons
1 1,000 1,000,000 35,270 2,205 1.102
0.001 1 1,000 35.27 2.205 0.001102
0.000001 0.001 1 0.03527 0.002205 1.102e-6

0.00002835 0.02835 28.35 1 0.0625 0.00003125

0.0004536 0.4536 453.6 16 1 0.0005
0.0004536 907.2 907,200 32,000 2,000 1

28
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
General Math Concepts

Addition Review Section

Addition is a mathematical operation that represents the total amount of objects together in a
collection. It is signified by the plus sign (+). For example, if there are 3 + 2 oranges—meaning
three oranges and two oranges together, there is a total of 5 oranges.

Therefore, 3 + 2 = 5.

Besides counting fruits, addition can also represent combining other physical and abstract
quantities using different kinds of objects: negative numbers, fractions, irrational numbers,
vectors, decimals, functions, matrices and more.

Addition has several important properties. It is commutative, meaning that order does not matter,
and it is associative, meaning that when one adds more than two numbers, the order in which
addition is performed does not matter (see Summation).

Repeated addition of 1 is the same as counting; addition of 0 does not change a number.
Addition also obeys predictable rules concerning related operations such as subtraction and
multiplication.

Performing addition is one of the simplest numerical tasks. Addition of very small numbers is
accessible to toddlers; the most basic task, 1 + 1, can be performed by infants as young as five
months and even some animals. In primary education, students are taught to add numbers in
the decimal system, starting with single digits and progressively tackling more difficult problems.

A simple addition problem usually looks like this

3+4=7
The + sign is called a plus sign. This sign means add.

The = is called an equal sign. This shows the answer to the problem you have just completed.
Both the 3 and the 4 are called addends in addition. The two number s that will be added. The 7
in this problem is called the sum. The sum is the answer you got to by adding two or more numbers
together.

Summation is the operation of adding a sequence of numbers; the result is their sum or total. If
numbers are added sequentially from left to right, any intermediate result is a partial sum, prefix
sum, or running total of the summation.

The numbers to be summed (called addends, or sometimes summands) may be integers,

rational numbers, real numbers, or complex numbers. Besides numbers, other types of values
can be added as well: vectors, matrices, polynomials and, in general, elements of any additive
group (or even monoid). For finite sequences of such elements, summation always produces a
well-defined sum (possibly by virtue of the convention for empty sums).

29
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Addition Table
+ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

2 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

3 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

4 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

5 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

6 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

7 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

8 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

9 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

10 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

There are also situations where addition is "understood" even though no symbol appears:

 A column of numbers, with the last number in the column underlined, usually indicates
that the numbers in the column are to be added, with the sum written below the
underlined number.
 A whole number followed immediately by a fraction indicates the sum of the two, called a
mixed number. For example,
3½ = 3 + ½ = 3.5.

 This notation can cause confusion since in most other contexts juxtaposition denotes
multiplication instead.

Adding 10 plus 10 and reaching a conclusion of 20 is a simple operation, but adding complex
numbers like 13.333 and 0.0033 pose a larger challenge. Follow these basic rules to avoid
arriving at incorrect answers when adding complex numbers:

Step 1: Decimal points and numbers should line up in columns. When this rule is followed
correctly, the addition problem is easily solved.

Step 2: Be sure you are not adding apples and oranges. All numbers must represent the same
type of units, i.e. inches, pounds, feet. For example, in adding the length of two pieces of pipe, if
one is 32 inches and the other is 3 feet, you must convert to common units.
30
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
First divide 32 inches by 12 to convert to 2.66 feet or multiply 3 feet by 12 to convert to 36
inches before adding the numbers.

Step 3: When doing math without a calculator, make sure to write down the numbers that carry
over when adding. See example below.

11
687
+ 687
1374

Basic Rules for Performing Calculations

There are four general rules to remember when performing calculations:
We will only cover the first one.

Rule 1: Perform calculations from left to right.

Advanced Addition
Addition of Natural and Real Numbers
To prove the usual properties of addition, one must first define addition for the context in question.
Addition is first defined on the natural numbers. In set theory, addition is then extended to
progressively larger sets that include the natural numbers: the integers, the rational numbers, and
the real numbers (In mathematics education, positive fractions are added before negative
numbers are even considered; this is also the historical route).

Natural Numbers
In mathematics, the natural numbers are those used for counting ("there are five coins on the
table") and ordering ("this is the second largest city in the country"). These purposes are related
to the linguistic notions of cardinal and ordinal numbers, respectively. A later notion is that of a
nominal number, which is used only for naming.

Properties of the natural numbers related to divisibility, such as the distribution of prime numbers,
are studied in number theory. Problems concerning counting and ordering, such as partition
enumeration, are studied in combinatorics.

There is no universal agreement about whether to include zero in the set of natural numbers.
Some authors begin the natural numbers with 0, corresponding to the non-negative integers {0,
1, 2, 3, ...}, whereas others start with 1, corresponding to the positive integers {1, 2, 3, ...}.

Real Number
In mathematics, a real number is a value that represents a quantity along a continuous line. The
real numbers include all the rational numbers, such as the integer −5 and the fraction 4/3, and all
the irrational numbers such as √2 (1.41421356…, the square root of two, an irrational algebraic
number) and π (3.14159265…, a transcendental number).

Real numbers can be thought of as points on an infinitely long line called the number line or real
line, where the points corresponding to integers are equally spaced. Any real number can be

31
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
determined by a possibly infinite decimal representation such as that of 8.632, where each
consecutive digit is measured in units one tenth the size of the previous one.

The real line can be thought of as a part of the complex plane, and complex numbers include
real numbers.

Real numbers can be thought of as points on an infinitely long number line.

Adding Decimals
Decimals are fractional numbers. The decimal 0.4 is the same as the fraction 4/10. The number
0.69 is a decimal that represents 69/100.

Adding Decimals is just like adding other numbers.

Always line up the decimal points when adding decimals.

The prerequisite to addition in the decimal system is the fluent recall or derivation of the 100
single-digit "addition facts".

One could memorize all the facts by rote, but pattern-based strategies are more enlightening
and, for most people, more efficient:
 Commutative property: Mentioned above, using the pattern a + b = b + a reduces the
number of "addition facts" from 100 to 55.

 One or two more: Adding 1 or 2 is a basic task, and it can be accomplished through
counting on or, ultimately, intuition.

 Zero: Since zero is the additive identity, adding zero is trivial. Nonetheless, in the
teaching of arithmetic, some students are introduced to addition as a process that
always increases the addends; word problems may help rationalize the "exception" of
zero.

 Doubles: Adding a number to itself is related to counting by two and to multiplication.

Doubles facts form a backbone for many related facts, and students find them relatively
easy to grasp.

 Near-doubles: Sums such as 6+7=13 can be quickly derived from the doubles fact
6+6=12 by adding one more, or from 7+7=14 but subtracting one.

 Five and ten: Sums of the form 5+x and 10+x are usually memorized early and can be
used for deriving other facts. For example, 6+7=13 can be derived from 5+7=12 by
adding one more.

 Making ten: An advanced strategy uses 10 as an intermediate for sums involving 8 or 9;

for example, 8 + 6 = 8 + 2 + 4 = 10 + 4 = 14.

32
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Decimal Addition Exercise Answers are provided.

1 a. 0.0 + 0.1 = ________ 1 b. 0.50 + 0.574 = _______

2 a. 0.5 + 0.84 = _______ 2 b. 0.80 + 0.97 = _______

3 a. 0.49 + 0.00 = _______ 3 b. 0.8 + 0.8 = _______

4 a. 0.27 + 0.58 = _______ 4 b. 0.91 + 0.799 = _______

5 a. 0.8 + 0.98 = _______ 5 b. 0.144 + 0.25 = _______

33
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
 6 a. 0.3 + 0.12 = _______ 6 b. 0.38 + 0.16 = _______

7 a. 0.9 + 0.6 = _______ 7 b. 0.92 + 0.13 = _______

8 a. 0.142 + 0.1 = _______ 8 b. 0.0 + 0.7 = _______

9 a. 0.0 + 0.980 = _______ 9 b. 0.034 + 0.03 = _______

10 a. 0.71 + 0.46 = _______ 10 b. 0.6 + 0.6 = _______

Answers 1a. 0.1, 2a. 1.34, 3a. 0.49, 4a. 0.85, 5a. 1.78, 6a. 0.42, 7a. 1.5, 8a. 0.242, 9a. 0.980, 10a. 1.17
1b. 1.074, 2b. 1.77, 3b. 1.6, 4b. 1.709, 5b. 0.394, 6b. 0.54, 7b. 1.05, 8b. 0.7, 9b. 0.064, 10b. 1.2

34
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Subtraction Review

Subtraction is a mathematical operation that represents the operation of removing objects from
a collection. It is signified by the minus sign (−). For example, there are 7 − 2 oranges—
meaning 7 oranges with 2 taken away, which is a total of 5 oranges.

Therefore, 7 − 2 = 5.

Or in addition 2+5 =7

Besides counting fruits, subtraction can also represent combining other physical and abstract
quantities using different kinds of objects: negative numbers, fractions, irrational numbers,
vectors, decimals, functions, matrices and more.

Subtraction follows several important patterns. It is anti-commutative, meaning that changing the
order changes the sign of the answer. It is not associative, meaning that when one subtracts more
than two numbers, the order in which subtraction is performed matters.

Subtraction of 0 does not change a number. Subtraction also obeys predictable rules concerning
related operations such as addition and multiplication. All of these rules can be proven, starting
with the subtraction of integers and generalizing up through the real numbers and beyond.
General binary operations that continue these patterns are studied in abstract algebra.

Subtraction is simply taking one number away from the other. It's pretty straightforward when
you're subtracting one whole number from another, but subtraction can get a bit more complicated
when you're working with fractions or decimals.

Once you get the hang of subtraction, you'll be able to move on to more complicated mathematical
concepts, and will be able to add, multiply, and divide numbers with greater ease.

The traditional names for the parts of the formula

a-b=c

Where the minuend (a) - subtrahend (b) = difference (c).

Subtraction as Addition
There are some cases where subtraction as a separate operation becomes problematic. For
example, 3 − (−2) (i.e. subtract −2 from 3) is not immediately obvious from either a natural number
view or a number line view, because it is not immediately clear what it means to move −2 steps
to the left or to take away −2 apples.

One solution is to view subtraction as addition of signed numbers.

Extra minus signs simply denote additive inversion. Then we have 3 − (−2) = 3 + 2 = 5. This also
helps to keep the ring of integers "simple" by avoiding the introduction of "new" operators such as
subtraction. Ordinarily a ring only has two operations defined on it; in the case of the integers,
these are addition and multiplication.

35
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Subtraction Table
Use this subtraction table to get an answer for some basic subtraction problems

When using the table, look first for a number in the leftmost column

Then, subtract from that number by selecting a number in the top horizontal row

The answer can be found where the column and row meet.

For instance, 8 (in the vertical column) minus 9 (in the horizontal row) = -1

− 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

- - - - - - - - - - - -
0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

- - - - - - - - - -
1 1 0 -9
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 10 11

- - - - - - - -
2 2 1 0 -8 -9
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 10

- - - - - -
3 3 2 1 0 -7 -8 -9
1 2 3 4 5 6

- - - - -
4 4 3 2 1 0 -6 -7 -8
1 2 3 4 5

- - - -
5 5 4 3 2 1 0 -5 -6 -7
1 2 3 4

- - -
6 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 -4 -5 -6
1 2 3

- -
7 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 -3 -4 -5
1 2

-
8 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 -2 -3 -4
1

9 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3

10 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 -1 -2

36
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Subtraction Review Section

Step 1: Make sure all decimals are in line. Unlike adding a carryover like we did for addition you
may need to borrow.

Step 2: Having to borrow when the top unit is less than the bottom.
For example:

374
-286
1. (One’s column) - Borrow one unit (10) from the 7 in the tens column. You now
2 16 subtract 6 from 14 to get 8 in the ones column.
3 17 14 2. (Column two) – Since you borrowed one unit from the seven, which leaves six,
-2 8 6 you must now borrow one unit (100) from the one hundred’s column. You now
8 8 subtract 8 from 16 to get 8 in the tens column.
3. After borrowing from the one hundred’s column you are left with a 2 in that column.
Subtracting 2 from 2 is equal to zero. No entry is needed in the thousand’s column.

Practice writing the problem out like the previous examples. This will help you when we begin
solving problems that relate to our industry. Answers are provided.

A. 12 + 54 =

B. 15 + 13 =

C. 23.2 + 12.6 =

D. 25.32 + 23.06 =

E. 4.36 + 102 =

37
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
F. 23.5 + 14.32 + 12.444 =

G. 123.45 + 2.3 + 10.1234 =

H. 0.32597 + 2.684 + 18.364 =

I. 0.36 + 0.026 + 0.005 =

J. 1.3 + 0.223 + 1.445 =

K. 72 – 54 =

L. 1.5 – 1.3 =

M. 23 – 12.6 =

N. 18.36 – 18.36 =

O. 9.5 – 6.25 =

P. 67.89 – 10.1 – 3.142 =

38
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Q. 6.334 – 0.087 =

R. 8.335 – 3.2589 – 1.3 =

S. 100.23 – 5.34 – 6.789 =

T. 137.1 – 34 – 19.56 =

Answers 1. 66, 2. 28, 3. 35.8, 4. 48.38, 5. 106.36, 6. 50.264, 7. 135.8734, 8. 21.37397, 9. 0.391,
10. 2.986, 11. 18, 12. 0.2, 13. 10.4, 14. 15.676, 15. 3.25,16. 54.648,17. 6.247,18. 3.7761, 19. 88.101
20. 83.54

Rounding Decimals
Find the place value you want (the "rounding digit") and look at the digit just to the right of it.
If that digit is less than 5, do not change the rounding digit but drop all digits to the right of it.

If that digit is greater than 5, add one to the rounding digit and drop all digits to the right of it.

If the digit is 5, round to the even number. At times this will result in rounding up and at other
times, rounding down. It is theorized that the frequency of rounding up will equal the times
rounded down.

39
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
 40
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Multiplication Review Section
Multiplication (often denoted by the cross symbol "×", or by the absence of symbol) is the third
basic mathematical operation of arithmetic, the others being addition, subtraction and division
(the division is the fourth one, because it requires multiplication to be defined).

The multiplication of two whole numbers is equivalent to the addition of one of them with itself
as many times as the value of the other one; for example, 3 multiplied by 4 (often said as "3
times 4") can be calculated by adding 3 copies of 4 together:

3 X 4 = 4 +4 + 4 =12

Here 3 and 4 are the "factors" and 12 is the "product".

One of the main properties of multiplication is that the result does not depend on the place of
the factor that is repeatedly added to itself (commutative property). 3 multiplied by 4 can also be
calculated by adding 4 copies of 3 together:

3 X 4 = 3 +3 + 3 + 3 =12
For example, since 4 multiplied by 3 equals 12, then 12 divided by 3 equals 4. Multiplication by
3, followed by division by 3, yields the original number (since the division of a number other than
0 by itself equals 1).

The multiplication of integers (including negative numbers), rational numbers (fractions) and real
numbers is defined by a systematic generalization of this basic definition.

Before we get started you need to be aware of what is called “The order of operation”.

There are a few steps to remember before you begin to multiply for instance how the symbols
are presented and decimal positions:

41
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Because the second 2 is in the tenth column 2 x 0 answer also starts in the tenth column. The
position of the decimal place is dependent on the position. You add the position, right to left, and
depending on how many rows to multiply, you simply add them up.

The example shows the decimal point three places to the right on the top row and two places to
the right on the second which is a total of five places to move the decimal over for your final
answer. 137060 becomes 1.37060, a big difference.

Multiplication can also be visualized as counting objects arranged in a rectangle (for whole
numbers) or as finding the area of a rectangle whose sides have given lengths.

The area of a rectangle does not depend on which side is measured first, which illustrates the
commutative property.

In general, multiplying two measurements gives a new type, depending on the measurements.

For instance:

3.5 Meters X 4.5 Meters = 15.75 Square Meters

12 Meters/Sec X 12 Seconds = 144 Meters

The inverse operation of the multiplication is the division.

Multiplication is also defined for other types of numbers, such as complex numbers, and more
abstract constructs, like matrices.

For these more abstract constructs, the order that the operands are multiplied sometimes does
matter.

42
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
 .
In water arithmetic, multiplication is often written using the multiplication sign "×" but is most
common between the terms, as infix notation. See below.

For example,
2x5 (verbally, "TWO times FIVE equals TEN")

3 X 4 =12

2 X 2 X 3 = 12

2 X 3 X 4 X 5 = 120

Multiplication is sometimes denoted by dot signs, either a middle-position dot or a period:

6 . 2 or 6 . 2

In his 1820 book The Philosophy of Arithmetic, mathematician John Leslie published a
multiplication table up to 99 × 99, which allows numbers to be multiplied in pairs of digits at a
time. Leslie also recommended that young pupils memorize the multiplication table up to 25 ×
25.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
2 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40
3 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36 39 42 45 48 51 54 57 60
4 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72 76 80
5 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
6 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72 78 84 90 96 102 108 114 120
7 7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56 63 70 77 84 91 98 105 112 119 126 133 140
8 8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64 72 80 88 96 104 112 120 128 136 144 152 160
9 9 18 27 36 45 54 63 72 81 90 99 108 117 126 135 144 153 162 171 180
10 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200
11 11 22 33 44 55 66 77 88 99 110 121 132 143 154 165 176 187 198 209 220
12 12 24 36 48 60 72 84 96 108 120 132 144 156 168 180 192 204 216 228 240
13 13 26 39 52 65 78 91 104 117 130 143 156 169 182 195 208 221 234 247 260
14 14 28 42 56 70 84 98 112 126 140 154 168 182 196 210 224 238 252 266 280
15 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 165 180 195 210 225 240 255 270 285 300
16 16 32 48 64 80 96 112 128 144 160 176 192 208 224 240 256 272 288 304 320
17 17 34 51 68 85 102 119 136 153 170 187 204 221 238 255 272 289 306 323 340
18 18 36 54 72 90 108 126 144 162 180 198 216 234 252 270 288 306 324 342 360
19 19 38 57 76 95 114 133 152 171 190 209 228 247 266 285 304 323 342 361 380
20 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400

43
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
The traditional rote learning of multiplication was based on memorization of columns in the
table, in a form like

1 × 10 = 10 1 . 10 = 10
2 × 10 = 20
3 × 10 = 30 2 . 10 = 20
4 × 10 = 40 3 . 10 = 30
5 × 10 = 50
6 × 10 = 60 4 . 10 = 40
7 × 10 = 70 5 . 10 = 50
8 × 10 = 80 (6 10) = 60
9 × 10 = 90 (7 × 10) = 70
(8 × 10) = 80
(9 × 10) = 90

In algebra, multiplication involving variables is often written as a juxtaposition (e.g., xy for x

times y or 5x for five times x). This notation can also be used for quantities that are surrounded
by parentheses (e.g., 5(2) or (5)(2) for five times two).

In matrix multiplication, there is actually a distinction between the cross and the dot symbols.
The cross symbol generally denotes a vector multiplication, while the dot denotes a scalar
multiplication. A similar convention distinguishes between the cross product and the dot product
of two vectors.

Basic Rules for Performing Calculations

There are four general rules to remember when performing calculations: We will cover three for
now.

Rule 1: Perform calculations from left to right.

Rule 2: Perform all arithmetic within parentheses prior to arithmetic outside the parentheses

Rule 3: Perform all multiplication and division prior to performing all addition and subtraction.

Related Operations
Arithmetic
Subtraction can be thought of as a kind of addition—that is, the addition of an additive inverse.
Subtraction is itself a sort of inverse to addition, in that adding x and subtracting x are inverse
functions.

Given a set with an addition operation, one cannot always define a corresponding subtraction
operation on that set; the set of natural numbers is a simple example. On the other hand, a
subtraction operation uniquely determines an addition operation, an additive inverse operation,
and an additive identity; for this reason, an additive group can be described as a set that is closed
under subtraction.

44
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Order of Operation Review

Solve the problem below using the order of operation. We will take one step at a time using the
order of operation.

[12 –(3+2) (3-1)] [8+(6-2)] = 24

Step 1: The first order is to solve all brackets in bold in the above. The next order is addition
and then subtraction:

[12 – (5)(2)] Notice that the 5 and 2 or next to each other because of the parentheses? That
means they need to be multiplied according to the order of operation.

Now you are left with:

[12 – 10] this equals [2]

Step 2: Take the next set of brackets and apply the order of operation. This time the number 6
is being subtracted by 2 in the parentheses:

[8+(6-2)]

[8+4] = [12]

What we have left is: [2] [12] = 24!

Sometimes multiplication may have a specific unit attached to it.

For example:

4 men X 3 hours = 12 man-hours

Multiplication can be thought of as repeated addition. If a single term x appears in a sum n
times, then the sum is the product of n and x. If n is not a natural number, the product may still
make sense; for example, multiplication by −1 yields the additive inverse of a number.

45
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
 46
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Multiplication Practice Exercise #1
Practice writing the problem out as with the previous examples. Writing out the problem will help
you when we begin solving problems that relate to our industry.
Answers are provided

A. 15 x 13 =

B. 23.3 x 12.6 =

C. 14.51 x 12.3 =

D. 12.3 x 39.005 =

E. 67.89 x 10.1 =

F. 3.259 x 8.3 =

G. 3.21 x 6.334 =

H. 2.684 x 18.364 x (3 + 2) =

I. (9 + 1) x (4 + 9) =

J. (12 + 2) x 13 =

K. 311÷12 =

47
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
L. 25 ÷ 3 =

M. 250 ÷ 10 =

N. 1 ÷ 3 =

O. 6 ÷ 12 =

For the following numbers, you can use a calculator just make sure you put the number on the
left in first. In the expression a ÷ b = c, a is called the dividend or numerator, b the divisor or
denominator and the result c is called the quotient.

P. 0.67 ÷ 0.7 =

Q. 12.54 ÷ 1.5 =

R. 25 ÷ (10 + 2) =

S. (25 x 10) ÷ 12 =

T. (25 x 10) ÷ (10 + 2) =

48
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Answers
A. 195
B. 293.58
C. 178.473
D. 479.7615 or 479.762
E. 685.689
F. 27.0497
G. 20.33214
H. 246.44488 or 246.445
I. 130
J. 182
K. 25.9167 or 25.917
L. 8.33
M. 25
N. 0.33
O. 0.5
P. 0.957
Q. 8.36
R. 2.083
S. 20.83
T. 20.83

“Rounding up is not always a benefit”

49
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Averages Review Section
Sometimes in our industry the word “Means” is used instead of average, to keep it simple it’s
just about the same meaning. Most of us will know how to find the mathematical average or
mean of a set of numbers.

Average = Sum of Numbers / Quantity of Numbers.

For example, the following chlorine use in pounds was used for each day for a week. What is
the average amount used per day?

Monday 8.2
Tuesday 7.9
Wednesday 6.3
Thursday 6.5
Friday 7.4
Saturday 6.2
Sunday 5.9

Add all the numbers then divide it by the numbers of days:

8.2+7.9+6.3+6.5+7.4+6.2+5.9 = 48.4 / 7 = 6.9

Given the following flow rates, what is the average flow for a 24 hour period?

Time MGD
0:00 1.18
2:00 1.31
4:00 1.25
6:00 1.33
8:00 1.31
10:00 1.22
12:00 1.13
14:00 1.54
16:00 1.69
18:00 1.75
20:00 1.67
22:00 1.22

If you get 1.38 for an answer - congratulations!

50
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
The Figure the Flow Average
Average Daily Discharge = (Q1 + Q2 + Q3 + … QN)
N

Where Q is the flow measured at any given time during the day, and N is the number of times
the flow is measured.

Example
Q1 = 5.3 MGD
Q2 = 5.7 MGD
Q3 = 5.5 MGD
Q4 = 5.1 MGD

Daily Discharge = (5.3 + 5.7 + 5.5 +5.1) = 5.4 MGD

4

Average Weekly Discharge = (Q1 + Q2 + Q3 + … Q7)

N

Where Q is the daily discharge for days that flow is measured, and N is the number of days in
the week (7) that flow is measured.

Average Monthly Discharge = (Q1 + Q2 + Q3 +…Q31)

N

Where Q is the daily discharge for the days that flow is measured, and N is the number of days
in the month that flow is measured.

Basic Rules for Performing Calculations

There are four general rules to remember when performing calculations:
Rule 1: Perform calculations from left to right.

Rule 2: Perform all arithmetic within parentheses prior to arithmetic outside the parentheses.

Rule 3: Perform all multiplication and division prior to performing all addition and subtraction.

Rule 4: For complex division problems follow the previous rules starting with parenthesis. Next
perform all multiplication and division above the line (in the numerator) and below the line (in the
denominator); then proceed with the addition and subtraction. Finally divide the numerator by
the denominator.

51
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
 52
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Division Review Section
Division is the opposite of multiplication. When we multiply we think BIG! When we divide the
number will be getting smaller.

In mathematics, especially in elementary arithmetic, division (÷) is an arithmetic operation.

Specifically, if b times c equals a, written:

a=b×c

where b is not zero, then a divided by b equals c, written:

a÷b=c

For instance,

8÷4=2

since
4×2=8

In the expression a ÷ b = c, a is called the dividend or numerator, b the divisor or

denominator and the result c is called the quotient.

Division can also be written in several ways.

For example:

12 men ÷ 2 hours = 6 man-hours

or
(12 men) / (2 hours)
or
12 men
2 hours

Using the order of operation and putting division in the problem let’s solve for the following:

[(10-3) (7+2)] / [(3)(2)] =

[(7)(9)] / 6

63 divided by 6 = 10.5

53
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Notice the .5, this answer comes from a calculator. If you did this as a written problem, it would
be a remainder of 5. For example:

_10.5
6 ) 63.0
-6
030

6 goes into 6, 1 time, 6-6 = 0. 6 goes into 3 zero times, which leaves three, now we need to add
a zero and a decimal. 6 goes into 30, 5 times.

Teaching division usually leads to the concept of fractions being introduced to school pupils.
Unlike addition, subtraction, and multiplication, the set of all integers is not closed under division.
Dividing two integers may result in a remainder. To complete the division of the remainder, the
number system is extended to include fractions or rational numbers as they are more generally
called.

Notation
Division is often shown in algebra and science by placing the dividend over the divisor with a
horizontal line, also called a vinculum or fraction bar, between them. For example, a divided by
b is written

a
b
This can be read out loud as "a divided by b", "a by b" or "a over b". A way to express division
all on one line is to write the dividend (or numerator), then a slash, then the divisor (or
denominator), like this:

a/b
This is the usual way to specify division in most computer programming languages since it can
easily be typed as a simple sequence of ASCII characters. Some mathematical software, such
as GNU Octave, allows the operands to be written in the reverse order by using the backslash
as the division operator:

b/a
Significant Number
The significant figures of a number are those digits that carry meaning contributing to its
precision. Numbers are often rounded to avoid reporting insignificant figures. Numbers can also
be rounded merely for simplicity rather than to indicate a given precision of measurement, for
example to make them faster to pronounce for water treatment purposed or distribution delivery.

Rounding up
The best rule of thumb is to keep all numbers because they all have a value after the decimal
point, however we usually keep three significant numbers after the decimal point.

54
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
For example:

21.37397 if the fourth number is over 5 round the next number up.

21.374

Division of Integers
Conceptually, division of integers can be viewed in either of two distinct but related ways
quotition and partition:
 Partitioning involves taking a set of size a and forming b groups that are equal in size.
The size of each group formed, c, is the quotient of a and b.

 Quotition, or quotative division (also sometimes spelled quotitive) involves taking a

set of size a and forming groups of size b. The number of groups of this size that can be
formed, c, is the quotient of a and b. (Both divisions give the same result because
multiplication is commutative.)

Basic Rules for Performing Calculations

There are four general rules to remember when performing calculations:

Rule 1: Perform calculations from left to right.

Rule 2: Perform all arithmetic within parentheses prior to arithmetic outside the parentheses

Rule 3: Perform all multiplication and division prior to performing all addition and subtraction.

Rule 4: For complex division problems follow the previous rules starting with parenthesis. Next
perform all multiplication and division above the line (in the numerator) and below the line (in the
denominator); then proceed with the addition and subtraction. Finally divide the numerator by
the denominator.

55
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Division Table
Division by 1 Division by 2 Division by 3 Division by 4 Division by 5
1÷1=1 2÷2=1 3÷3=1 4÷4=1 5÷5=1
2÷1=2 4÷2=2 6÷3=2 8÷4=2 10 ÷ 5 = 2
3÷1=3 6÷2=3 9÷3=3 12 ÷ 4 = 3 15 ÷ 5 = 3
4÷1=4 8÷2=4 12 ÷ 3 = 4 16 ÷ 4 = 4 20 ÷ 5 = 4
5÷1=5 10 ÷ 2 = 5 15 ÷ 3 = 5 20 ÷ 4 = 5 25 ÷ 5 = 5
6÷1=6 12 ÷ 2 = 6 18 ÷ 3 = 6 24 ÷ 4 = 6 30 ÷ 5 = 6
7÷1=7 14 ÷ 2 = 7 21 ÷ 3 = 7 28 ÷ 4 = 7 35 ÷ 5 = 7
8÷1=8 16 ÷ 2 = 8 24 ÷ 3 = 8 32 ÷ 4 = 8 40 ÷ 5 = 8
9÷1=9 18 ÷ 2 = 9 27 ÷ 3 = 9 36 ÷ 4 = 9 45 ÷ 5 = 9
10 ÷ 1 = 10 20 ÷ 2 = 10 30 ÷ 3 = 10 40 ÷ 4 = 10 50 ÷ 5 = 10

Division by 6 Division by 7 Division by 8 Division by 9 Division by 10

6÷6=1 7÷7=1 8÷8=1 9÷9=1 10 ÷ 10 = 1
12 ÷ 6 = 2 14 ÷ 7 = 2 16 ÷ 8 = 2 18 ÷ 9 = 2 20 ÷ 10 = 2
18 ÷ 6 = 3 21 ÷ 7 = 3 24 ÷ 8 = 3 27 ÷ 9 = 3 30 ÷ 10 = 3
24 ÷ 6 = 4 28 ÷ 7 = 4 32 ÷ 8 = 4 36 ÷ 9 = 4 40 ÷ 10 = 4
30 ÷ 6 = 5 35 ÷ 7 = 5 40 ÷ 8 = 5 45 ÷ 9 = 5 50 ÷ 10 = 5
36 ÷ 6 = 6 42 ÷ 7 = 6 48 ÷ 8 = 6 54 ÷ 9 = 6 60 ÷ 10 = 6
42 ÷ 6 = 7 49 ÷ 7 = 7 56 ÷ 8 = 7 63 ÷ 9 = 7 70 ÷ 10 = 7
48 ÷ 6 = 8 56 ÷ 7 = 8 64 ÷ 8 = 8 72 ÷ 9 = 8 80 ÷ 10 = 8
54 ÷ 6 = 9 63 ÷ 7 = 9 72 ÷ 8 = 9 81 ÷ 9 = 9 90 ÷ 10 = 9
60 ÷ 6 = 10 70 ÷ 7 = 10 80 ÷ 8 = 10 90 ÷ 9 = 10 100 ÷ 10 = 10

 Dividing by 0 is not allowed.

 Zero divided by every number results to zero.

56
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Fractions
Keep in mind that a fraction is part or percentage of something whole, like the pizza below.

Division Terms
In the expression a ÷ b = c, a is called the dividend or numerator, b the divisor or
denominator and the result c is called the quotient.

Same Denominator
A common denominator is when two or more fractions have the same denominator, such as the
number 12 above. The denominators must be the same before you can add or subtract the
fractions. You can find a common denominator by trying different multiples of the fractions.

For instance:

2/3 + 1/4 = ?

Because the denominator is uncommon, think of a number that they would both multiply into.

3 in (2/3) will multiply by 4 to equal 12 and 4 in (1/4) will multiply by 3 to also equal 12.

12 is the denominator. But there is one more step. If I multiplied 3 x 4 in (2/3) I need to multiply
4 x 2 = 8 so know my 2/3 is now 8/12 and the same goes for the other fraction.

8/12 + 3/12 = 11/12 as you can see we only add the numerator. To simplify you would do the
same process in finding a denominator, however 11/12 is as simple as it gets.

57
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Subtraction of Fractions
Same concept as adding fractions except you subtract the numerator.

8/12 – 3/12 = 5/12

Improper Fractions

Let’s look at that pizza again.

You can see that three slices are present but one slice is missing. The written fraction of what
is missing can be expressed ¼ or 0.25.

What makes an improper fraction is when the numerator is greater than the denominator.

For example 12/4, if the pizza is cut in four pieces you can’t take twelve slices. What 12/4 really
represents is 12 divided by 4 which give you 3 whole pizzas.

Simplify or Reduce
To reduce a fraction to its lowest terms divide the numerator and denominator by the largest
number that equally divides into both of them.

For example 10/30: 10 = 10 ÷ 10 = 1

30 = 30 ÷ 10 = 3

Note: Dividing or multiplying both the numerator and denominator by the same number does not
change the value of the fraction. It is the equivalent of dividing or multiplying by 1 (one).

For example: 10/10 = 1

With complex fractions, it may not be easy to determine the largest number that equally divides
into both the numerator and denominator. In this case, determine a number (factor) that will
divide evenly into both. Continue this process until it can no longer be performed by a number
larger than one.

For example 256/288:

256 ÷ 2 = 128 ÷ 2 = 64 ÷ 8 = 8
58
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
 288 ÷ 2 = 144 ÷ 2 = 72 ÷ 8 = 9
Final answer, 256/288 is equal to 8/9.

Percentage and Fraction Review

Let's look again at the sequence of numbers 1000, 100, 10, 1, and continue the pattern to get
new terms by dividing previous terms by 10:
.1 = 1/10
.01 = 1/100
.001 = 1/1000

So just as the digits to the left of the decimal represent 1's, 10's, 100's, and so forth, digits to the
right of the decimal point represent 1/10's, 1/100's, 1/1000's, and so forth. Let’s express 5% as a
decimal. 5 ÷ 100 = 0.05 or you can move the decimal point to the left two places.

Changing a fraction to a decimal:

Divide the numerator by the denominator

A. 5/10 (five tenths) = five divided by ten:

.5
-----
10 ) 5.0
50

5/10 (five tenths) = .5 (five tenths).

B. How about 1/2 (one half) or 1 divided by 2 ?

.5
-----
2 ) 1.0
10

1/2 (one half) = .5 (five tenths)

Notice that equivalent fractions convert to the same decimal representation.

8/12 is a good example. 8 ÷ 12 =.66666666 or rounded off to .667

Again, in the expression a ÷ b = c, a is called the dividend or numerator, b the divisor or

denominator and the result c is called the quotient.

59
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Multiplying Fractions
Multiply all numerators together to arrive at a new numerator and multiply all denominators
together to arrive at a new denominator. The example below shows how to multiply and how to
simplify using cross cancellation.

Dividing Fractions

60
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Decimal Section
Another method of representing a fraction is by using decimals of tenths, hundredths, and so
forth. This is a much easier method especially if you use a calculator. Keep in mind a “Fraction of
a Whole” and “What Percent of a Whole” is what we are trying to achieve. If you have a fraction
and want to convert it to a decimal, you should divide the numerator by the denominator.

For example:

15/16 = .9375

Percentages
Expressing a number in percentage is just another way of writing a fraction or decimal. Think of
percentages as parts of 100. In fractions, form the denominator of a percentage is always 100.
To change a fraction to percent, multiply by 100.

Also remember whenever you multiply a whole number with a fraction you must put a 1 below
the whole number so it looks like a fraction.

For example:

1/2 x 100 would be 1/2 x 100/1 = 100/2 = 50%

To change a percent to a fraction, multiply by 1/100%.

For example:

40% x 1/100% = 40%/100% = 4/10 = 2/5

The % / % cancel each other out.

Exponents
Indicates how many times a number is to be multiplied by itself.

For example:

2³ = 2 x 2 x 2 = 8, where 3 is the exponent

4² = 4 x 4 = 16, where 2 is the exponent

You have already used exponents when you solve for squared (x²)

61
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Square Roots
The square root is the reverse operation of exponents. It indicates how many times a number is
to be divided by itself. This is the symbol √.

For example:

√9 = 3 because 3 x 3 = 9

√4 = 2 because 2 x 2 = 4

A square root of a number a is a number y such that y2 = a, in other words, a number y whose
square (the result of multiplying the number by itself, or y × y) is a.

For example, 4 and −4 are square roots of 16 because 42 = (−4)2 = 16.

Every non-negative real number a has a unique non-negative square root, called the principal
square root, which is denoted by √a, where √ is called the radical sign or radix. For example,
the principal square root of 9 is 3, denoted √9 = 3, because 32 = 3 × 3 = 9 and 3 is non-
negative. The term whose root is being considered is known as the radicand. The radicand is
the number or expression underneath the radical sign, in this example 9.

Every positive number a has two square roots: √a, which is positive, and −√a, which is
negative. Together, these two roots are denoted ± √a.

Although the principal square root of a positive number is only one of its two square roots, the
designation "the square root" is often used to refer to the principal square root. For positive a,
the principal square root can also be written in exponent notation, as a1/2.

62
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Decimal Subtraction Exercise Answers are provided.

1 8 . 2 0 7 1 6 0 . 5 1 4 9 . 2
a. − 4 . 5 b. − 3 . 3 1 8 c. − 2 3 . 2 2

2 6 5 . 5 8 2 5 8 . 6 2 5 1 . 7
a. − 5 . 5 9 b. − 2 . 1 6 c. − 3 2 . 3 5
4 3 1

3 8 3 . 4 5 3 7 5 . 8 3 3 7 . 3 5
a. − 6 7 . 3 7 b. − 1 3 . 6 c. − 3 1 . 8

4 6 1 . 7 2 4 8 2 . 8 2 4 6 5 . 5
a. − 3 . 2 2 1 b. − 7 3 . 7 4 c. − 6 1 . 4

5 8 5 . 9 3 5 5 9 1 . 6 6 5 7 9 . 8
a. − 6 . 4 3 1 b. − 5 3 . 1 1 c. − 4 6 . 4 3

63
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Answers 1a. 3.707, 2a. 59.99, 3a. 1608, 4a. 58.499, 5a. 79.504--- 1b. 57.182, 2b. 34.437, 3b. 62.2, 4b.
9.08, 5b. 38.55 -–1c. 25.98, 2c. 19.349, 3c. 5.55, 4c. 4.1, 5c. 33.37

64
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Fractions/Decimals Practice Exercise, Answers are provided
Remember to practice writing the problem out like the previous examples. Writing it out will help
you when we begin solving word problems that relate to our industry.

A. 3/8 + 1/8 =

B. 1/2 + 3/8 =

C. 2/3 + 1/5 =

D. 3/8 – 1/8 =

E. 1/2 – 3/8 =

F. 2/3 – 1/5 =

G. 3/8 x 1/8 =

H. 1/2 x 3/8 =

I. 2/3 x 1/5 =

J. 3/8 / 1/8 =

K. 1/2 / 3/8 =

L. 2/3 / 1/5 =

M. . 3/8 =

N. 1/8 =

O. 1/2 =

65
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
P. 1/5 =

Q. 2² =

R. 33 =

S. 54 =

T. D2 =

U. √9 =

V. √D2 =

Answers
A. 4/8 = 1/2
B. 7/8
C. 13/15
D. 1/4
E. 1/8
F. 7/15
G. 1/16
H. 3/16
I. 2/15
J. 3
K. 1 1/3
L. 3 1/3
M. 0.375
N. 0.125
O. 0.5
P. 0.2
Q. 4
R. 27
S. 625
T. D x D
U. 3
V. D

66
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Units and Water Conversion Factors Review
We use various units in many different applications, especially in water or wastewater treatment.
These are easy to memorize. The key to understanding units is knowing how they are used.
Remember the saying “do not mix apples and oranges”.

Let’s look at time.

Seconds, Minutes, Hours and Days, are common measurements of time. They are all different
meanings and yet they relate to one another. Let’s say we wanted to know how many minutes
are in a day. We could set this up as a fraction:

When we set up the equation as above, the unit we are asking for will always follows the equal
sign.

Remember cross cancellation, this will insure that the problem is set up properly. Understanding
the hierarchy of the unit will indicate whether to multiply, getting a smaller unit to larger unit, or
to divide, getting a larger unit to a smaller unit, for example let’s convert 45 gallons/min to
gallons/day:

Let’s go the opposite direction and convert 64,800 gal/day to gal/min:

67
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Water Pressure
Water pressure is measured in terms of pounds per square inch (psi) and feet of head (height of
a water column in feet). A column of water 2.31 feet high creates a pressure of 1 psi. The water
pressure at the bottom of a storage tank can be used to determine the water level in the tank.
Centrifugal pumps are rated in feet of Total Dynamic Head (TDH) but system pressures are
measured in psi. All water system operators must be able to convert from one pressure unit to
the other.

If the pressure (psi) is known, The height of the water column can be determined by multiplying
the psi by 2.31.
psi X 2.31 = Feet of Head

Example:
1. A pressure gauge at the bottom of a storage tank reads 30 psi. What is the water level in
the tank?

Convert psi to feet of head

30 psi x 2.31 = 69.3 feet of water above the gauge

If the height of a column of water is known, the pressure it exerts can be determined by dividing
the feet of head by 2.31.

Feet of Head = psi

2.31

Example:
2. The reservoir level is 115 feet above the pump discharge. What is the discharge pressure
on the pump?

Convert feet of head to psi.

115 feet = 49.8 psi
2.31

Some units may seem unconvertible, for instance converting gallons to cubic feet, conversion
factors allow us to do this. Below are some common ones used in the water and wastewater
industry:

1 foot = 12 inches 1 minute = 60 seconds cfs = cubic feet per second

1 inch = 2.54 centimeters 1 hour = 60 minutes gpm = gallons per minute
1 gallon = 8 pints 1 day = 86,400 seconds gpd = gallon per day
1 gallon = 8.34 pounds 1 day = 1,440 minutes MGD = million gallons per day
1 gallon = 3.785 liters 1 day = 24 hours mg/L = milligrams per liter
1 liter = 1,000 milliliters 1 % = 10,000 ppm ppm = parts per million
1 cubic foot = 7.48 gallons 1 mg/L = 1 ppm psi = pounds per square inch
1 cfs = 448 gpm 1 cubic foot = 62.38 pounds fps = feet per second
1 gpm = 1,440 gpd 1 cubic yard = 27 cubic feet cu ft = ft3 = cubic feet
1 MGD = 1.55 cfs 1 gallon = 8 pints sq ft = ft2 = square feet
1 psi = 2.31 feet 1 MGD = 694.4 gpm gpg = grains per gallon
1 foot = 0.433 psi 1 grain per gallon = 17.12 mg/L π pi (pie) = 3.4

68
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Conversion Exercise Answers are provided

Let’s give it a try, remember to practice writing the problem out like the previous examples. This
will help you when we begin solving problems that relate to our industry.

A. 87 seconds to minutes:

Hint: 87seconds 1 minute

1 60 seconds

B. 1045 seconds to minutes:

C. 24 minutes to seconds:

D. 15 minutes to seconds:

E. 109 minutes to hours

F. 44 minutes to hours

G. 2.8 hours to minutes

H. 0.5 hours to minutes

I. 13 hours to days

J. 45 hours to days

K. 0.5 days to hours

L. 3 days to hours

M. 2 days to min

N. 452 min to days

69
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
O. 250 gpm to MGD

P. 600 gpm to MGD

Q. 120 gpm to MGD

R. 0.25 MGD to gpm

S. 1.3 MGD to gpm

T. 0.12 MGD to gpm

Convert the following:

U. 1500 cuft to gal

V. 5 cuft to gal

W. 500 cuft to gal

X. 100 gal to cuft

Y. 2500 gal to cuft

Z. 45 gal to cuft

Z1. 2.5 gal to lbs

Z2. 20 gal to lbs

Z3. 110 gal to lbs

Z4. 24 lbs to gal

70
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Z5. 53 lbs to gal

Z6. 150 lbs to gal

Z7. 20 psi to ft

Z8. 100 psi to ft

Z9. 75 psi to ft

Z10. 100 ft to psi

Z11. 50 ft to psi

Z12. 500 ft to psi

Z13. 90 cu.ft. to lbs

Z14. 150 lbs to cu.ft.

71
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Answers
A. 1.5 min
B. 17.4 min
C. 1440 sec
D. 900 sec
E. 1.8 hr
F. 0.7 hr
G. 168 min
H. 30 min
I. 0.5 day
J. 1.9 day
K. 12 hr
L. 72 hr
M. 2880 min
N. 0.3 day
O. 0.4 MGD
P. 0.9 MGD
Q. 0.2 MGD
R. 174 gpm
S. 903 gpm
T. 83 gpm
U. 11,220 gal
V. 37 gal
W. 3,740 gal
X. 13 cu.ft.
Y. 334 cu.ft.
Z. 6 cu.ft.
Z1. 21 lbs
Z2. 167 lbs
Z3. 917 lbs
Z4. 3 gal
Z5. 6 gal
Z6. 18 gal
Z7. 46 ft
Z8. 231 ft
Z9. 173 ft
Z10. 43 psi
Z11. 22 psi
Z12. 216 psi
Z13. 5614 lbs
Z14. 2 cu.ft.

72
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Temperature Conversion Exercise
In water, there are two commonly measurement or scales for temperature, Fahrenheit (°F) and
Celsius (°C) (centigrade).

Formulas used to solve for Temperature:

Fahrenheit (°F) = (1.8 x °C) + 32

Celsius (°C) = 0.56 x (°F – 32)

Let’s give it a try, remember to practice writing the problem out like the
previous examples. This will help you when we begin solving problems that
relate to our industry.

Convert the following temperatures from Fahrenheit to Celsius.

1. 32°F

2. 70°F

3. 50°F

4. 85°F

5. 43.7°F

Convert the following temperatures from Celsius to Fahrenheit.

6. 32°C

7. 0°C

8. 10°C

9. 17°C

10. 23.4°C

73
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Temperature Answers
1. 0
2. 21
3. 10
4. 30
5. 6.6
6. 89.6
7. 32
8. 50
9. 62.6
10. 74.1

74
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Understanding and Solving Water Related Word Problems
1. Read the problem and use scratch paper:

a. Underline the given information.

b. Circle what is being asked for.

c. Draw a picture or diagram and label with the given information.

2. Stop and think about what is being asked for:

a. Look at the units; many times the units of the item being asked for will tell you how to
do the problem.

b. Do not go on until you understand what is being asked and you know how to proceed.

3. Select the proper formula:

b. Treat the formula like a recipe. The word problem would be the ingredients needed. If
the recipe does not match the ingredients, most likely it’s the incorrect formula or you
have not converted apples to apples.

a. Write down the formula and then start writing down the various information given to
you. If you do not have enough information to fill in all but one unit in the formula, you
probably have the wrong formula for the problem.

4. Solve the formula.

5. Ask if the answer is reasonable:

a. If it is not, you should go back and check your work or possibly you are not using the
correct formula.

b. Visually compare what is on paper with what is out in the field.

75
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Linear Measurement Review
Linear measurements determine the length or distance along a line or curve, and are generally
expressed in English units (inches, feet, yards, and miles) or metric units (centimeters, meters,
and kilometers). We will cover the metric system, see table of contents.

How many yards in a football field?

How many feet in a football field?

How many cubic feet in a football field?

Perimeter
These measurements of distance are used to
determine lengths, perimeters of shapes, diameters of circles, and circumferences of circles.
Perimeters of shapes that are made up of straight lines are determined by adding the length of
each side. It can be found using the formula:

Perimeter = length1 + length2 + length3 etc…

Perimeter calculations can be used to determine how many linear feet of pipe will be necessary
for a specific design or how much wire will be needed to fence off an area.

76
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Circle and Circumference Review
Linear measurements are also used to determine the distance around, half way and across a
circle. The terms used are circumference, radius and diameter. The diagram below shows how
those terms apply to a circle:

We use the linear measurements as followed:

The circumference of a circle is the distance around the circle and is always equal to 3.14 times
the length of the diameter. The special relationship between the diameter and circumference
generates a constant number named pi (pronounced pie) and is designated by the Greek symbol
( π ), which = 3.14. If you know the diameter of a circle you can always calculate the circumference
using the formula:

C = π x D where: C = Circumference, D = Diameter and π = 3.14

The diameter of a circle is the length of a straight line that crosses the center of the circle from
one edge of the circle to another. It is twice the length of the radius. It can be determined by the
formula:

D = 2r where: D = Diameter and r = radius

The radius of a circle is the distance from the center of the circle to the edge of the circle. It can
be determined by the formula:

r = D divided by 2 where: r = radius and D = Diameter

77
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Area Review
The term for an area unit measurement is normally in inches, feet and yards. The area
measurement of a flat surface is the number of square units it contains. This is most helpful when
we are tiling a floor and we need to know the total surface area of a room. We also refer to this
measurement as square units. Area is equal to the length times the width. The diagram below
shows that a 12 inch ruler is equal to one foot.

Using the formula for the Area of a Rectangle: A = L x W we can take 1 ft x 1 ft which equals 1
square foot or we can use inches which would be 12 inches x 12 inches equals 144 square feet.

Area of a Circle
The area of a circle is found by squaring the diameter. By doing this operation the units will
become squared and at that point the units are right for finding area. When you work an area
problem you multiply the square of the diameter times 0.785. The formula for the area of a circle
can be written as:

Circle Area = 0.785 x D2

In case you didn’t know the number 0.785 is when you take pi (3.14) and divide it by 4 (4
quadrants of a circle).

You can also use the formula:

Circle Area = pi (3.14) x r2

78
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Important Reminder
Don’t be caught making the mistake of mixing inches and feet. For example how many sq.
inches are in an area 5 inches x 12 feet?

Would we calculate it like this, 5 x 12 = 60 or 5 inches x 144 inches (the number of inches in 12
ft) = 720 sq. inches.

Let’s give it a try, remember to practice writing the problem out like the previous examples. This
will help you when we begin solving problems that relate to our industry.
Answers are provided

A. What is the area of a filter that is 8 ft by 12 ft?

B. What is the area of a clearwell that has a width of 25 ft and a length of 80 ft?

C. What is the area of the tank that is 10 ft long and 10 ft wide?

D. A tank has a diameter of 100 ft. What is the area?

E. What is the area of a clarifier with a diameter of 30 feet?

F. What is the area of a tank with a radius of 20 ft?

G. What is the circumference of a circle if the diameter is 20 ft?

H. What is the circumference of a circle if the radius is 15 ft?

79
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
I. What is area of a clarifier that is 15 ft across?

J. What is the area of a pipe in feet that has a 12 inch diameter?

Before we continue to solve more problems let’s take a look at cubic feet or x3. Cubic gives us
the volume of a shape. It’s the walls and floor in your house. For our industry it’s clarifiers,
reservoirs, tanks and pipes.

K. A tank is 10 ft long, 10 ft wide, with a depth of 5 ft. What is the volume of the tank?

L. What is the volume of a sedimentation basin that is 12 ft long, 6 ft wide and 10 ft deep?

80
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
After you build your tank, you’ll need to fill it! To put water in our tank we multiply the conversion
factors, to drain it we divide the conversion factors and you’ll have the cubic measurements.
Placing water in the tank, the numbers will increase, while removing water, the number decreases.

M. What is the capacity of a tank in gallons with the following dimensions, 12 ft by 10 ft by 8 ft?

N. A tank is 25 ft wide, 75 feet long and has a water depth of 10 ft. How many gallons of water
are in the tank?

O. A clarifier has a diameter of 50 ft. If the depth of the water is 15 ft, what is the volume?

P. What is the volume of a piece of pipe that is 2000 ft long and has a diameter of 18 inches?

Q. What is the perimeter of a water plant with the following dimensions: 100 ft, 250 ft, 300 ft,
500 ft, and 220 ft?

R. Your system has just installed 2, 000 feet of 8” line. How many gallons of water will it take to
fill this line?

S. Your finished water storage tank is 35’ in diameter and 65’ high. With no water entering it the
level dropped 4’ in 5 hours. How many gallons of water were used in this period?

T. If a clarifier has a diameter of 68 feet, and a height of 86 feet, what is the surface area of the
water within the clarifier?

81
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Answers
A. 96 sq ft
B. 2,000 sq ft
C. 100 sq ft
D. 7,850 sq ft
E. 706.5 sq ft
F. 1,256 sq ft
G. 62.8 ft
H. 94.2 ft
I. 176.625 sq ft
J. .785 sq ft
K. 500 cu ft
L. 720 cu ft
M. 960 cu ft
N. 140,250 gal
O. 29,438 cu ft
P. 3,533 cu ft
Q. 1,370 ft
R. 5,272 gal
S. 28,772 gal
T. 3,630 sq ft

82
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Velocity Review Section
Velocity is the measurement of speed at which something like water is moving. It is expressed
by the distance traveled in a specific amount of time. Velocity can be expressed in any unit of
distance per any unit of time for example, inch/second, feet/ minute, yard/day.

In the water and wastewater industry, velocity plays a key role when it is applied to friction loss
or solids settling in a pipe. If you want to calculate the velocity you need to know the distance
traveled and length of time that it took to cover the given distance.

The following formula is used to calculate the velocity.

Velocity = Distance
Time

The following problem is an example of how the above formula is used:

A stick in a grit channel travels 26 feet in 32 seconds. What is the estimated velocity in the
channel in feet/sec.?

Distance: 26 feet

Time: 32 seconds

Divide: 26 ft / 32 sec = .813 ft/sec

Sometimes the equation will give the units in unlike terms, for example:

A stick placed in a grit channel flows 36 feet in 3 minutes. What is the estimated velocity in the
channel in feet/sec.?

Notice that the problem gave you minutes and they want the answer to be in seconds?

This is when you need to convert minutes to seconds before you plug your numbers into the
formula. This is how you would do it:

3 min x 60 sec = 180 sec

83
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
The next step would be to plug the numbers into the formula:

Distance: 36 feet

Time: 180 sec

Divide: 36 ft / 180 sec = .2 ft/sec

In a sewer system, velocity is recommended to be 2 ft/sec so that the solids will not settle out
and cause backups. Collection operators often use dye test to determine how quickly the flow is
running.

84
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Flow Review
Velocity is measured using the linear distance and time as shown in the illustration below.

Flow is a function of the velocity of water at a given point multiplied by the cross sectional area
of the pipe or channel. The outcome is a volume measurement in time. In the water and
wastewater industry, we use the terms cfs (cubic feet per second), cfm (cubic feet per minute),
or cfd (cubic feet per day).

Water is introduced in the formula by multiplying the “Q” conversion factor 7.48 gal/cu.ft. The
terms gps (gallons per second), gpm (gallons per minute), or gpd (gallons per day).
The illustration below shows the formula for a channel.

85
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Water and wastewater facilities express the flow to a plant in the expression MGD, (million
gallons per day). Let’s look at a few examples of flow problems that convert gps to MGD.

Example 1
Let’s calculate the flow in gallons per second by using the formula in the illustration below along
with the given measurements.

The answer represents gps.

How would you convert gallons per second to gallons per minute?

Convert 179.52 gps to gpm and write the answer in the space provided below. Using the
example above convert gpm to gpd.

Answer: 15,510,582 gal/day.

86
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Now convert 15,510,582 gal/day to MGD.

1 MG = 1,000,000 Gallons
24 Hour Fill time

Significant Number Reminder

The significant figures of a number are those digits that carry meaning contributing to its
precision.

Numbers are often rounded to avoid reporting insignificant figures. For example, it would create
false precision to express a measurement as 12.34500 kg (which has seven significant figures)
if the scales only measured to the nearest gram and gave a reading of 12.345 kg (which has
five significant figures).

Numbers can also be rounded merely for simplicity rather than to indicate a given precision of
measurement, for example to make them faster to pronounce for water treatment purposed or
distribution delivery.

87
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Sedimentation Tanks and Clarifiers Formulas

Detention Time, hr = (Tank Volume, cu ft) (7.48 gal/cu ft) (24 hrs/day)
Flow, gal/day

Surface Loading, GPD/sq ft = Flow, GPD

Surface Area, sq ft

Weir Overflow, GPD/ft = Flow, GPD

Length of Weir, ft

Solids Applied, lbs/day = (Flow, MGD) (Solids, mg/l) (8.34 lbs/gal)

Solids Loading, lbs/day/sq ft = Solids Applied, lbs/day

Surface Area, sq ft

Trickling Filters (TF) and Rotating Biological Contactors (RBC)

Hydraulic Loading, GPD/sq ft = Flow, GPD
Surface Area, sq ft

BOD5 Applied (TF), lbs/day = (Flow, MGD) (BOD5, mg/l) (8.34 lbs/gal)

Organic Loading (TF), lbs BOD5/day/1000 cu ft = BOD5 Applied, lbs/day

Volume of Media, 1000 cu ft

Soluble BOD Applied (RBC), lbs/day = (Flow, MGD) (Soluble BOD5, mg/l) (8.34 lbs/gal)

Organics Loading (RBC) lbs BOD5/day/1,000 sq ft = Soluble BOD5 Applied, lbs/day

Surface Area of Media, 1,000 sq ft

88
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Detention Time Verses Retention Time
The use of detention time in water treatment generally refers to the length of time it takes water
or wastewater to fill a basin or clarifier. Detention time is also a measurement of the time that
water spends in a sedimentation tank. This is also thought of as the average length of time
water or a suspended particles remains in a tank.

Retention time is the amount of time a substance or bug stays in a basin. Retention time is
used during the biological process in wastewater and is commonly called Solids Retention Time,
SRT. Increased retention time creates a larger active area improving efficiency and reducing
the Total Suspended Solids (TSS).

The formula for Detention Time: Volume

Flow

The key to solving any problem is to make sure that the math terms relate and that you
understand them.

The formula uses volume, this indicates that you will need to build a vessel that is either circular,
rectangular or it may have the shape of a cone. You’ll need to convert the cubic measurement
into gallons and then divide by flow which is typically presented in gallons per a certain time unit
like in hours. Detention time can be in seconds, minutes, hours or days.

Detention has to do with flow and Retention has to do with time.

For example:

A rectangular basin 12 feet long and 9 feet wide and 6 feet deep. It treats a flow of 90,000
gallons per day. Determine the detention time in hours.

1. Determine tank volume in gallons.

Volume = (length)(width)(depth)

(12 ft)(9 ft)(6 ft)

Volume = 648 ft3

2. To convert from cubic feet to gallons multiply by 7.48. The formula sheet shows that there are
7.48 gallons in 1 cubic foot.

648 ft3 X 7.48 gal/ ft3 = 4,847 gallons

89
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
3. Calculate the resulting detention time in hours using the formula stated above.

,
= 0.054 day
, /

0.054 = 1.3 hours

Detention time can be in seconds, minutes, hours or days. Just remember to convert. Make
sure that the volume in gallons matches the flow units. For instance if the previous example
gave you the flow as .090 MGD you would have converted it to 90,000 gallon to match the
volume that is in gallons.

Let’s give it a try, remember to practice writing the problem out like the previous examples. This
will help you when we begin solving problems that relate to our industry.
Answers not provided

1. Find the detention time of a tank that measures 50 feet long, 30 feet wide and 10 feet deep
with a flow to the tank of 1500 gpm?

2. The flow to a tank that is 50 ft long, 30 ft wide and 10 ft deep is 0.32 MGD. What is the
detention time in hours?

3. Find the detention time, in days, of a tank with a diameter of 100 ft and a water depth of 60
feet when the inflow is 1000 gpm?

4. Find the detention time, in days, of a tank with a diameter of 100 ft and a water depth of 60
feet, when it starts full and is discharging 2500 gpm and has an inflow of 1500 gpm?

90
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
5. Find the detention time, in days, of a tank with a diameter of 100 ft and a water depth of 60
feet, when it starts 1/2 full and is discharging 2500 gpm and has an inflow of 1500 gpm?

6. A channel 3 ft wide has water flowing to a depth of 2.5 ft. If the velocity through the channel is
2 fps, what is the cfs flow rate through the channel?

7. The flow through a 6 inch diameter pipeline is moving at a velocity of 300 ft/sec. What is the
cfs flow rate through the pipeline?

8. If a pipe has a 1-ft diameter, what is the velocity of the water if the pipe is carrying 2ft3/sec?

9. A sedimentation tank holds 80,000 gallons and the flow into the plant is 855 gpm. What is the
detention time in minutes?

10. What is the detention time in a sedimentation basin 80 ft long, 20 ft wide and 10 ft high if the
rate of flow is 5800 gal/min?

91
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Chemical Feeder Setting Formulas
Chemical Dose, lbs/day = (Flow, MGD) (Dose, mg/lL (8.34 lbs/gal)

Chemical Feeder Setting, ml/min =

(Flow, MGD) (Chemical Dose, mg/l) (3.875 l/gal) (1,000,000/M)
(Liquid Chemical, mg/l) (24 hr/day) (60 min/hr)

Chemical Feeder Settling, gal/day = (Flow, MGD) (Chemical Dose, mg/l) (8.34 lbs/day)
Liquid Chemical, lbs/gal

Liquid Feed Pump Calibration Formulas

Chemical Feed, lbs/day =
(Chemical Conc., mg/L) (Volume Pumped, mL) (60 min/hr) (24 hr/day)
(Time Pumped, min) (1,000, mL/L) (1,000, mL/mg) (454 gm/lb)

Chemical Feed, GPM = Chemical Used, gal

(Time, hr) (60 min/hr)

Chemical Feed, GPM = (Chemical Feed Rate, mL/sec) (60 sec/min)

3.875 mL/gal

Chemical Solution, gal = (Chemical Solution, %) (8.34 lbs/gal)

100 %

Feed Pump, GPD = Chemical Feed, lbs/day

Chemical Solution, lbs/gal

Feeder Setting, % = (Desired Feed Pump, GPD) (100 %)

Maximum Feed Pump, GPD

92
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Chemical and Chlorine Dosing Review
The water operator needs to understand the importance of calculating the proper amount of
chemical like chlorine or alum that we add to the water or wastewater. This unit may be expressed
as either parts per million (ppm) or milligrams per liter (mg/L). They are considered to be equal. 1
ppm = 1 mg/L

The above calculation helps determine the number of pounds of chemical or solids in water or
wastewater. The flow is simply converted to million pounds of water. The loadings are calculated
by multiplying the following; the flow expressed in MGD, the weight of one gallon of water (8.34
lbs/gal), and the amount of chemical being added in parts per million or milligrams per liter. When
using the chemical dosing formula, we assume the concentration of the chemical is 100%. Very
rarely is a chemical 100 percent pure except for Chlorine gas. When chemicals are added, we
typically use a simple measuring device called a rotometer as shown below.

The photo above on the right is a chlorinator and on the left is a rotometer close-up shown with
numbering representing pounds of chlorine fed.

Calculating Chemical Feed

Formula: Chemical Feed (lbs/day) = Dose (mg/L) x Flow (MGD) x (8.34 lbs/gal)

Example: How many pounds of chlorine must be added to 2 MGD if the dose is 1.5 mg/L?

Note: The flow is generally represented in millions or “Millionth”, this is very important in how it
relates to mg/l or parts per million. If you had to treat 1 gallon of water using this chemical feed
formula you would have to convert it to .000001 MG. To understand this in dollars, if you had 1
dollar, you can say you have .000001 million dollars.

93
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
 Chemical Feed (lbs/day) = Dose (mg/L) x Flow (MGD) x (8.34 lbs/gal)
(1.5 ppm) x (2 MGD) x (8.34 lbs/gal)
= 25.02 lbs/day

There are many chemicals used in the operation of water and wastewater systems that contain
a chemical combination or an active percentage. One example is calcium hypochlorite (HTH),
which is commonly 65 percent available chlorine and sodium hypochlorite (bleach) which is 12.5
percent chlorine.

HTH is a solid form of chlorine while bleach is a liquid. When using bleach, we feed it in gallons
per day and because it is not 100% so we need to make up the difference. The formula to feed
gallons of chemical that is less than 100% is as followed:

Formula:

Chemical Feed (gallons/day) = Dose (mg/L) x Flow (MGD)

%purity (as a decimal)

Notice that 8.34 lbs/gal are not being used. The feed rate is in gallons, no need to convert it to
pounds.

Example: How many gallons of 12.5 % bleach would be required if the dose is 30 ppm and the
storage tank hold 25,000 gallons?

Chemical Feed (lbs/day) = Dose (mg/L) x Flow (MGD)

% purity (as a decimal)

= (30 ppm) x (.025 MGD)

= .75 gallons/day
= .75 gallons/day ÷ .125
= 6 gallons/day

94
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Calculating Dose
To calculate dose, you must simply re-arrange the previous formula for calculating chemical
feed. See formula below.

Formula: Dose (mg/L) = Chemical Feed (lbs/day) x Flow (MGD) X (8.34 lbs/gal)

Example: A 0.52 MGD system is feeding chlorine at a rate of 12 lbs/day. What will be the
resulting chlorine dose?
Dose (mg/L) = Chemical Feed (lbs/day)
Flow (MGD) X (8.34 lbs/gal)

= 12 lbs/day

(0.52 MGD)(8.34 lbs/day)

= 2.76 mg/L

Calculating Flow
To calculate flow, you also re-arrange the chemical feed formula. See formula below.

Formula: Flow (MGD) = Chemical Feed (lbs/day) X Dose (mg/L) X (8.34 lbs/gal)

Example: What would the calculated flow be with a feed rate of 15 pounds per day and a
chlorine dose of 1.2 mg/L?

Flow (MGD) = Chemical Feed (lbs/day)

Dose (mg/L) X (8.34 lbs/gal)

= 15 lbs/day

(1.2 mg/L)(8.34 lbs/day)

= 1.5 MGD

95
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
 96
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Chlorine Demand
The formula for chlorine dosage is equal to the chlorine demand plus the residual.

Formula: Dose (mg/L) = Demand (mg/L) + Residual (mg/L)

Example: What is the chlorine dose, if the chlorine demand is 4.8 mg/L and the chlorine
residual
is 2 mg/L?

Dose (mg/L) = Demand (mg/L) + Residual (mg/L)

= 4.8 mg/L + 2 mg/L

= 6.8 mg/L

Example: What is the chlorine demand in milligrams per liter if the chlorine dose is 3.2 mg/L
and the residual is 0.3 mg/L?

Demand (mg/L) = Dose (mg/L) – Residual (mg/L)

= 3.2 mg/L - 0.3 mg/L

= 2.9 mg/L

Example: What is the chlorine residual, if the chlorine demand is 1.8 mg/L and the chlorine
dose is 10 mg/L?

Residual (mg/L) = Dose (mg/L) – Demand (mg/L)

= 10 mg/L – 1.8 mg/L

= 8.2 mg/L

97
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
 98
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Chemical Dosing Exercises, Answers not provided
1. Determine the chlorinator setting (lbs/day) needed to treat a flow of 3 MGD with a chlorine
dose of 4 mg/L.

2. Determine the chlorinator setting (lbs/day) if a flow of 3.8 MGD is to be treated with a chlorine
dose of 2.7 mg/L.

3. A jar test indicates that the best dry alum dose is 12 mg/L. If a flow is 3.5 MGD, what is the
desired alum feed rate?

4. The chlorine feed rate at a plant is 175 lbs/day. If the flow is 2,450,000 gpd, what is the
dosage in mg/L?

5. A total chlorine dosage of 12 mg/L is required to treat particular water. If a flow 1.2 MGD and
the hypochlorite has 65% available chlorine how many lbs/day of hypochlorite will be required?

6. A flow of 800,000 gpd requires a chlorine dose of 9 mg/L. If chlorinated lime (34% available
chlorine) is to be used, how many lbs/day of chlorinated lime will be required?

99
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
7. Determine the flow when 45 lbs of chlorine results in a chlorine dose of 1.7 mg/L.

8. A pipeline 10 inches in diameter and 900 ft long is to be treated with a chorine dose of 50
mg/L. How many lbs of chlorine will this require?

9. The flow meter reading at 8 am on Wednesday was 18,762,102 gal and at 8 am on Thursday
was 19,414,522 gal. If the chlorinator setting is 15 lbs for this 24 hour period, what is the
chlorine dosage in mg/L?

10. To disinfect an 8-inch diameter water main 400 feet long, an initial chlorine dose of 400
mg/L is expected to maintain a chlorine residual of over 300 mg/L during a three hour
disinfection period. How many gallons of 5.25 percent sodium hypochlorite solution is needed?

100
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Chemical Demand Exercises, Answers not provided
1. What is the chlorine demand in mg/L, if the chlorine dose is 3.2 mg/L and the chlorine
residual is 0.3 mg/L?

2. What is the chlorine residual, if the chlorine demand is 1.8 mg/L and the chlorine dose is 10
mg/L?

3. What is the chlorine dose, if the chlorine demand is 4.8 mg/L and the chlorine residual is 2
mg/L?

4. The chlorine demand is 7 mg/L and the chlorine residual is 0.2 mg/L. What is the chlorine
dose?

5. The chlorine dose is 5 mg/L and the chlorine demand is 2.7 mg/L. What is the chlorine
residual?

6. The chlorine dose is 12 mg/L and the chlorine residual is 1.5 mg/L. What is the chlorine
demand?

101
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
7. What is the chlorine demand in mg/L, if the chlorine dose is 5.2 mg/L and the chlorine
residual is 0.3 mg/L?

8. If an operator feeds a chlorine dosage of 1.8 mg/L and the system has a chlorine demand of
1.3 mg/L, what would the final chlorine residual be?

9. What is the chlorine residual, if the chlorine demand is 2.3 mg/L and the chlorine dose is 3.4
mg/L?

10. What is the chlorine demand if the chlorine residual is 1.2 mg/L and 4.7 mg/L of chlorine has
been added?

102
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Electrical Math Review Section
Ohm found that in an electric circuit that the current through a conductor between two points is
directly proportional to the potential difference across the two points. Introducing the constant of
proportionality, the resistance, one arrives at the usual mathematical equation that describes
this relationship:

Where I is the current through the conductor in units of amperes, V is the potential difference
measured across the conductor in units of volts, and R is the resistance of the conductor in units
of ohms. More specifically, Ohm's law states that the R in this relation is constant, independent
of the current.

Or also expressed as

103
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
V comes from "voltage" and E from "electromotive force". E means also energy, so V is chosen.

Energy = voltage × charge. E = V × Q. Some like better to stick to E instead to V, so do it.

Voltage V = I × R = P / I = √(P × R) in volts V Current I = V / R = P / V = √(P / R) in

amperes A

Resistance R = V / I = P / I2 = V2 / P in ohms Ω Power P = V × I = R × I2 = V2 / R in watts W

104
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Memory wheels provide an easy way to remember the relationship in Ohm’s Law. If you cover
the V (E is sometimes used for EMF, electrical motive force), the wheel tells you that “V”
(voltage) is equal to “I” (current or amperage) multiplied by “R” (resistance).

By covering I or R you would divide by V, for example:

I=V÷R
R=V÷I
V=IxR

Solve the following problems using Ohm’s Law. Some of the answers will have decimal points.

105
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
 106
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Voltage Practice Exercise

1. What is the voltage for the above? ____

2. What is the voltage for the above? ____

107
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
3. What is the voltage for the above? ____

4. How much current will the load draw? ____

108
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
5. How much current will the load draw? ____

6. How much current will the load draw? ____

109
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
7. What is the resistance of this load? ____

8. What is the resistance of this load? ____

110
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
9. What is the resistance of this load? ____

111
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Answers for Practice Exercise 1-9
1. 2 I X 15 R = 30 V
2. 3 I x 30 R = 90 V
3. 3 I x 10 R = 30 V
4. 20 V ÷ 2 R = 10 I (amps)
5. 12 V ÷ 5 R = 2.4 I (amps)
6. 9 V ÷ 3 R = 3 I (amps)
7. 12 V ÷ 3 I = 4 R
8. 9 V ÷ 5 I = 1.8 R
9. 12 V ÷ 10 I = 1.2 R

112
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Operator Math Practice Section
Diagrams are provided to help you visualize or figure the solution.

Cube Formula
V= (L) (W) (D)
Volume= Length X Width X Depth

Cylinder Formula
V= (.785) (D2) (d)

113
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Math Conversion Factors
1 PSI = 2.31 Feet of Water LENGTH
1 Foot of Water = .433 PSI 12 Inches = 1 Foot
1.13 Feet of Water = 1 Inch of Mercury 3 Feet = 1 Yard
454 Grams = 1 Pound 5,280 Feet = 1 Mile
2.54 CM =Inch
1 Gallon of Water = 8.34 Pounds AREA
1 mg/L = 1 PPM 144 Square Inches = 1 Square Foot
17.1 mg/L = 1 Grain/Gallon 43,560 Square Feet = 1 Acre
1% = 10,000 mg/L VOLUME
694 Gallons per Minute = MGD 1000 Milliliters = 1 Liter
1.55 Cubic Feet per Second = 1 MGD 3.785 Liters = 1 Gallon
60 Seconds = 1 Minute 231 Cubic Inches = 1 Gallon
1440 Minutes = 1 Day 7.48 Gallons = 1 Cubic Foot of Water
.746 kW = 1 Horsepower 62.38 Pounds = 1 Cubic Foot of Water

Dimensions

SQUARE: Area (sq.ft.) = Length X Width

Volume (cu.ft.) = Length (ft) X Width (ft) X Height (ft)

CIRCLE: Area (sq.ft.) = 3.14 X Radius (ft) X Radius (ft)

CYLINDER: Volume (Cu. Ft.) = 3.14 X Radius (ft) X Radius (ft) X Depth (ft)

PIPE VOLUME: .785 X Diameter 2 X Length = ? To obtain gallons multiply by 7.48

SPHERE: (3.14) (Diameter)3 Circumference = 3.14 X Diameter

(6)

General Conversions
Flowrate
Multiply —> to get
to get <— Divide
cc/min 1 mL/min
cfm (ft3/min) 28.31 L/min
cfm (ft3/min) 1.699 m3/hr
cfh (ft3/hr) 472 mL/min
cfh (ft3/hr) 0.125 GPM
GPH 63.1 mL/min
GPH 0.134 cfh
GPM 0.227 m3/hr
GPM 3.785 L/min
oz/min 29.57 mL/min

114
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Water Pumping Math Section

115
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
 116
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
 117
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
 118
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Build it, Fill it and Dose it.

1. Convert 10 cubic feet to gallons of water.

There is 7.48 gallons in one cubic foot.

Diagrams are provided to help you visualize or figure the solution.

119
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
 120
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
2. The liquid in a tank weighs 800 pounds, how many gallons are in the tank?
.

Practice Questions, no answers provided

A1. Convert 75 cubic feet to gallons of water.

B1. The liquid in a tank weighs 50 pounds, how many gallons are in the tank?

121
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
3. Convert a flow rate of 953 gallons per minute to million gallons per day.
There is 1440 minutes in a day.

4. Convert a flow rate of 610 gallons per minute to millions of gallons per day.

1 MG = 1,000,000 Gallons
24 Hour Fill time

122
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Practice Questions, no answers provided
A2. Convert a flow rate of 14,750 gallons per minute to million gallons per day.

B2. Convert a flow rate of 5880 gallons per minute to millions of gallons per day.

123
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
5. Convert a flow of 550 gallons per minute to gallons per second.

6. Now, convert this number to liters per second.

124
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
7. A tank is 6’ X 15’ x 7’ and can hold a maximum of ____________ gallons of water.

V= (L) (W) (D) X 7.48 =

8. A tank is 25’ X 75’ X 10’ what is the volume of water in gallons?

V= (L) (W) (D) X 7.48 =

125
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
9. In Liters?
V= (L) (W) (D) X 7.48 =_________ X 3.785

Metric information is found in the front of the manual after the Table of Contents.

10. A tank holds 67,320 gallons of water. The length is 60’ and the width is 15’. How deep is
the tank?

Gallons______ ÷ 7.48 = _______ 60 X 15 =

126
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Practice Questions, no answers provided
A3. Convert a flow of 733 gallons per minute to gallons per second.

B3. Now, convert this number to liters per second.

Metric information is found in the front of the manual after the Table of Contents.

C3. A tank is 20’ X 20’ x 40’ and can hold a maximum of ____________ gallons of water.

D3. In Liters?
V= (L) (W) (D) X 7.48 =_________ X 3.79 l/gal

E3. A tank holds 85,000 gallons of water. The length is 75’ and the width is 14’. How deep is
the tank?

127
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
11. The diameter of a tank is 60’ and the depth is 25’. How many gallons does it hold?

Cylinder Formula
V= (.785) (D2) (d)

.785 X 60’ X 60’ X 25’ X 7.48 =

Diagrams are provided to help you visualize or figure the solution.

128
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Practice Questions, no answers provided
A4. The diameter of a tank is 30’ and the depth is 5’. How many gallons does it hold?

B4. The diameter of a tank is 160’ and the depth is 30’. How many gallons does it hold?

C4. The diameter of a tank is 33’ and the depth is 20’. How many gallons does it hold?

D4. The diameter of a tank is 5’ and the depth is .5’. How many gallons does it hold?

Cubic Feet Information

There is no universally agreed symbol but the following are used:

cubic feet, cubic foot, cubic ft

cu ft, cu feet, cu foot
ft3, feet 3, foot 3
feet3, foot3, ft3
feet/-3, foot/-3, ft/-3

129
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
 130
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Water/Wastewater Treatment Production
Math Numbering System
In water/wastewater treatment, we express our production numbers in Million Gallon numbers.
Example 2,000,000 or 2 million gallons would be expressed as 2 MG or 2 MGD.

1 MG = 1,000,000 Gallons
24 Hour Fill time
2.4 Hours

Hint. A million has six zeroes; you can always divide your final number by 1,000,000 or move
the decimal point to the left six places. Example 528,462 would be expressed .56 MGD.

12. The diameter of a tank is 15 Centimeters or cm and the depth is 25 cm, what is the volume
in liters?

2.54cm = 1 inch, 12 inches = 1 foot

15 cm ÷ 2.54 cm ÷ 12 inches = .492 feet

.785 X .492’ X .492’ X _____’ =______ X 7.48 = _______ X 3.785 L =

See Table of Contents for more on the Metric System.

131
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
 132
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Flow and Velocity Exercises
This depends on measuring the average velocity of flow and the cross-sectional area of the
channel and calculating the flow from:

Q(m3/s) = A(m2) X V(m/s)

Or

Q=AXV

Q CFM = Cubic Ft, Inches, Yards of time, Sec, Min, Hrs, Days
A = Area, squared Length X Width
V f/m = Inch, Ft, Yards, Per Time, Sec, Min, Ft or Speed

13. A channel is 3 feet wide and has water flowing to a depth of 2.5 feet. If the velocity through
the channel is 2 fps or feet per second, what is the cfs flow rate through the channel?
Q=AXV

Q = 7.5 sq. ft. X 2 fps What is Q?

A= 3’ X 2.5’ = 7.5
V= 2 fps

133
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
14. A channel is 40 inches wide and has water flowing to a depth of 1.5 ft. If the velocity of the
water is 2.3 fps, what is the cfs flow in the channel? Q = A X V
First we must convert 40 inches to feet.

40 ÷ 12” = 3.333 feet

A = 3.333’ X 1.5’ = 4.999 or round up to 5

V = 2.3 fps
We can round this answer up.

134
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
15. A channel is 3 feet wide and has a water flow at a velocity of 1.5 fps. If the flow through the
channel is 8.1 cfs, what is the depth of the water?

Q = 8.1 cfs
V = 1.5 fps
A=?

8.1 ÷1.5 = _______ Total Area

135
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
16. The flow through a 6 inch diameter pipe is moving at a velocity of 3 ft/sec. What is the cfs
flow rate through the pipeline?

Q=
A = .785 X .5’ X .5’ =
V = 3 fps

136
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
17. An 8 inch diameter pipe has water flowing at a velocity of 3.4 fps. What is the gpm flow rate
through the pipe?
Q = ______ cfs X 60 sec/min X 7.48 = ___________ gpm
A = .785 X .667’ X .667’
V = 3.4 fps

18. A 6 inch diameter pipe delivers 280 gpm. What is the velocity of flow in the pipe in ft/sec?

Take the water out of the pipe. 280 gpm ÷ 7.48 ÷ 60 sec/min = ________ cfs

Q=
A = .785 X .5’ X .5’ =
V=

137
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
19. A new section of 12 inch diameter pipe is to be disinfected before it is placed in service. If
the length is 2000 feet, how many gallons of 5% NaOCl will be needed for a dosage of 200
mg/L?

Cylinder Formula
V= (.785) (D2) (d)

.785 X 1’ X 1’ X 2000’ = _______ cu.ft. X 7.48 = ______ ÷ 1,000,000 = ___________MG

Pounds per day formula = Flow (MGD) X Dose (mg/L) X 8.34 lbs/gal if 100% concentrate. If not,
divide the lbs/day by the given %

0.0117436 MG X 200 mg/L X 8.34 =_________ lbs/day ÷ .05 =

138
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
20. A section of 6 inch diameter pipe is to be filled with water. The length of the pipe is 1320
feet long. How many kilograms of chlorine will be needed for a chlorine dose of 3 mg/L?

.785 X .5’ X .5’ X 1320’ X 7.48 =_____________ Make it MGD

Pounds per day formula = Flow X Dose X 8.34 X .454 Grams per pound

139
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Math Exercise Answers
1. 74.8
2. 800 ÷ 8.34 = 95.92 gallons
3. 1372320 or 1.3 MGD
4. 610 X 1441 = 878400 or 0.87 MGD
5. 550 ÷ 60 = 9.167 gpm
6. 9.167 X 3.785 = 34.697 Liters
7. 630 Area 4712.4 gallons
8. 18,750 cu. ft. X 7.48 = 140250 gallons
9. 177182.5
10. 10 feet deep
11. 528462 or .5 MG
12. 1.166 Gallons X 3.785 = 4.4131 Liters
13. 15 cfs
14. 11.5 cfs
15. 5.4
16. .58875 or .6 cfs
17. 534.7 or 533 gpm
18. 3.115 or 3.2 ft/sec
19. 46.9 gal
20. .02 kg

140
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Practice Questions, no answers provided
A5. A channel is 5 feet wide and has water flowing to a depth of 2 feet. If the velocity through
the channel is 2 fps or feet per second, what is the cfs flow rate through the channel?

Q=AXV

B5. A channel is 36 inches wide and has water flowing to a depth of 2.5 ft. If the velocity of the
water is 2.0 fps, what is the cfs flow in the channel?

Q=AXV

C5. A channel is 2 feet wide and has a water flow at a velocity of 3.5 fps. If the flow through the
channel is 5.5 cfs, what is the depth of the water?

D5. The flow through a 8 inch diameter pipe is moving at a velocity of 5 ft/sec. What is the cfs
flow rate through the pipeline?

E5. An 8 inch diameter pipe has water flowing at a velocity of 3.4 fps. What is the gpm flow
rate through the pipe?

141
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
F5. A 6 inch diameter pipe delivers 55 gpm. What is the velocity of flow in the pipe in ft/sec?

G5. A new section of 18 inch diameter pipe is to be disinfected before it is placed in service. If
the length is 5000 feet, how many gallons of 5% NaOCl will be needed for a dosage of 200
mg/L?

Cylinder Formula
V= (.785) (D2) (d)

H5. A section of 18 inch diameter pipe is to be filled with water. The length of the pipe is 1200
feet long. How many kilograms of chlorine will be needed for a chlorine dose of 2 mg/L?

Pounds per day formula = Flow X Dose X 8.34 X .454 Grams per pound

142
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
21. Determine the chlorinator setting in pounds per 24 hour period to treat a flow of 3.4 MGD
with a chlorine dose of 3.35 mg/L? Answer in rear of this section.

Pounds per day formula = Flow (MGD) X Dose (mg/L) X 8.34 lbs/gal

143
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
22. To correct an odor problem, you use chlorine continuously at a dosage of 15 mg/L and a
flow rate of 85 GPM. Approximately how much will odor control cost annually if chlorine is $0.17
per pound?

85 gpm X 1440 min/day = _____________ gpd ÷ 1,000,000 = __________ MGD

______ MGD X 15 mg/L X 8.34 lbs/gal X $0.17 per pound X 365 days/year =

144
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
23. A wet well measures 8 feet by 10 feet and 3 feet in depth between the high and low levels.
A pump empties the wet well between the high and low levels 9 times per hour, 24 hours a day.
Neglecting inflow during the pumping cycle, calculate the flow into the pump station in millions of
gallons per day (MGD).

Build it, fill it, and do what it says, hint: X 9 X 24

145
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
24. A sewage treatment plant has a flow of 0.7 MGD and a BOD of 225 mg/L. On the basis of
a national average of 0.2 lbs BOD per capita per day, what is the approximate population
equivalent of the plant?

25. What is the detention time of a clarifier with a 250,000 gallon capacity if it receives a flow of
3.0 MGD?

DT= Volume in Gallons X 24 Divided by MGD

.25 MG X 24 hrs ÷ 3.0 MGD =________ Hours of DT

Always convert gallons to MG

Answers 21. 94.9 lbs/day, 22. $950.12, 23. .388 or .39 MGD, 24. 6567.75, 25. 2 hrs

146
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Treatment Plant Practice Questions
A6. Determine the chlorinator setting in pounds per 24 hour period to treat a flow of 5.4 MGD
with a chlorine dose of 2.35 mg/L?

Pounds per day formula = Flow (MGD) X Dose (mg/L) X 8.34 lbs/gal

B6. To correct an odor problem, you use chlorine continuously at a dosage of 15 mg/L and a
flow rate of 7 GPM. Approximately how much will odor control cost annually if chlorine is $0.15
per pound?

147
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
C6. A wet well measures 12 feet by 15 feet and 11 feet in depth between the high and low
levels. A pump empties the wet well between the high and low levels 9 times per hour, 24 hours
a day. Neglecting inflow during the pumping cycle, calculate the flow into the pump station in
millions of gallons per day (MGD).

148
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
D6. A sewage treatment plant has a flow of 1.3 MGD and a BOD of 25 mg/L. On the basis of a
national average of 0.2 lbs BOD per capita per day, what is the approximate population
equivalent of the plant?

149
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
E6. What is the detention time of a clarifier with a 750,000 gallon capacity if it receives a flow of
10.0 MGD?
DT= Volume in Gallons X 24 Divided by MGD

150
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Metric Math Practice Section
The metric system is known for its simplicity. All units of measurement in the metric system are
based on decimals—that is, units that increase or decrease by multiples of ten. A series of
Greek decimal prefixes is used to express units of ten or greater; a similar series of Latin
decimal prefixes is used to express fractions. For example, deca equals ten, hecto equals one
hundred, kilo equals one thousand, mega equals one million, giga equals one billion, and tera
equals one trillion.

For units below one, deci equals one-tenth, centi equals one-hundredth, milli equals one-
thousandth, micro equals one-millionth, nano equals one-billionth, and pico equals one-trillionth.

151
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
26. How many grams equal 4,500 mg?
Metric conversions are found after the table of contents, in the front of the book.

Just simply divide by 1,000.

152
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Practice Questions
A7. How many grams equal 7,500 mg?

B7. How many grams equal 12,500 mg?

153
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
 154
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Temperature Exercise
Metric conversions are found after the table of contents, in the front of the book.

There are two main temperature scales. The Fahrenheit Scale (used in the US), and the Celsius
Scale (part of the Metric System, used in most other Countries)

They both measure the same thing (temperature!), just using different numbers.

If you freeze water, it measures 0° in Celsius, but 32° in Fahrenheit

If you boil water, it measures 100° in Celsius, but 212° in Fahrenheit
The difference between freezing and boiling is 100° in Celsius, but 180° in Fahrenheit.

Conversion Method
Looking at the diagram, notice:

The scales start at a different number (32 vs. 0), so we will need to add or subtract 32
The scales rise at a different rate (180 vs. 100), so we will also need to multiply
And this is how it works out:
To convert from Celsius to Fahrenheit, first multiply by 180/100, then add 32
To convert from Fahrenheit to Celsius, first subtract 32, then multiply by 100/180

Note: 180/100 can be simplified to 9/5, and likewise 100/180=5/9.

0F = (0C X 9/5) + 32 9/5 =1.8
0C = (0F - 32) X 5/9 5/9 = .555

155
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
27. Convert 20 degrees Celsius to degrees Fahrenheit.

20 o X 1.8 + 32 = F

28. Convert 4 degrees Celsius to degrees Fahrenheit.

4o X 1.8 + 32 = F

156
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Practice Questions
A8. Convert 22 degrees Celsius to degrees Fahrenheit.

B8. Convert 2 degrees Celsius to degrees Fahrenheit.

157
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
C8. Convert 82 degrees Fahrenheit to degrees Celsius.

D8. Convert 33 degrees Fahrenheit to degrees Celsius.

158
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
E8. Convert 72 degrees Fahrenheit to degrees Celsius.

159
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Chemical Feed Formulas
The chemical feed formulas indicate how many gallons or pounds of chemical are added to a
treatment system.

Dry chemical feed means you are adding a dry chemical product directly into the plant flow.
The dry feed formula is a variation of the loading formula:
Dry Feed Rate, lbs/day = (Flow, MGD) x (Dose, mg/L) x (8.34 lbs/gal)

Liquid chemical feed calculations require additional steps and information. The liquid feed
formula is a two-step variation of the dry feed formula:

Step 1: Dry Feed Rate, gal/day = (Flow, MGD) x (Dose, mg/L) x (8.34 lbs/gal)

Step 2: Liquid Feed Rate, gal/day = (Dry Feed Rate, lbs/day) ÷ (Active Strength, lbs/gal)
Special Considerations – Often times, you will not be using chemicals that are full strength
and/or the specific gravity of a chemical will be given instead of the active strength, in which
case the following formula can be used to calculate the active strength:

Active Strength, lbs/gal = (specific gravity of the chemical) x (8.34 lbs/gal-density of water) x (
% Strength of the solution ÷ 100)

160
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Water Treatment Filters Exercise
29. A 19 foot wide by 31 foot long rapid sand filter treats a flow of 2,050 gallons per minute.
Calculate the filtration rate in gallons per minute per square foot of filter area.

GPM ÷ Square Feet

30. A 26 foot wide by 36 foot wide long rapid sand filter treats a flow of 2,500 gallons per
minute. Calculate the filtration rate in gallons per minute per square foot of filter area.

161
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
A9. A 25 foot wide by 25 foot long rapid sand filter treats a flow of 300 gallons per minute.
Calculate the filtration rate in gallons per minute per square foot of filter area.

B9. A 30 foot wide by 30 foot wide long rapid sand filter treats a flow of 1,500 gallons per
minute. Calculate the filtration rate in gallons per minute per square foot of filter area.

162
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Chlorine Dose Review

Chlorine Residual Formula

163
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
 164
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Chemical Dose Exercise
31. A pond has a surface area of 51,500 square feet and the desired dose of a chemical is 6.5
lbs per acre. How many pounds of the chemical will be needed?

43,560 Square feet in an acre

51,500 ÷ 43,560 = _______ X 6.5 =

32. A pond having a volume of 6.85 acre feet equals how many millions of gallons?

Practice Questions, no answers provided

A10. A pond has a surface area of 75,000 square feet and the desired dose of a chemical is 5.5
lbs per acre. How many pounds of the chemical will be needed?

B10. A pond having a volume of 13,000 acre feet equals how many millions of gallons?

165
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
33. Alum is added in a treatment plant process at a concentration of 10.5 mg/L. What should
the setting on the feeder be in pounds per day if the plant is treating 3.5 MGD?

Pounds per day formula = Flow (MGD) X Dose (mg/L) X 8.34 lbs/gal

166
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Practice Questions, no answers provided
A11. Alum is added in a treatment plant process at a concentration of 4.5 mg/L. What should
the setting on the feeder be in pounds per day if the plant is treating 23.5 MGD?

Pounds per day formula = Flow (MGD) X Dose (mg/L) X 8.34 lbs/gal

167
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
The Application of Formulas in a Treatment Plant
In addition to solving area and volume calculations, operation of a water or wastewater facility
involves using mathematical computations to ensure the proper operation of various processes,
such as:
 Detention times.
 Rates - chemical feed, loading, and flow.
 Preparation of reports.

Loading Formula
The loading formula is used to evaluate how much of a particular substance is being applied to
a treatment unit during a specific time period. It is a general formula that can be modified to
address a variety of processes including but not limited to aerator loading and applied solids.

The formula is:

Loading, lbs/day = (Flow, MGD) x (Concentration, mg/L) x (8.34 lbs/gal)

 One gallon of water weighs 8.34 lbs.
 Flow must always be in million gallons per day (MGD) for the above formula.

168
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Q=AV Exercise Review
34. An 8 inch diameter pipe has water flowing at a velocity of 3.4 fps. What is the GPM flow
rate through the pipe?
Q = 1.18 CFS x 60 Seconds x 7.48 GAL/CU.FT = 532 GPM
A = .785 X .667 X .667 X 1 = .349 Sq. Ft.
V= 3.4 Feet per second

35. A 6 inch diameter pipe delivers 280 GPM. What is the velocity of flow in the pipe in Ft/Sec?
280 GPM ÷ 60 seconds in a minute ÷ 7.48 gallons in a cu.ft. = .623 CFS

Q = .623
A = .785 X.5 X .5 =.196 Sq. Ft.
V = 3.17 Ft/Second

169
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Practice Questions, no answers provided
A12. An 36 inch diameter pipe has water flowing at a velocity of 1.4 fps. What is the GPM flow
rate through the pipe?

B12. An 18 inch diameter pipe delivers 80 GPM. What is the velocity of flow in the pipe in
Ft/Sec?

170
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Collection Math Exercise Section
36. A 24-inch sewer carries an average daily flow of 5 MGD. If the average daily flow per
person from the area served is 110 GPCD (gallons per capita per day), approximately how
many people discharge into the wastewater collection system?

5,000,000 divided by 110 =

37. Using a dose rate of 5 mg/L, how many pounds of chlorine per day should be used if the
flow rate is 1.2 MGD?

Pounds per day formula = Flow (MGD) X Dose (mg/L) X 8.34 lbs/gal

38. What capacity blower will be required to ventilate a manhole which is 3.5 feet in diameter
and 17 feet deep? The air exchange rate is 16 air changes per hour.
.785 X 3.5’ X 3.5’ X 17’ X 16 = ____________ CFH

171
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
39. Approximately how many feet of drop are in 455 feet of 8-inch sewer with a 0.0475 ft/ft.
slope?

SLOPE = Rise (ft) SLOPE (%) = Rise (ft) X 100

Run (ft) Run (ft)

455’ X 0.0475 =

40. How much brake horsepower is required to meet the following conditions: 250 gpm, total
head = 110 feet? The submersible pump that is being specified is a combined 64% efficient?

(250 X 110) ÷ (3960 X .64)

41. How wide is a trench at ground surface if a sewer trench is 2 feet wide at the bottom, 10
feet deep, and the sides have been sloped at a 4/5 horizontal to 1 vertical (3/4:1) ratio?

(3/4:1) or 3 ÷ 4 = .75 X every foot of depth

172
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Practice Questions, no answers provided
A13. A 24-inch sewer carries an average daily flow of 3 MGD. If the average daily flow per
person from the area served is 125 GPCD (gallons per capita per day), approximately how
many people discharge into the wastewater collection system?

B13. Using a dose rate of 4 mg/L, how many pounds of chlorine per day should be used if the
flow rate is 3.2 MGD?

Pounds per day formula = Flow (MGD) X Dose (mg/L) X 8.34 lbs/gal

C13. What capacity blower will be required to ventilate a manhole which is 3.0 feet in diameter
and 18 feet deep? The air exchange rate is 16 air changes per hour.

D13. Approximately how many feet of drop are in 575 feet of 8-inch sewer with a 0.0375 ft/ft.
slope?

E13. How much brake horsepower is required to meet the following conditions: 50 gpm, total
head = 110 feet? The submersible pump that is being specified is a combined 58% efficient?

F13. How wide is a trench at ground surface if a sewer trench is 2 feet wide at the bottom, 12
feet deep, and the sides have been sloped at a 4/5 horizontal to 1 vertical (3/4:1) ratio?

173
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
42. A float arrives in a manhole 550 feet down stream three minutes and thirty seconds from its
release point. What is the velocity in ft/sec.?
Velocity ft/sec = distance ÷ time
550’ ÷ 3 min stop convert min to sec. 3 X 60 = 180 + 30 = 210 sec
550’ ÷ 210 sec = ______ fps

43. A new sewer line plan calls out a 0.6% slope of the line. An elevation reading of 108.8 feet
at the manhole discharge and an elevation of 106.2 feet at a distance of 200 feet from the
manhole are recorded. What is the existing slope of the line that has been installed?

SLOPE = Rise (ft) SLOPE (%) = Rise (ft) X 100

Run (ft) Run (ft)

44. A triangular pile of spoil is 12 feet high and 12 feet wide at the base. The pile is 60' long. If
the dump truck hauls 9 cubic yards of dirt, how many truck loads will it take to remove all of the
spoil?

Given the base and the height of a triangle, we can find the area. Given the area and either the
base or the height of a triangle, we can find the other dimension. The formula for area of a
triangle is:

Or where is the base, is the height.

12’ X 12’ ÷ 2 X 60’ = _________ cu.ft (27cuft/cuyrd)

174
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
45. A red dye is poured into an upstream manhole connected to a 12 inch sewer. The dye first
appears in a manhole 400 feet downstream 3 minutes later. After 3 minutes and 40 seconds the
dye disappears. Estimate the flow velocity in feet per second.

Velocity ft/sec = distance ÷ time

Make sure and convert time and average it.

46. Calculate the total dosage in pounds of a chemical. Assume the sewer is completely filled
with the concentration. Pipe diameter: 18 inches, Pipe length: 420 feet, Dose: 120 mg/L.

Figure out the volume first.

.785 X 1.5’ X 1.5’ X 420’ X 7.48 =___________ convert to MG

Pounds per day formula = Flow (MGD) X Dose (mg/L) X 8.34 lbs/gal

Practice Questions, no answers provided

A14. A float arrives in a manhole 850 feet down stream four minutes and thirty seconds from its
release point. What is the velocity in ft/sec.?
Velocity ft/sec = distance ÷ time

175
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
B15. A new sewer line plan calls out a 0.6% slope of the line. An elevation reading of 210.3 feet
at the manhole discharge and an elevation of 106.2 feet at a distance of 100 feet from the
manhole are recorded. What is the existing slope of the line that has been installed?

SLOPE = Rise (ft) SLOPE (%) = Rise (ft) X 100

Run (ft) Run (ft)

C15. A triangular pile of spoil is 15 feet high and 25 feet wide at the base. The pile is 40' long. If
the dump truck hauls 9 cubic yards of dirt, how many truck loads will it take to remove all of the
spoil?

Given the base and the height of a triangle, we can find the area. Given the area and either the
base or the height of a triangle, we can find the other dimension. The formula for area of a
triangle is:

Or where is the base, is the height.

D15. A red dye is poured into an upstream manhole connected to a 12 inch sewer. The dye first
appears in a manhole 300 feet downstream 3 minutes later. After 3 minutes and 20 seconds the
dye disappears. Estimate the flow velocity in feet per second.

Velocity ft/sec = distance ÷ time

Make sure and convert time and average it.

E15. Calculate the total dosage in pounds of a chemical. Assume the sewer is completely filled
with the concentration. Pipe diameter: 24 inches, Pipe length: 500 feet, Dose: 20 mg/L.

176
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Short Math Answers
1. 46750
2. 800 ÷ 8.34 = 95.92 gallons
3. 1372320 or 1.3 MGD
4. 610 X 1441 = 878400 or 0.87 MGD
5. 550 ÷ 60 = 9.167 gpm
6. 9.167 X 3.785 = 34.697 Liters
7. 630 Area 4712.4 gallons
8. 18,750 cu. ft. X 7.48 = 140250 gallons
9. 177182.5
10. 10 feet deep
11. 528462 or .5 MG
12. 1.166 Gallons X 3.785 = 4.4131 Liters
13. 15 cfs
14. 11.5 cfs
15. 5.4
16. .58875 or .6 cfs
17. 534.7 or 533 gpm
18. 3.115 or 3.2 ft/sec
19. 46.9 gal
20. .02 kg
21. 94.9 lbs/day
22. $950.12
23. .388 or .39 MGD
24. 6567.75
25. 2 hrs
26. 4.5 grams
27. 68° F
28. 39.2°F
29. 3.43 gpm/sq.ft.
30. 2.67 gpm/sq.ft.
31. 7.68 lbs
32. 2.231 MG
33. 306.495
34. 532 gpm
35. 3.2 fps
36. 45454.5 people
37. 50.04 lbs
38. 2615.6 cfh
39. 21.61 ft
40. 10.85 bhp
41. 17 ft
42. 2.62 fps
43. .013 or 1.3%
44. 17.7 or 18 trucks
45. 2 fps
46. 5.55 lbs

177
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
 178
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Glossary

A
Absolute Pressure: The pressure above zone absolute, i.e. the sum of atmospheric and gauge
pressure. In vacuum related work it is usually expressed in millimeters of mercury. (mmHg).

Aerodynamics: The study of the flow of gases. The Ideal Gas Law - For a perfect or ideal gas
the change in density is directly related to the change in temperature and pressure as
expressed in the Ideal Gas Law.

Aeronautics: The mathematics and mechanics of flying objects, in particular airplanes.

Air Break: A physical separation which may be a low inlet into the indirect waste receptor from
the fixture, or device that is indirectly connected. You will most likely find an air break on waste
fixtures or on non-potable lines. You should never allow an air break on an ice machine.

Air Gap Separation: A physical separation space that is present between the discharge vessel
and the receiving vessel, for an example, a kitchen faucet.

Altitude-Control Valve: If an overflow occurs on a storage tank, the operator should first
check the altitude-control valve. Altitude-Control Valve is designed to, 1. Prevent
overflows from the storage tank or reservoir, or 2. Maintain a constant water level as long
as water pressure in the distribution system is adequate.

Angular Motion Formulas: Angular velocity can be expressed as (angular velocity = constant):

ω = θ / t (2a)

where
ω= angular velocity (rad/s)
θ = angular displacement (rad)
t = time (s)

Angular velocity can be expressed as (angular acceleration = constant):

ω = ωo + α t (2b)

where
ωo = angular velocity at time zero (rad/s)
α = angular acceleration (rad/s2)

Angular displacement can be expressed as (angular acceleration = constant):

θ = ωo t + 1/2 α t2 (2c)

Combining 2a and 2c:

ω = (ωo2 + 2 α θ)1/2

Angular acceleration can be expressed as:

α = dω / dt = d2θ / dt2 (2d)

where
dθ = change of angular displacement (rad)
dt = change in time (s)

179
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Atmospheric Pressure: Pressure exerted by the atmosphere at any specific location. (Sea level
pressure is approximately 14.7 pounds per square inch absolute, 1 bar = 14.5psi.)

B
Backflow Prevention: To stop or prevent the occurrence of, the unnatural act of reversing the
normal direction of the flow of liquid, gases, or solid substances back in to the public potable
(drinking) water supply. See Cross-connection control.

Backflow: To reverse the natural and normal directional flow of a liquid, gases, or solid
substances back in to the public potable (drinking) water supply. This is normally an
undesirable effect.

Backsiphonage: A liquid substance that is carried over a higher point. It is the method by which
the liquid substance may be forced by excess pressure over or into a higher point. Is a condition
in which the pressure in the distribution system is less than atmospheric pressure. In other words,
something is “sucked” into the system because the main is under a vacuum.

Bernoulli's Equation: Describes the behavior of moving fluids along a streamline. The Bernoulli
Equation can be considered to be a statement of the conservation of energy principle appropriate
for flowing fluids. The qualitative behavior that is usually labeled with the term "Bernoulli effect"
is the lowering of fluid pressure in regions where the flow velocity is increased. This lowering of
pressure in a constriction of a flow path may seem counterintuitive, but seems less so when you
consider pressure to be energy density. In the high velocity flow through the constriction, kinetic
energy must increase at the expense of pressure energy.

A special form of the Euler’s equation derived along a fluid flow streamline is often called the
Bernoulli Equation.

180
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
For steady state incompressible flow the Euler equation becomes (1). If we integrate (1) along
the streamline it becomes (2). (2) can further be modified to (3) by dividing by gravity.

Head of Flow: Equation (3) is often referred to as the head because all elements have the unit
of length.

Bernoulli's Equation Continued:

Dynamic Pressure
(2) and (3) are two forms of the Bernoulli Equation for steady state incompressible flow. If we
assume that the gravitational body force is negligible, (3) can be written as (4). Both elements in
the equation have the unit of pressure and it's common to refer the flow velocity component as
the dynamic pressure of the fluid flow (5).

Since energy is conserved along the streamline, (4) can be expressed as (6). Using the equation
we see that increasing the velocity of the flow will reduce the pressure, decreasing the velocity
will increase the pressure.

This phenomena can be observed in a venturi meter where the pressure is reduced in the
constriction area and regained after. It can also be observed in a pitot tube where the stagnation
pressure is measured. The stagnation pressure is where the velocity component is zero.

181
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Bernoulli's Equation Continued:
Pressurized Tank
If the tanks are pressurized so that product of gravity and height (g h) is much less than the
pressure difference divided by the density, (e4) can be transformed to (e6).
The velocity out from the tanks depends mostly on the pressure difference.

Example - outlet velocity from a pressurized tank

The outlet velocity of a pressurized tank where

p1 = 0.2 MN/m2, p2 = 0.1 MN/m2 A2/A1 = 0.01, h = 10 m

can be calculated as
V2 = [(2/(1-(0.01)2) ( (0.2 - 0.1)x106 /1x103 + 9.81 x 10)]1/2 = 19.9 m/s

Coefficient of Discharge - Friction Coefficient

Due to friction the real velocity will be somewhat lower than this theoretical example. If we
introduce a friction coefficient c (coefficient of discharge), (e5) can be expressed as (e5b). The
coefficient of discharge can be determined experimentally. For a sharp edged opening it may be
as low as 0.6. For smooth orifices it may be between 0.95 and 1.

Bingham Plastic Fluids: Bingham Plastic Fluids have a yield value which must be exceeded
before it will start to flow like a fluid. From that point the viscosity will decrease with increase of
agitation. Toothpaste, mayonnaise and tomato catsup are examples of such products.

Boundary Layer: The layer of fluid in the immediate vicinity of a bounding surface.

Bulk Modulus and Fluid Elasticity: An introduction to and a definition of the Bulk Modulus
Elasticity commonly used to characterize the compressibility of fluids.

The Bulk Modulus Elasticity can be expressed as

E = - dp / (dV / V) (1)

where
E = bulk modulus elasticity
dp = differential change in pressure on the object
dV = differential change in volume of the object
V = initial volume of the object

The Bulk Modulus Elasticity can be alternatively expressed as

E = - dp / (dρ / ρ) (2)

where
dρ = differential change in density of the object
ρ = initial density of the object

An increase in the pressure will decrease the volume (1). A decrease in the volume will increase
the density (2).
 The SI unit of the bulk modulus elasticity is N/m2 (Pa)
 The imperial (BG) unit is lbf/in2 (psi)
 1 lbf/in2 (psi) = 6.894 103 N/m2 (Pa)

182
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
A large Bulk Modulus indicates a relatively incompressible fluid.

Bulk Modulus for some common fluids can be found in the table below:
Imperial Units -
SI Units
Bulk Modulus - E BG
(Pa, N/m2) x 109
(psi, lbf/in2) x 105
Carbon
1.91 1.31
Tetrachloride
Ethyl Alcohol 1.54 1.06
Gasoline 1.9 1.3
Glycerin 6.56 4.52
Mercury 4.14 2.85
SAE 30 Oil 2.2 1.5
Seawater 3.39 2.35
Water 3.12 2.15

C
Capillarity: (or capillary action) The ability of a narrow tube to draw a liquid upwards against the
force of gravity.

The height of liquid in a tube due to capillarity can be expressed as

h = 2 σ cosθ / (ρ g r) (1)

where
h = height of liquid (ft, m)
σ = surface tension (lb/ft, N/m)
θ = contact angle
ρ = density of liquid (lb/ft3, kg/m3)
g = acceleration due to gravity (32.174 ft/s2, 9.81 m/s2)
r = radius of tube (ft, m)

Cauchy Number: A dimensionless value useful for analyzing fluid flow dynamics problems
where compressibility is a significant factor.
The Cauchy Number is the ratio between inertial and the compressibility force in a flow and can
be expressed as
C = ρ v2 / E (1)

where
ρ = density (kg/m3)
v = flow velocity (m/s)
E = bulk modulus elasticity (N/m2)
The bulk modulus elasticity has the dimension pressure and is commonly used to characterize
the compressibility of a fluid.

183
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
The Cauchy Number is the square root of the Mach Number
M2 = Ca (3)

where
C = Mach Number

Cavitation: Under the wrong condition, cavitation will reduce the components life time
dramatically. Cavitation may occur when the local static pressure in a fluid reach a level below
the vapor pressure of the liquid at the actual temperature. According to the Bernoulli Equation this
may happen when the fluid accelerates in a control valve or around a pump impeller. The
vaporization itself does not cause the damage - the damage happens when the vapor almost
immediately collapses after evaporation when the velocity is decreased and pressure increased.
Cavitation means that cavities are forming in the liquid that we are pumping. When these cavities
form at the suction of the pump several things happen all at once: We experience a loss in
capacity. We can no longer build the same head (pressure). The efficiency drops. The cavities or
bubbles will collapse when they pass into the higher regions of pressure causing noise, vibration,
and damage to many of the components. The cavities form for five basic reasons and it is common
practice to lump all of them into the general classification of cavitation.

This is an error because we will learn that to correct each of these conditions we must understand
why they occur and how to fix them. Here they are in no particular order: Vaporization, Air
ingestion, Internal recirculation, Flow turbulence and finally the Vane Passing Syndrome.

Avoiding Cavitation
Cavitation can in general be avoided by:
 increasing the distance between the actual local static pressure in the fluid - and the vapor
pressure of the fluid at the actual temperature
This can be done by:
 reengineering components initiating high speed velocities and low static pressures
 increasing the total or local static pressure in the system
 reducing the temperature of the fluid

Reengineering of Components Initiating High Speed Velocity and Low Static Pressure
Cavitation and damage can be avoided by using special components designed for the actual
rough conditions.
 Conditions such as huge pressure drops can - with limitations - be handled by Multi Stage
Control Valves
 Difficult pumping conditions - with fluid temperatures close to the vaporization temperature -
can be handled with a special pump - working after another principle than the centrifugal
pump.

Cavitation: Increasing the Total or Local Pressure in the System

By increasing the total or local pressure in the system, the distance between the static pressure
and the vaporization pressure is increased and vaporization and cavitation may be avoided.

The ratio between static pressure and the vaporization pressure, an indication of the possibility of
vaporization, is often expressed by the Cavitation Number. Unfortunately it may not always be
possible to increase the total static pressure due to system classifications or other limitations.
Local static pressure in the component may then be increased by lowering the component in the
system. Control valves and pumps should in general be positioned in the lowest part of the system

184
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
to maximize the static head. This is common for boiler feeding pumps receiving hot condensate
(water close to 100 oC) from a condensate receiver.

Cavitation Continued: Reducing the Temperature of the Fluid

The vaporization pressure is highly dependent on the fluid temperature. Water, our most
common fluid, is an example:
Temperature Vapor Pressure
(oC) (kN/m2)
0 0.6
5 0.9
10 1.2
15 1.7
20 2.3
25 3.2
30 4.3
35 5.6
40 7.7
45 9.6
50 12.5
55 15.7
60 20
65 25
70 32.1
75 38.6
80 47.5
85 57.8
90 70
95 84.5
100 101.33

As we can see - the possibility of evaporation and cavitation increases dramatically with the
water temperature.

Cavitation can be avoided by locating the components in the coldest part of the system. For
example, it is common to locate the pumps in heating systems at the "cold" return lines. The
situation is the same for control valves. Where it is possible they should be located on the cold
side of heat exchangers.

185
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Cavitations Number: A "special edition" of the dimensionless Euler Number.

The Cavitations Number is useful for analyzing fluid flow dynamics problems where cavitations
may occur. The Cavitations Number can be expressed as

Ca = ( pr - pv ) / 1/2 ρ v2 (1)

where
Ca = Cavitations number
pr = reference pressure (Pa)
pv = vapor pressure of the fluid (Pa)
ρ = density of the fluid (kg/m3)
v = velocity of fluid (m/s)

Centrifugal Pump: A pump consisting of an impeller fixed on a rotating shaft and enclosed in a
casing, having an inlet and a discharge connection. The rotating impeller creates pressure in the
liquid by the velocity derived from centrifugal force.

Chezy Formula: Conduits flow and mean velocity. The Chezy formula can be used to calculate
mean flow velocity in conduits and is expressed as

v = c (R S)1/2 (1)

where
v = mean velocity (m/s, ft/s)
c = the Chezy roughness and conduit coefficient
R = hydraulic radius of the conduit (m, ft)
S = slope of the conduit (m/m, ft/ft)

In general the Chezy coefficient - c - is a function of the flow Reynolds Number - Re - and the
relative roughness - ε/R - of the channel.

ε is the characteristic height of the roughness elements on the channel boundary.

Coanda Effect: The tendency of a stream of fluid to stay attached to a convex surface, rather
than follow a straight line in its original direction.

Colebrook Equation: The friction coefficients used to calculate pressure loss (or major loss) in
ducts, tubes and pipes can be calculated with the Colebrook equation.

1 / λ1/2 = -2 log ( (2.51 / (Re λ1/2) ) + ( (k / dh) / 3.72) ) (1)

where
λ = D'Arcy-Weisbach friction coefficient
Re = Reynolds Number
k = roughness of duct, pipe or tube surface (m, ft)
dh = hydraulic diameter (m, ft)

The Colebrook equation is only valid at turbulent flow conditions.

186
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Note that the friction coefficient is involved on both sides of the equation and that the equation
must be solved by iteration.

The Colebrook equation is generic and can be used to calculate the friction coefficients in
different kinds of fluid flows - air ventilation ducts, pipes and tubes with water or oil, compressed
air and much more.

Common Pressure Measuring Devices: The Strain Gauge is a common measuring device used
for a variety of changes such as head. As the pressure in the system changes, the diaphragm
expands which changes the length of the wire attached. This change of length of the wire changes
the Resistance of the wire, which is then converted to head. Float mechanisms, diaphragm
elements, bubbler tubes, and direct electronic sensors are common types of level sensors.

Compressible Flow: We know that fluids are classified as Incompressible and Compressible
fluids. Incompressible fluids do not undergo significant changes in density as they flow. In
general, liquids are incompressible; water being an excellent example. In contrast compressible
fluids do undergo density changes.

Gases are generally compressible; air being the most common compressible fluid we can find.
Compressibility of gases leads to many interesting features such as shocks, which are absent for
incompressible fluids. Gas dynamics is the discipline that studies the flow of compressible fluids
and forms an important branch of Fluid Mechanics. In this book we give a broad introduction to
the basics of compressible fluid flow.

In a compressible flow the compressibility of the fluid must be taken into account. The Ideal Gas
Law - For a perfect or ideal gas the change in density is directly related to the change in
temperature and pressure as expressed in the Ideal Gas Law. Properties of Gas Mixtures -
Special care must be taken for gas mixtures when using the ideal gas law, calculating the mass,
the individual gas constant or the density. The Individual and Universal Gas Constant - The
Individual and Universal Gas Constant is common in fluid mechanics and thermodynamics.

Compression and Expansion of Gases: If the compression or expansion takes place under
constant temperature conditions - the process is called isothermal. The isothermal process can
on the basis of the Ideal Gas Law be expressed as:

p / ρ = constant (1)

where
p = absolute pressure
ρ = density

187
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Confined Space Entry: Entry into a confined space requires that all entrants wear a harness
and safety line. If an operator is working inside a storage tank and suddenly faints or has a
serious problem, there should be two people outside standing by to remove the injured operator.

Conservation Laws: The conservation laws states that particular measurable properties of an
isolated physical system does not change as the system evolves: Conservation of energy
(including mass). Fluid Mechanics and Conservation of Mass - The law of conservation of mass
states that mass can neither be created or destroyed.

Contaminant: Any natural or man-made physical, chemical, biological, or radiological

substance or matter in water, which is at a level that may have an adverse effect on public
health, and which is known or anticipated to occur in public water systems.

Contamination: To make something bad; to pollute or infect something. To reduce the quality
of the potable (drinking) water and create an actual hazard to the water supply by poisoning or
through spread of diseases.

Corrosion: The removal of metal from copper, other metal surfaces and concrete surfaces in a
destructive manner. Corrosion is caused by improperly balanced water or excessive water
velocity through piping or heat exchangers.

Cross-Contamination: The mixing of two unlike qualities of water. For example, the mixing of
good water with a polluting substance like a chemical.

D
Darcy-Weisbach Equation: The pressure loss (or major loss) in a pipe, tube or duct can be
expressed with the D'Arcy-Weisbach equation:

Δp = λ (l / dh) (ρ v2 / 2) (1)

where
Δp = pressure loss (Pa, N/m2, lbf/ft2)
λ = D'Arcy-Weisbach friction coefficient
l = length of duct or pipe (m, ft)
dh = hydraulic diameter (m, ft)
ρ = density (kg/m3, lb/ft3)

188
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Note! Be aware that there are two alternative friction coefficients present in the literature. One is
1/4 of the other and (1) must be multiplied with four to achieve the correct result. This is
important to verify when selecting friction coefficients from Moody diagrams.

Density: Is a physical property of matter, as each element and compound has a unique density
associated with it.

Density defined in a qualitative manner as the measure of the relative "heaviness" of objects
with a constant volume. For example: A rock is obviously more dense than a crumpled piece of
paper of the same size. A Styrofoam cup is less dense than a ceramic cup. Density may also
refer to how closely "packed" or "crowded" the material appears to be - again refer to the
Styrofoam vs. ceramic cup. Take a look at the two boxes below.

Each box has the same volume. If each ball has the same mass, which box would weigh
more? Why?

The box that has more balls has more mass per unit of volume. This property of matter is called
density. The density of a material helps to distinguish it from other materials. Since mass is
usually expressed in grams and volume in cubic centimeters, density is expressed in
grams/cubic centimeter. We can calculate density using the formula:

Density= Mass/Volume

The density can be expressed as

ρ = m / V = 1 / vg (1)

where
ρ = density (kg/m3)
m = mass (kg)
V = volume (m3)
vg = specific volume (m3/kg)

The SI units for density are kg/m3. The imperial (BG) units are lb/ft3 (slugs/ft3). While people
often use pounds per cubic foot as a measure of density in the U.S., pounds are really a
measure of force, not mass. Slugs are the correct measure of mass. You can multiply slugs by
32.2 for a rough value in pounds. The higher the density, the tighter the particles are packed
inside the substance. Density is a physical property constant at a given temperature and density
can help to identify a substance.

189
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Example - Use the Density to Identify the Material:
An unknown liquid substance has a mass of 18.5 g and occupies a volume of 23.4 ml. (milliliter).

The density can be calculated as

ρ = [18.5 (g) / 1000 (g/kg)] / [23.4 (ml) / 1000 (ml/l) 1000 (l/m3) ]
= 18.5 10-3 (kg) / 23.4 10-6 (m3)
= 790 kg/m3

If we look up densities of some common substances, we can find that ethyl alcohol, or ethanol,
has a density of 790 kg/m3. Our unknown liquid may likely be ethyl alcohol!

Example - Use Density to Calculate the Mass of a Volume

The density of titanium is 4507 kg/m3 . Calculate the mass of 0.17 m3 titanium!

m = 0.17 (m3) 4507 (kg/m3)

= 766.2 kg

Dilatant Fluids: Shear Thickening Fluids or Dilatant Fluids increase their viscosity with
agitation. Some of these liquids can become almost solid within a pump or pipe line. With
agitation, cream becomes butter and Candy compounds, clay slurries and similar heavily filled
liquids do the same thing.

Drag Coefficient: Used to express the drag of an object in moving fluid. Any object moving
through a fluid will experience a drag - the net force in direction of flow due to the pressure and
shear stress forces on the surface of the object.

The drag force can be expressed as:

Fd = cd 1/2 ρ v2 A (1)

where
Fd = drag force (N)
cd = drag coefficient
ρ = density of fluid
v = flow velocity
A = characteristic frontal area of the body

The drag coefficient is a function of several parameters as shape of the body, Reynolds Number
for the flow, Froude number, Mach Number and Roughness of the Surface.
The characteristic frontal area - A - depends on the body.

Dynamic or Absolute Viscosity: The viscosity of a fluid is an important property in the analysis
of liquid behavior and fluid motion near solid boundaries. The viscosity of a fluid is its resistance
to shear or flow and is a measure of the adhesive/cohesive or frictional properties of a fluid. The
resistance is caused by intermolecular friction exerted when layers of fluids attempts to slide by
another.

190
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Dynamic Pressure: Dynamic pressure is the component of fluid pressure that represents a
fluids kinetic energy. The dynamic pressure is a defined property of a moving flow of gas or
liquid and can be expressed as

pd = 1/2 ρ v2 (1)

where
pd = dynamic pressure (Pa)
ρ = density of fluid (kg/m3)
v = velocity (m/s)

Dynamic, Absolute and Kinematic Viscosity: The viscosity of a fluid is an important property
in the analysis of liquid behavior and fluid motion near solid boundaries. The viscosity is the fluid
resistance to shear or flow and is a measure of the adhesive/cohesive or frictional fluid property.
The resistance is caused by intermolecular friction exerted when layers of fluids attempts to slide
by another.

Viscosity is a measure of a fluid's resistance to flow.

The knowledge of viscosity is needed for proper design of required temperatures for storage,
pumping or injection of fluids.

Common used units for viscosity are

 CentiPoises (cp) = CentiStokes (cSt) × Density
 SSU1 = Centistokes (cSt) × 4.55
 Degree Engler1 × 7.45 = Centistokes (cSt)
 Seconds Redwood1 × 0.2469 = Centistokes (cSt)
1centistokes greater than 50

There are two related measures of fluid viscosity - known as dynamic (or absolute) and
kinematic viscosity.

Dynamic (absolute) Viscosity: The tangential force per unit area required to move one
horizontal plane with respect to the other at unit velocity when maintained a unit distance apart
by the fluid. The shearing stress between the layers of non-turbulent fluid moving in straight
parallel lines can be defined for a Newtonian fluid as:

The dynamic or absolute viscosity can be expressed like

τ = μ dc/dy (1)

where
τ = shearing stress
μ = dynamic viscosity

Equation (1) is known as the Newton’s Law of Friction.

191
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
In the SI system the dynamic viscosity units are N s/m2, Pa s or kg/m s where
 1 Pa s = 1 N s/m2 = 1 kg/m s

The dynamic viscosity is also often expressed in the metric CGS (centimeter-gram-second)
system as g/cm.s, dyne.s/cm2 or poise (p) where
 1 poise = dyne s/cm2 = g/cm s = 1/10 Pa s

For practical use the Poise is to large and its usual divided by 100 into the smaller unit called
the centiPoise (cP) where
 1 p = 100 cP

Water at 68.4oF (20.2oC) has an absolute viscosity of one - 1 - centiPoise.

E
Elevation Head: The energy possessed per unit weight of a fluid because of its elevation. 1
foot of water will produce .433 pounds of pressure head.

Energy: The ability to do work. Energy can exist in one of several forms, such as heat, light,
mechanical, electrical, or chemical. Energy can be transferred to different forms. It also can
exist in one of two states, either potential or kinetic.

Energy and Hydraulic Grade Line: The hydraulic grade and the energy line are graphical
forms of the Bernoulli equation. For steady, in viscid, incompressible flow the total energy
remains constant along a stream line as expressed through the Bernoulli

Equation:
p + 1/2 ρ v2 + γ h = constant along a streamline (1)

where
p = static pressure (relative to the moving fluid)
ρ = density
γ = specific weight
v = flow velocity
g = acceleration of gravity
h = elevation height
Each term of this equation has the dimension force per unit area - psi, lb/ft2 or N/m2.

The Head
By dividing each term with the specific weight - γ = ρ g - (1) can be transformed to express the
"head":
p / γ + v2 / 2 g + h = constant along a streamline = H (2)
where
H = the total head

Each term of this equation has the dimension length - ft, m.

192
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
The Total Head
(2) states that the sum of pressure head - p / γ -, velocity head - v2 / 2 g - and elevation head
- h - is constant along the stream line. This constant can be called the total head - H -.

The total head in a flow can be measured by the stagnation pressure using a pitot tube.

Energy and Hydraulic Grade Line:

The Piezometric Head
The sum of pressure head - p / γ - and elevation head - h - is called the piezometric head. The
piezometric head in a flow can be measured through an flat opening parallel to the flow.

Energy and Hydraulic Grade Line Continued:

The Energy Line
The Energy Line is a line that represents the total head available to the fluid and can be
expressed as:

EL = H = p / γ + v2 / 2 g + h = constant along a streamline (3)

where
EL = Energy Line

For a fluid flow without any losses due to friction (major losses) or components (minor losses)
the energy line would be at a constant level. In the practical world the energy line decreases
along the flow due to the losses.

A turbine in the flow will reduce the energy line and a pump or fan will increase the energy line.

The Hydraulic Grade Line

The Hydraulic Grade Line is a line that represent the total head available to the fluid minus the
velocity head and can be expressed as:

HGL = p / γ + h (4)

where
HGL = Hydraulic Grade Line

The hydraulic grade line lies one velocity head below the energy line.

Entrance Length and Developed Flow: Fluids need some length to develop the velocity profile
after entering the pipe or after passing through components such as bends, valves, pumps, and
turbines or similar.

193
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
The Entrance Length: The entrance length can be expressed with the dimensionless Entrance
Length Number:

El = le / d (1)

where
El = Entrance Length Number
le = length to fully developed velocity profile
d = tube or duct diameter

The Entrance Length Number for Laminar Flow

The Entrance length number correlation with the Reynolds Number for laminar flow can be
expressed as:

Ellaminar = 0.06 Re (2)

where
Re = Reynolds Number

The Entrance Length Number for Turbulent Flow

The Entrance length number correlation with the Reynolds Number for turbulent flow can be
expressed as:

Elturbulent = 4.4 Re1/6 (3)

Entropy in Compressible Gas Flow: Calculating entropy in compressible gas flow

Entropy change in compressible gas flow can be expressed as

ds = cv ln(T2 / T1) + R ln(ρ1 / ρ2) (1)

or
ds = cp ln(T2 / T1) - R ln(p2 / p1) (2)

where
ds = entropy change
cv = specific heat capacity at a constant volume process
cp = specific heat capacity at a constant pressure process
T = absolute temperature
R = individual gas constant
ρ = density of gas
p = absolute pressure

Equation of Continuity: The Law of Conservation of Mass states that mass can be neither
created nor destroyed. Using the Mass Conservation Law on a steady flow process - flow
where the flow rate doesn't change over time - through a control volume where the stored mass
in the control volume doesn't change - implements that inflow equals outflow. This statement is
called the Equation of Continuity. Common application where the Equation of Continuity
can be used are pipes, tubes and ducts with flowing fluids and gases, rivers, overall processes
as power plants, diaries, logistics in general, roads, computer networks and semiconductor
technology and more.

194
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
The Equation of Continuity and can be expressed as:
m = ρi1 vi1 Ai1 + ρi2 vi2 Ai2 +..+ ρin vin Aim
= ρo1 vo1 Ao1 + ρo2 vo2 Ao2 +..+ ρom vom Aom (1)

where
m = mass flow rate (kg/s)
ρ = density (kg/m3)
v = speed (m/s)
A = area (m2)
With uniform density equation (1) can be modified to
q = vi1 Ai1 + vi2 Ai2 +..+ vin Aim
= vo1 Ao1 + vo2 Ao2 +..+ vom Aom (2)

where
q = flow rate (m3/s)
ρi1 = ρi2 = . . = ρin = ρo1 = ρo2 = . .= ρom

Example - Equation of Continuity

10 m3/h of water flows through a pipe of 100 mm inside diameter. The pipe is reduced to an
inside dimension of 80 mm. Using equation (2) the velocity in the 100 mm pipe can be
calculated as
(10 m3/h)(1 / 3600 h/s) = v100 (3.14 x 0.1 (m) x 0.1 (m) / 4)
or
v100 = (10 m3/h)(1 / 3600 h/s) / (3.14 x 0.1 (m) x 0.1 (m) / 4)
= 0.35 m/s
Using equation (2) the velocity in the 80 mm pipe can be calculated
(10 m3/h)(1 / 3600 h/s) = v80 (3.14 x 0.08 (m) x 0.08 (m) / 4)
or
v100 = (10 m3/h)(1 / 3600 h/s) / (3.14 x 0.08 (m) x 0.08 (m) / 4)
= 0.55 m/s

Equation of Mechanical Energy: The Energy Equation is a statement of the first law of
thermodynamics. The energy equation involves energy, heat transfer and work. With certain
limitations the mechanical energy equation can be compared to the Bernoulli Equation and
transferred to the Mechanical Energy Equation in Terms of Energy per Unit Mass.

The mechanical energy equation for a pump or a fan can be written in terms of energy per
unit mass:

pin / ρ + vin2 / 2 + g hin + wshaft = pout / ρ + vout2 / 2 + g hout + wloss (1)

where
p = static pressure
ρ = density
v = flow velocity
g = acceleration of gravity
h = elevation height
wshaft = net shaft energy inn per unit mass for a pump, fan or similar
wloss = loss due to friction

195
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
The energy equation is often used for incompressible flow problems and is called the
Mechanical Energy Equation or the Extended Bernoulli Equation.

The mechanical energy equation for a turbine can be written as:

pin / ρ + vin2 / 2 + g hin = pout / ρ + vout2 / 2 + g hout + wshaft + wloss (2)

where
wshaft = net shaft energy out per unit mass for a turbine or similar

Equation (1) and (2) dimensions are

energy per unit mass (ft2/s2 = ft lb/slug or m2/s2 = N m/kg)

Efficiency
According to (1) a larger amount of loss - wloss - result in more shaft work required for the same
rise of output energy. The efficiency of a pump or fan process can be expressed as:

η = (wshaft - wloss) / wshaft (3)

The efficiency of a turbine process can be expressed as:

η = wshaft/ (wshaft + wloss) (4)

The Mechanical Energy Equation in Terms of Energy per Unit Volume

The mechanical energy equation for a pump or a fan (1) can also be written in terms of energy
per unit volume by multiplying (1) with fluid density - ρ:

pin + ρ vin2 / 2 + γ hin + ρ wshaft = pout + ρ vout2 / 2 + γ hout + wloss (5)

where
γ = ρ g = specific weight

The dimensions of equation (5) are

energy per unit volume (ft.lb/ft3 = lb/ft2 or N.m/m3 = N/m2)

The Mechanical Energy Equation in Terms of Energy per Unit Weight involves Heads
The mechanical energy equation for a pump or a fan (1) can also be written in terms of energy
per unit weight by dividing with gravity - g:

pin / γ + vin2 / 2 g + hin + hshaft = pout / γ + vout2 / 2 g + hout + hloss (6)

where
γ = ρ g = specific weight
hshaft = wshaft / g = net shaft energy head inn per unit mass for a pump, fan or similar
hloss = wloss / g = loss head due to friction

The dimensions of equation (6) are

energy per unit weight (ft.lb/lb = ft or N.m/N = m)

196
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Head is the energy per unit weight.

hshaft can also be expressed as:

hshaft = wshaft / g = Wshaft / m g = Wshaft / γ Q (7)

where
Wshaft = shaft power
m = mass flow rate
Q = volume flow rate

Example - Pumping Water

Water is pumped from an open tank at level zero to an open tank at level 10 ft. The pump adds
four horsepowers to the water when pumping 2 ft3/s.
Since vin = vout = 0, pin = pout = 0 and hin = 0 - equation (6) can be modified to:

hshaft = hout + hloss

or
hloss = hshaft - hout (8)

Equation (7) gives:

hshaft = Wshaft / γ Q = (4 hp)(550 ft.lb/s/hp) / (62.4 lb/ft3)(2 ft3/s) = 17.6 ft

 specific weight of water 62.4 lb/ft3
 1 hp (English horse power) = 550 ft. lb/s

Combined with (8):

hloss = (17.6 ft ) - (10 ft) = 7.6 ft

The pump efficiency can be calculated from (3) modified for head:
η = ((17.6 ft) - (7.6 ft)) / (17.6 ft)= 0.58

Equations in Fluid Mechanics: Common fluid mechanics equations - Bernoulli, conservation

of energy, conservation of mass, pressure, Navier-Stokes, ideal gas law, Euler equations,
Laplace equations, Darcy-Weisbach Equation and the following:

The Bernoulli Equation

 The Bernoulli Equation - A statement of the conservation of energy in a form useful for
solving problems involving fluids. For a non-viscous, incompressible fluid in steady flow, the
sum of pressure, potential and kinetic energies per unit volume is constant at any point.

Conservation laws
 The conservation laws states that particular measurable properties of an isolated physical
system does not change as the system evolves.
 Conservation of energy (including mass)
 Fluid Mechanics and Conservation of Mass - The law of conservation of mass states that
mass can neither be created nor destroyed.
 The Continuity Equation - The Continuity Equation is a statement that mass is conserved.

197
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Darcy-Weisbach Equation
 Pressure Loss and Head Loss due to Friction in Ducts and Tubes - Major loss - head loss or
pressure loss - due to friction in pipes and ducts.

Euler Equations
 In fluid dynamics, the Euler equations govern the motion of a compressible, inviscid fluid.
They correspond to the Navier-Stokes equations with zero viscosity, although they are
usually written in the form shown here because this emphasizes the fact that they directly
represent conservation of mass, momentum, and energy.

Laplace's Equation
 The Laplace Equation describes the behavior of gravitational, electric, and fluid potentials.

Ideal Gas Law

 The Ideal Gas Law - For a perfect or ideal gas, the change in density is directly related to
the change in temperature and pressure as expressed in the Ideal Gas Law.
 Properties of Gas Mixtures - Special care must be taken for gas mixtures when using the
ideal gas law, calculating the mass, the individual gas constant or the density.
 The Individual and Universal Gas Constant - The Individual and Universal Gas Constant is
common in fluid mechanics and thermodynamics.

Navier-Stokes Equations
 The motion of a non-turbulent, Newtonian fluid is governed by the Navier-Stokes equations.
The equation can be used to model turbulent flow, where the fluid parameters are
interpreted as time-averaged values.

Mechanical Energy Equation

 The Mechanical Energy Equation - The mechanical energy equation in Terms of Energy per
Unit Mass, in Terms of Energy per Unit Volume and in Terms of Energy per Unit Weight
involves Heads.

Pressure
 Static Pressure and Pressure Head in a Fluid - Pressure and pressure head in a static fluid.

Euler Equations: In fluid dynamics, the Euler equations govern the motion of a compressible,
inviscid fluid. They correspond to the Navier-Stokes equations with zero viscosity, although they
are usually written in the form shown here because this emphasizes the fact that they directly
represent conservation of mass, momentum, and energy.

Euler Number: The Euler numbers, also called the secant numbers or zig numbers, are defined
for by

where the hyperbolic secant and sec is the secant. Euler numbers give the number of
odd alternating permutations and are related to Genocchi numbers. The base e of the natural
logarithm is sometimes known as Euler's number. A different sort of Euler number, the Euler
number of a finite complex , is defined by
198
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
This Euler number is a topological invariant. To confuse matters further, the Euler characteristic
is sometimes also called the "Euler number," and numbers produced by the prime-generating
polynomial are sometimes called "Euler numbers" (Flannery and Flannery 2000, p.
47).

F
Friction Head: The head required to overcome the friction at the interior surface of a conductor
and between fluid particles in motion. It varies with flow, size, type and conditions of conductors
and fittings, and the fluid characteristics.

G
Gas: A gas is one of the four major phases of matter (after solid and liquid, and followed by
plasma) that subsequently appear as solid material when they are subjected to increasingly
higher temperatures. Thus, as energy in the form of heat is added, a solid (e.g., ice) will first
melt to become a liquid (e.g., water), which will then boil or evaporate to become a gas (e.g.,
water vapor). In some circumstances, a solid (e.g., "dry ice") can directly turn into a gas: this is
called sublimation. If the gas is further heated, its atoms or molecules can become (wholly or
partially) ionized, turning the gas into a plasma. Relater Gas Information: The Ideal Gas Law -
For a perfect or ideal gas the change in density is directly related to the change in temperature
and pressure as expressed in the Ideal Gas Law. Properties of Gas Mixtures - Special care
must be taken for gas mixtures when using the ideal gas law, calculating the mass, the
individual gas constant or the density. The Individual and Universal Gas Constant - The
Individual and Universal Gas Constant is common in fluid mechanics and thermodynamics.

Gauge Pressure: Pressure differential above or below ambient atmospheric pressure.

H
Hazen-Williams Factor: Hazen-Williams factor for some common piping materials. Hazen-
Williams coefficients are used in the Hazen-Williams equation for friction loss calculation in
ducts and pipes.

Hazen-Williams Equation - Calculating Friction Head Loss in Water Pipes

Friction head loss (ft H2O per 100 ft pipe) in water pipes can be obtained by using the empirical
Hazen-Williams equation. The Darcy-Weisbach equation with the Moody diagram are
considered to be the most accurate model for estimating frictional head loss in steady pipe flow.
Since the approach requires a not so efficient trial and error solution, an alternative empirical
head loss calculation that does not require the trial and error solutions, as the Hazen-Williams
equation, may be preferred:

f = 0.2083 (100/c)1.852 q1.852 / dh4.8655 (1)

where
f = friction head loss in feet of water per 100 feet of pipe (fth20/100 ft pipe)
c = Hazen-Williams roughness constant
q = volume flow (gal/min)
199
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
 dh = inside hydraulic diameter (inches)

Note that the Hazen-Williams formula is empirical and lacks physical basis. Be aware that the
roughness constants are based on "normal" condition with approximately 1 m/s (3 ft/sec).

The Hazen-Williams formula is not the only empirical formula available. Manning's formula is
common for gravity driven flows in open channels.

The flow velocity may be calculated as:

v = 0.4087 q / dh2

where
v = flow velocity (ft/s)

The Hazen-Williams formula can be assumed to be relatively accurate for piping systems where
the Reynolds Number is above 105 (turbulent flow).
 1 ft (foot) = 0.3048 m
 1 in (inch) = 25.4 mm
 1 gal (US)/min =6.30888x10-5 m3/s = 0.0227 m3/h = 0.0631 dm3(liter)/s = 2.228x10-3 ft3/s =
0.1337 ft3/min = 0.8327 Imperial gal (UK)/min

Note! The Hazen-Williams formula gives accurate head loss due to friction for fluids with
kinematic viscosity of approximately 1.1 cSt. More about fluids and kinematic viscosity.

The results for the formula are acceptable for cold water at 60o F (15.6o C) with kinematic
viscosity 1.13 cSt. For hot water with a lower kinematic viscosity (0.55 cSt at 130o F (54.4o C))
the error will be significant. Since the Hazen Williams method is only valid for water flowing at
ordinary temperatures between 40 to 75o F, the Darcy Weisbach method should be used for
other liquids or gases.

Head: The height of a column or body of fluid above a given point expressed in linear units. Head
if often used to indicate gauge pressure. Pressure is equal to the height times the density of the
liquid. The measure of the pressure of water expressed in feet of height of water. 1 psi = 2.31 feet
of water. There are various types of heads of water depending upon what is being measured.
Static (water at rest) and Residual (water at flow conditions).

I
Ideal Gas: The Ideal Gas Law - For a perfect or ideal gas the change in density is directly
related to the change in temperature and pressure as expressed in the Ideal Gas Law.
Properties of Gas Mixtures - Special care must be taken for gas mixtures when using the ideal
gas law, calculating the mass, the individual gas constant or the density. The Individual and
Universal Gas Constant - The Individual and Universal Gas Constant is common in fluid
mechanics and thermodynamics.

Isentropic Compression/Expansion Process: If the compression or expansion takes place

under constant volume conditions - the process is called isentropic.

200
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
The isentropic process on the basis of the Ideal Gas Law can be expressed as:

p / ρk = constant (2)

where
k = cp / cv - the ratio of specific heats - the ratio of specific heat at constant pressure - cp -
to the specific heat at constant volume - cv

K
Kinematic Viscosity: The ratio of absolute or dynamic viscosity to density - a quantity in which
no force is involved. Kinematic viscosity can be obtained by dividing the absolute viscosity of a
fluid with its mass density as

ν=μ/ρ (2)

where
ν = kinematic viscosity
μ = absolute or dynamic viscosity
ρ = density

In the SI-system the theoretical unit is m2/s or commonly used Stoke (St) where
 1 St = 10-4 m2/s

Since the Stoke is an unpractical large unit, it is usual divided by 100 to give the unit called
Centistokes (cSt) where
1 St = 100 cSt
1 cSt = 10-6 m2/s

Since the specific gravity of water at 68.4oF (20.2oC) is almost one - 1, the kinematic viscosity of
water at 68.4oF is for all practical purposes 1.0 cSt.

Kinetic Energy: The ability of an object to do work by virtue of its motion. The energy terms that
are used to describe the operation of a pump are pressure and head.

Knudsen Number: Used by modelers who wish to express a non-dimensionless speed.

L
Laminar Flow: The resistance to flow in a liquid can be characterized in terms of the viscosity
of the fluid if the flow is smooth. In the case of a moving plate in a liquid, it is found that there is
a layer or lamina which moves with the plate, and a layer which is essentially stationary if it is
next to a stationary plate. There is a gradient of velocity as you move from the stationary to the
moving plate, and the liquid tends to move in layers with successively higher speed. This is
called laminar flow, or sometimes "streamlined" flow. Viscous resistance to flow can be modeled
for laminar flow, but if the lamina break up into turbulence, it is very difficult to characterize the
fluid flow.

201
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
The common application of laminar flow would be in the smooth flow of a viscous liquid through
a tube or pipe. In that case, the velocity of flow varies from zero at the walls to a maximum
along the centerline of the vessel. The flow profile of laminar flow in a tube can be calculated by
dividing the flow into thin cylindrical elements and applying the viscous force to them.

Laminar, Transitional or Turbulent Flow? - It is important to know if the fluid flow is laminar,
transitional or turbulent when calculating heat transfer or pressure and head loss.

Laplace's Equation: Describes the behavior of gravitational, electric, and fluid potentials.

The scalar form of Laplace's equation is the partial differential equation

(1)
where is the Laplacian.
Note that the operator is commonly written as by mathematicians (Krantz 1999, p. 16).
Laplace's equation is a special case of the Helmholtz differential equation
(2)

with , or Poisson's equation

(3)
with .

The vector Laplace's equation is given by

(4)

A function which satisfies Laplace's equation is said to be harmonic. A solution to Laplace's

equation has the property that the average value over a spherical surface is equal to the value
at the center of the sphere (Gauss's harmonic function theorem). Solutions have no local
maxima or minima. Because Laplace's equation is linear, the superposition of any two solutions
is also a solution.

Lift (Force): Lift consists of the sum of all the aerodynamic forces normal to the direction of the
external airflow.

202
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Liquids: An in-between state of matter. They can be found in between the solid and gas states.
They don't have to be made up of the same compounds. If you have a variety of materials in a
liquid, it is called a solution. One characteristic of a liquid is that it will fill up the shape of a
container. If you pour some water in a cup, it will fill up the bottom of the cup first and then fill
the rest. The water will also take the shape of the cup. It fills the bottom first because of gravity.
The top part of a liquid will usually have a flat surface. That flat surface is because of gravity too.
Putting an ice cube (solid) into a cup will leave you with a cube in the middle of the cup; the
shape won't change until the ice becomes a liquid.

Another trait of liquids is that they are difficult to compress.

When you compress something, you take a certain
amount and force it into a smaller space. Solids are very
difficult to compress and gases are very easy. Liquids are
in the middle but tend to be difficult. When you compress
something, you force the atoms closer together.
When pressure go up, substances are compressed.
Liquids already have their atoms close together, so they
are hard to compress. Many shock absorbers in cars compress liquids in tubes.

A special force keeps liquids together. Solids are stuck together and you have to force them
apart. Gases bounce everywhere and they try to spread themselves out. Liquids actually want
to stick together. There will always be the occasional evaporation where extra energy gets a
molecule excited and the molecule leaves the system. Overall, liquids have cohesive (sticky)
forces at work that hold the molecules together. Related Liquid Information: Equations in Fluid
Mechanics - Continuity, Euler, Bernoulli, Dynamic and Total Pressure

M
Mach Number: When an object travels through a medium, then its Mach number is the ratio of
the object's speed to the speed of sound in that medium.

Magnetic Flow Meter: Inspection of magnetic flow meter instrumentation should include
checking for corrosion or insulation deterioration.

Manning Formula for Gravity Flow: Manning's equation can be used to calculate cross-
sectional average velocity flow in open channels

v = kn/n R2/3 S1/2 (1)

where
v = cross-sectional average velocity (ft/s, m/s)
kn = 1.486 for English units and kn = 1.0 for SI units
A = cross sectional area of flow (ft2, m2)
n = Manning coefficient of roughness
R = hydraulic radius (ft, m)
S = slope of pipe (ft/ft, m/m)

The volume flow in the channel can be calculated as

q = A v = A kn/n R2/3 S1/2 (2)

203
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
 where
q = volume flow (ft3/s, m3/s)
A = cross-sectional area of flow (ft2, m2)

Maximum Contamination Levels or (MCLs): The maximum allowable level of a contaminant

that federal or state regulations allow in a public water system. If the MCL is exceeded, the
water system must treat the water so that it meets the MCL. Or provide adequate backflow
protection.

Mechanical Seal: A mechanical device used to control leakage from the stuffing box of a pump.
Usually made of two flat surfaces, one of which rotates on the shaft. The two flat surfaces are of
such tolerances as to prevent the passage of water between them.

Mg/L: milligrams per liter

Microbe, Microbial: Any minute, simple, single-celled form of life, especially one that causes
disease.

Microbial Contaminants: Microscopic organisms present in untreated water that can cause
waterborne diseases.

ML: milliliter

N
Navier-Stokes Equations: The motion of a non-turbulent, Newtonian fluid is governed by the
Navier-Stokes equation. The equation can be used to model turbulent flow, where the fluid
parameters are interpreted as time-averaged values.

Newtonian Fluid: Newtonian fluid (named for Isaac Newton) is a fluid that flows like water—its
shear stress is linearly proportional to the velocity gradient in the direction perpendicular to the
plane of shear. The constant of proportionality is known as the viscosity. Water is Newtonian,
because it continues to exemplify fluid properties no matter how fast it is stirred or mixed.

Contrast this with a non-Newtonian fluid, in which stirring can leave a "hole" behind (that
gradually fills up over time - this behavior is seen in materials such as pudding, or to a less
rigorous extent, sand), or cause the fluid to become thinner, the drop in viscosity causing it to
flow more (this is seen in non-drip paints). For a Newtonian fluid, the viscosity, by definition,
depends only on temperature and pressure (and also the chemical composition of the fluid if the
fluid is not a pure substance), not on the forces acting upon it. If the fluid is incompressible and
viscosity is constant across the fluid, the equation governing the shear stress. Related
Newtonian Information: A Fluid is Newtonian if viscosity is constant applied to shear force.
Dynamic, Absolute and Kinematic Viscosity - An introduction to dynamic, absolute and
kinematic viscosity and how to convert between CentiStokes (cSt), CentiPoises (cP), Saybolt
Universal Seconds (SSU) and degree Engler.

204
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Newton's Third Law: Newton's third law describes the forces acting on objects interacting with
each other. Newton's third law can be expressed as

 "If one object exerts a force F on another object, then the second object exerts an equal but
opposite force F on the first object"

Force is a convenient abstraction to represent mentally the pushing and pulling interaction
between objects.

It is common to express forces as vectors with magnitude, direction and point of application.
The net effect of two or more forces acting on the same point is the vector sum of the forces.

Non-Newtonian Fluid: Non-Newtonian fluid viscosity changes with the applied shear force.

P
Pascal’s Law: A pressure applied to a confined fluid at rest is transmitted with equal intensity
throughout the fluid.

pCi/L- picocuries per liter: A curie is the amount of radiation released by a set amount of a
certain compound. A picocurie is one quadrillionth of a curie.
pH: A measure of the acidity of water. The pH scale runs from 0 to 14 with 7 being the mid-point
or neutral. A pH of less than 7 is on the acid side of the scale with 0 as the point of greatest acid
activity. A pH of more than 7 is on the basic (alkaline) side of the scale with 14 as the point of
greatest basic activity. pH (Power of Hydroxyl Ion Activity).

Peak Demand: The maximum momentary load placed on a water treatment plant, pumping
station or distribution system is the Peak Demand.

Pipe Velocities: For calculating fluid pipe velocity.

Imperial units
A fluids flow velocity in pipes can be calculated with Imperial or American units as
v = 0.4085 q / d2 (1)

where
v = velocity (ft/s)
q = volume flow (US gal. /min)
d = pipe inside diameter (inches)

SI units
A fluids flow velocity in pipes can be calculated with SI units as
v = 1.274 q / d2 (2)

where
v = velocity (m/s)
q = volume flow (m3/s)
d = pipe inside diameter (m)

Potential Energy: The energy that a body has by virtue of its position or state enabling it to do
work.
205
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
PPM: Abbreviation for parts per million.

Prandtl Number: The Prandtl Number is a dimensionless number approximating the ratio of
momentum diffusivity and thermal diffusivity and can be expressed as

Pr = v / α (1)
where
Pr = Prandtl's number
v = kinematic viscosity (Pa s)
α = thermal diffusivity (W/m K)

The Prandtl number can alternatively be expressed as

Pr = μ cp / k (2)

where
μ = absolute or dynamic viscosity (kg/m s, cP)
cp = specific heat capacity (J/kg K, Btu/(lb oF))
k = thermal conductivity (W/m K, Btu/(h ft2 oF/ft))
The Prandtl Number is often used in heat transfer and free and forced convection calculations.

Pressure: An introduction to pressure - the definition and presentation of common units as psi
and Pa and the relationship between them.

The pressure in a fluid is defined as

"the normal force per unit area exerted on an imaginary or real plane surface in a fluid or a gas"

The equation for pressure can expressed as:

p = F / A (1)

where
p = pressure [lb/in2 (psi) or lb/ft2 (psf), N/m2 or kg/ms2 (Pa)]
F = force [1), N]
A = area [in2 or ft2, m2]
1) In the English Engineering System special care must be taken for the force unit. The basic

unit for mass is the pound mass (lbm) and the unit for the force is the pound (lb) or pound force
(lbf).

Absolute Pressure
The absolute pressure - pa - is measured relative to the absolute zero pressure - the pressure
that would occur at absolute vacuum.

Gauge Pressure
A gauge is often used to measure the pressure difference between a system and the
surrounding atmosphere. This pressure is often called the gauge pressure and can be
expressed as
pg = pa - po (2)

where
pg = gauge pressure

206
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
 po = atmospheric pressure

Atmospheric Pressure
The atmospheric pressure is the pressure in the surrounding air. It varies with temperature and
altitude above sea level.

Standard Atmospheric Pressure

The Standard Atmospheric Pressure (atm) is used as a reference for gas densities and
volumes. The Standard Atmospheric Pressure is defined at sea-level at 273oK (0oC) and is
1.01325 bar or 101325 Pa (absolute). The temperature of 293oK (20oC) is also used.

In imperial units the Standard Atmospheric Pressure is 14.696 psi.

 1 atm = 1.01325 bar = 101.3 kPa = 14.696 psi (lbf/in2)= 760 mmHg =10.33 mH2O = 760 torr
= 29.92 in Hg = 1013 mbar = 1.0332 kgf/cm2 = 33.90 ftH2O

Pressure Head: The height to which liquid can be raised by a given pressure.

Pressure Units: Since 1 Pa is a small pressure unit, the unit hectopascal (hPa) is widely used,
especially in meteorology. The unit kilopascal (kPa) is commonly used designing technical
applications like HVAC systems, piping systems and similar.
 1 hectopascal = 100 pascal = 1 millibar
 1 kilopascal = 1000 pascal

Some Pressure Levels

 10 Pa - The pressure at a depth of 1 mm of water
 1 kPa - Approximately the pressure exerted by a 10 g mass on a 1 cm2 area
 10 kPa - The pressure at a depth of 1 m of water, or
the drop in air pressure when going from sea level to 1000 m elevation
 10 MPa - A "high pressure" washer forces the water out of the nozzles at this pressure
 10 GPa - This pressure forms diamonds

Some Alternative Units of Pressure

 1 bar - 100,000 Pa
 1 millibar - 100 Pa
 1 atmosphere - 101,325 Pa
 1 mm Hg - 133 Pa
 1 inch Hg - 3,386 Pa

A torr (torr) is named after Torricelli and is the pressure produced by a column of mercury 1 mm
high equals to 1/760th of an atmosphere. 1 atm = 760 torr = 14.696 psi

Pounds per square inch (psi) was common in U.K. but has now been replaced in almost every
country except in the U.S. by the SI units. The Normal atmospheric pressure is 14.696 psi,
meaning that a column of air on one square inch in area rising from the Earth's atmosphere to
space weighs 14.696 pounds.

The bar (bar) is common in the industry. One bar is 100,000 Pa, and for most practical
purposes can be approximated to one atmosphere even if
1 Bar = 0.9869 atm

207
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
There are 1,000 millibar (mbar) in one bar, a unit common in meteorology.
1 millibar = 0.001 bar = 0.750 torr = 100 Pa

R
Residual Disinfection/Protection: A required level of disinfectant that remains in treated water
to ensure disinfection protection and prevent recontamination throughout the distribution system
(i.e., pipes).

Reynolds Number: The Reynolds number is used to determine whether a flow is laminar or
turbulent. The Reynolds Number is a non-dimensional parameter defined by the ratio of
dynamic pressure (ρ u2) and shearing stress (μ u / L) - and can be expressed as
Re = (ρ u2) / (μ u / L)
=ρuL/μ
= u L / ν (1)

where
Re = Reynolds Number (non-dimensional)
ρ = density (kg/m3, lbm/ft3 )
u = velocity (m/s, ft/s)
μ = dynamic viscosity (Ns/m2, lbm/s ft)
L = characteristic length (m, ft)
ν = kinematic viscosity (m2/s, ft2/s)

Richardson Number: A dimensionless number that expresses the ratio of potential to kinetic
energy.

S
Saybolt Universal Seconds (or SUS, SSU): Saybolt Universal Seconds (or SUS) is used to
measure viscosity. The efflux time is Saybolt Universal Seconds (SUS) required for 60 milliliters
of a petroleum product to flow through the calibrated orifice of a Saybolt Universal viscometer,
under carefully controlled temperature and as prescribed by test method ASTM D 88. This
method has largely been replaced by the kinematic viscosity method. Saybolt Universal
Seconds is also called the SSU number (Seconds Saybolt Universal) or SSF number (Saybolt
Seconds Furol).

Kinematic viscosity versus dynamic or absolute viscosity can be expressed as

ν = 4.63 μ / SG (3)
where
ν = kinematic viscosity (SSU)
μ = dynamic or absolute viscosity (cP)

Specific Gravity: The Specific Gravity - SG - is a dimensionless unit defined as the ratio of
density of the material to the density of water at a specified temperature. Specific Gravity can be
expressed as

208
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
 SG = = ρ / ρH2O (3)

where
SG = specific gravity
ρ = density of fluid or substance (kg/m3)
ρH2O = density of water (kg/m3)

It is common to use the density of water at 4o C (39oF) as a reference - at this point the density
of water is at the highest. Since Specific Weight is dimensionless it has the same value in the
metric SI system as in the imperial English system (BG). At the reference point the Specific
Gravity has same numerically value as density.

Example - Specific Gravity

If the density of iron is 7850 kg/m3, 7.85 grams per cubic millimeter, 7.85 kilograms per liter, or
7.85 metric tons per cubic meter - the specific gravity of iron is:
SG = 7850 kg/m3/ 1000 kg/m3
= 7.85
(the density of water is 1000 kg/m3)

Specific Weight: Specific Weight is defined as weight per unit volume. Weight is a force.
 Mass and Weight - the difference! - What is weight and what is mass? An explanation of the
difference between weight and mass.
Specific Weight can be expressed as

γ = ρ g (2)

where
γ = specific weight (kN/m3)
g = acceleration of gravity (m/s2)
The SI-units of specific weight are kN/m3. The imperial units are lb/ft3. The local acceleration g is
under normal conditions 9.807 m/s2 in SI-units and 32.174 ft/s2 in imperial units.

Example - Specific Weight Water

Specific weight for water at 60 oF is 62.4 lb/ft3 in imperial units and 9.80 kN/m3 in SI-units.

Example - Specific Weight Some other Materials

Specific Weight - γ
Product Imperial Units SI Units
(lb/ft3) (kN/m3)
Ethyl Alcohol 49.3 7.74
Gasoline 42.5 6.67
Glycerin 78.6 12.4
Mercury 847 133
SAE 20 Oil 57 8.95
Seawater 64 10.1
Water 62.4 9.80

Static Head: The height of a column or body of fluid above a given point
209
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Static Pressure: The pressure in a fluid at rest.

Static Pressure and Pressure Head in Fluids: The pressure indicates the normal force per
unit area at a given point acting on a given plane. Since there is no shearing stresses present in
a fluid at rest - the pressure in a fluid is independent of direction.

For fluids - liquids or gases - at rest the pressure gradient in the vertical direction depends only
on the specific weight of the fluid.

How pressure changes with elevation can be expressed as

dp = - γ dz (1)

where
dp = change in pressure
dz = change in height
γ = specific weight

The pressure gradient in vertical direction is negative - the pressure decrease upwards.

Specific Weight: Specific Weight can be expressed as:

γ = ρ g (2)

where
γ = specific weight
g = acceleration of gravity

In general the specific weight - γ - is constant for fluids. For gases the specific weight - γ - varies
with the elevation.

Static Pressure and Pressure Head in Fluids:

Static Pressure in a Fluid: For an incompressible fluid - as a liquid - the pressure difference
between two elevations can be expressed as:

p2 - p1 = - γ (z2 - z1) (3)

where
p2 = pressure at level 2
p1 = pressure at level 1
z2 = level 2
z1 = level 1
(3) can be transformed to:
p1 - p2 = γ (z2 - z1) (4)
or
p1 - p2 = γ h (5)

where
h = z2 - z1 difference in elevation - the depth down from location z2.
or
p1 = γ h + p2 (6)

210
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Static Pressure and Pressure Head in Fluids Continued:
The Pressure Head
(6) can be transformed to:
h = (p2 - p1) / γ (6)
h express the pressure head - the height of a column of fluid of specific weight - γ - required to
give a pressure difference of (p2 - p1).

Example - Pressure Head

A pressure difference of 5 psi (lbf/in2) is equivalent to
5 (lbf/in2) 12 (in/ft) 12 (in/ft) / 62.4 (lb/ft3) = 11.6 ft of water
5 (lbf/in2) 12 (in/ft) 12 (in/ft) / 847 (lb/ft3) = 0.85 ft of mercury
when specific weight of water is 62.4 (lb/ft3) and specific weight of mercury is 847 (lb/ft3).

Streamline - Stream Function: A streamline is the path that an imaginary particle would follow
if it was embedded in the flow.

Strouhal Number: A quantity describing oscillating flow mechanisms. The Strouhal Number is
a dimensionless value useful for analyzing oscillating, unsteady fluid flow dynamics problems.

The Strouhal Number can be expressed as

St = ω l / v (1)

where
St = Strouhal Number
ω = oscillation frequency
l = characteristic length
v = flow velocity

The Strouhal Number represents a measure of the ratio of inertial forces due to the unsteadiness
of the flow or local acceleration to the inertial forces due to changes in velocity from one point to
another in the flow field.

The vortices observed behind a stone in a river, or measured behind the obstruction in a vortex
flow meter, illustrate these principles.

Surface Tension: Surface tension is a force within the surface layer of a liquid that causes the
layer to behave as an elastic sheet. The cohesive forces between liquid molecules are
responsible for the phenomenon known as surface tension. The molecules at the surface do not
have other like molecules on all sides of them and consequently they cohere more strongly to
those directly associated with them on the surface. This forms a surface "film" which makes it
more difficult to move an object through the surface than to move it when it is completely
submersed. Surface tension is typically measured in dynes/cm, the force in dynes required to
break a film of length 1 cm. Equivalently, it can be stated as surface energy in ergs per square
centimeter. Water at 20°C has a surface tension of 72.8 dynes/cm compared to 22.3 for ethyl
alcohol and 465 for mercury.

211
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Surface tension is typically measured in dynes/cm or N/m.
Surface Tension
Liquid
N/m dynes/cm
Ethyl Alcohol 0.0223 22.3
Mercury 0.465 465
Water 20 C o 0.0728 72.75
Water 100 C o 0.0599 58.9

Surface tension is the energy required to stretch a unit change of a surface area. Surface
tension will form a drop of liquid to a sphere since the sphere offers the smallest area for a
definite volume.

Surface tension can be defined as

σ = Fs / l (1)

where
σ = surface tension (N/m)
Fs = stretching force (N)
l = unit length (m)

Alternative Units
Alternatively, surface tension is typically measured in dynes/cm, which is
 the force in dynes required to break a film of length 1 cm
or as surface energy J/m2 or alternatively ergs per square centimeter.
 1 dynes/cm = 0.001 N/m = 0.0000685 lbf/ft = 0.571 10-5 lbf/in = 0.0022 poundal/ft = 0.00018
poundal/in = 1.0 mN/m = 0.001 J/m2 = 1.0 erg/cm2 = 0.00010197 kgf/m

Common Imperial units used are lb/ft and lb/in.

Water surface tension at different temperatures can be taken from the table below:
Surface Tension
Temperature
-σ-
(oC)
(N/m)
0 0.0757
10 0.0742
20 0.0728
30 0.0712
40 0.0696
50 0.0679
60 0.0662
70 0.0644
80 0.0626
90 0.0608
100 0.0588
212
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Surface Tension of some common Fluids
 benzene : 0.0289 (N/m)
 diethyl ether : 0.0728 (N/m)
 carbon tetrachloride : 0.027 (N/m)
 chloroform : 0.0271 (N/m)
 ethanol : 0.0221 (N/m)
 ethylene glycol : 0.0477 (N/m)
 glycerol : 0.064 (N/m)
 mercury : 0.425 (N/m)
 methanol : 0.0227 (N/m)
 propanol : 0.0237 (N/m)
 toluene : 0.0284 (N/m)
 water at 20oC : 0.0729 (N/m)

V
Venturi: A system for speeding the flow of the fluid, by constricting it in a cone-
shaped tube. Venturi are used to measure the speed of a fluid, by measuring the
pressure changes from one point to another along the venture. A venturi can also be
used to inject a liquid or a gas into another liquid. A pump forces the liquid flow
through a tube connected to:
 A venturi to increase the speed of the fluid (restriction of the pipe diameter)
 A short piece of tube connected to the gas source
 A second venturi that decrease the speed of the fluid (the pipe diameter increase again)
 After the first venturi the pressure in the pipe is lower, so the gas is sucked in the pipe.
Then the mixture enters the second venturi and slow down. At the end of the system a
mixture of gas and liquid appears and the pressure rise again to its normal level in the
pipe.
 This technique is used for ozone injection in water.

213
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
 The newest injector design causes complete mixing of injected materials (air, ozone or
chemicals), eliminating the need for other in-line mixers. Venturi injectors have no moving parts
and are maintenance free. They operate effectively over a wide range of pressures (from 1 to
250 psi) and require only a minimum pressure difference to initiate the vacuum at the suction
part. Venturis are often built in thermoplastics (PVC, PE, PVDF), stainless steel or other metals.

The cavitation effect at the injection chamber provides an instantaneous mixing, creating
thousands of very tiny bubbles of gas in the liquid. The small bubbles provide and increased gas
exposure to the liquid surface area, increasing the effectiveness of the process (i.e. ozonation).

Viscosity: Informally, viscosity is the quantity that describes a fluid's resistance to flow. Fluids
resist the relative motion of immersed objects through them as well as to the motion of layers
with differing velocities within them. Formally, viscosity (represented by the symbol η "eta") is
the ratio of the shearing stress (F/A) to the velocity gradient (Δvx/Δz or dvx/dz) in a fluid.
F Δvx F dvx
η=( )÷( ) or η = ( ) ÷ ( )
A Δz A dz

214
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
The more usual form of this relationship, called Newton's equation, states that the resulting shear
of a fluid is directly proportional to the force applied and inversely proportional to its viscosity. The
similarity to Newton's second law of motion (F = ma) should be apparent.
F Δvx F dvx
=η or =η
A Δz A dz

⇕ ⇕

Δv dv
F=m or F = m
Δt dt
The SI unit of viscosity is the pascal second [Paꞏs], which has no special name. Despite its self-
proclaimed title as an international system, the International System of Units has had very little
international impact on viscosity. The pascal second is rarely used in scientific and technical
publications today. The most common unit of viscosity is the dyne second per square centimeter
[dyneꞏs/cm2], which is given the name poise [P] after the French physiologist Jean Louis Poiseuille
(1799-1869). Ten poise equal one pascal second [Paꞏs] making the centipoise [cP] and
millipascal second [mPaꞏs] identical.

1 pascal second = 10 poise = 1,000 millipascal second

1 centipoise = 1 millipascal second

There are actually two quantities that are called viscosity. The quantity defined above is
sometimes called dynamic viscosity, absolute viscosity, or simple viscosity to distinguish it from
the other quantity, but is usually just called viscosity. The other quantity called kinematic viscosity
(represented by the symbol ν "nu") is the ratio of the viscosity of a fluid to its density.
η
ν=
ρ

Kinematic viscosity is a measure of the resistive flow of a fluid under the influence of gravity. It is
frequently measured using a device called a capillary viscometer -- basically a graduated can with
a narrow tube at the bottom. When two fluids of equal volume are placed in identical capillary
viscometers and allowed to flow under the influence of gravity, a viscous fluid takes longer than
a less viscous fluid to flow through the tube. Capillary viscometers are discussed in more detail
later in this section. The SI unit of kinematic viscosity is the square meter per second [m2/s],
which has no special name. This unit is so large that it is rarely used. A more common unit of
kinematic viscosity is the square centimeter per second [cm2/s], which is given the name stoke
[St] after the English scientist George Stoke. This unit is also a bit too large and so the most
common unit is probably the square millimeter per second [mm2/s] or centistoke [cSt].

Viscosity and Reference Temperatures: The viscosity of a fluid is highly temperature

dependent and for either dynamic or kinematic viscosity to be meaningful, the reference
temperature must be quoted. In ISO 8217 the reference temperature for a residual fluid is 100oC.
For a distillate fluid the reference temperature is 40oC.
 For a liquid - the kinematic viscosity will decrease with higher temperature.
 For a gas - the kinematic viscosity will increase with higher temperature.

Vorticity: Vorticity is defined as the circulation per unit area at a point in the flow field.

215
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
 216
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Appendixes and Charts
Density of Common Liquids
The density of some common liquids can be found in the table below:

Temperature Density
Liquid -t- -ρ-
(oC) (kg/m3)
Acetic Acid 25 1049
Acetone 25 785
Acetonitrile 20 782
Alcohol, ethyl 25 785
Alcohol, methyl 25 787
Alcohol, propyl 25 780
Ammonia (aqua) 25 823
Aniline 25 1019
Automobile oils 15 880 - 940
Beer (varies) 10 1010
Benzene 25 874
Benzyl 15 1230
Brine 15 1230
Bromine 25 3120
Butyric Acid 20 959
Butane 25 599
n-Butyl Acetate 20 880
n-Butyl Alcohol 20 810
n-Butylhloride 20 886
Caproic acid 25 921
Carbolic acid 15 956
Carbon disulfide 25 1261
Carbon tetrachloride 25 1584
Carene 25 857
Castor oil 25 956
Chloride 25 1560
Chlorobenzene 20 1106
Chloroform 20 1489
Chloroform 25 1465
Citric acid 25 1660
Coconut oil 15 924
Cotton seed oil 15 926
Cresol 25 1024
217
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
 Creosote 15 1067
Crude oil, 48o API 60oF 790
Crude oil, 40o API 60oF 825
Crude oil, 35.6o API 60oF 847
Crude oil, 32.6o API 60oF 862
Crude oil, California 60oF 915
Crude oil, Mexican 60oF 973
Crude oil, Texas 60oF 873
Cumene 25 860
Cyclohexane 20 779
Cyclopentane 20 745
Decane 25 726
Diesel fuel oil 20 to 60 15 820 - 950
Diethyl ether 20 714
o-Dichlorobenzene 20 1306
Dichloromethane 20 1326
Diethylene glycol 15 1120
Dichloromethane 20 1326
Dimethyl Acetamide 20 942
N,N-Dimethylformamide 20 949
Dimethyl Sulfoxide 20 1100
Dodecane 25 755
Ethane -89 570
Ether 25 73
Ethylamine 16 681
Ethyl Acetate 20 901
Ethyl Alcohol 20 789
Ethyl Ether 20 713
Ethylene Dichloride 20 1253
Ethylene glycol 25 1097
Fluorine refrigerant R-12 25 1311
Formaldehyde 45 812
Formic acid
20 1025
10%oncentration
Formic acid
20 1221
80%oncentration
Freon - 11 21 1490
Freon - 21 21 1370
Fuel oil 60oF 890

218
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
 Furan 25 1416
Furforol 25 1155
Gasoline, natural 60oF 711
Gasoline, Vehicle 60oF 737
Gas oils 60oF 890
Glucose 60oF 1350 - 1440
Glycerin 25 1259
Glycerol 25 1126
Heptane 25 676
Hexane 25 655
Hexanol 25 811
Hexene 25 671
Hydrazine 25 795
Iodine 25 4927
Ionene 25 932
Isobutyl Alcohol 20 802
Iso-Octane 20 692
Isopropyl Alcohol 20 785
Isopropyl Myristate 20 853
Kerosene 60oF 817
Linolenic Acid 25 897
Linseed oil 25 929
Methane -164 465
Methanol 20 791
Methyl Isoamyl Ketone 20 888
Methyl Isobutyl Ketone 20 801
Methyl n-Propyl Ketone 20 808
Methyl t-Butyl Ether 20 741
N-Methylpyrrolidone 20 1030
Methyl Ethyl Ketone 20 805
Milk 15 1020 - 1050
Naphtha 15 665
Naphtha, wood 25 960
Napthalene 25 820
Ocimene 25 798
Octane 15 918
Olive oil 20 800 - 920
Oxygen (liquid) -183 1140
Palmitic Acid 25 851
219
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
 Pentane 20 626
Pentane 25 625
Petroleum Ether 20 640
Petrol, natural 60oF 711
Petrol, Vehicle 60oF 737
Phenol 25 1072
Phosgene 0 1378
Phytadiene 25 823
Pinene 25 857
Propane -40 583
Propane, R-290 25 494
Propanol 25 804
Propylenearbonate 20 1201
Propylene 25 514
Propylene glycol 25 965
Pyridine 25 979
Pyrrole 25 966
Rape seed oil 20 920
Resorcinol 25 1269
Rosin oil 15 980
Sea water 25 1025
Silane 25 718
Silicone oil 760
Sodium Hydroxide (caustic
15 1250
soda)
Sorbaldehyde 25 895
Soya bean oil 15 924 - 928
Stearic Acid 25 891
Sulfuric Acid 95%onc. 20 1839
Sugar solution 68 brix 15 1338
Sunflower oil 20 920
Styrene 25 903
Terpinene 25 847
Tetrahydrofuran 20 888
Toluene 20 867
Toluene 25 862
Triethylamine 20 728
Trifluoroacetic Acid 20 1489
Turpentine 25 868

220
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
 Water - pure 4 1000
Water - sea 77 F
o 1022
Whale oil 15 925
o-Xylene 20 880
1 kg/m = 0.001 g/cm = 0.0005780 oz/in = 0.16036 oz/gal (Imperial) = 0.1335 oz/gal (U.S.) =
3 3 3

0.0624 lb/ft3 = 0.000036127 lb/in3 = 1.6856 lb/yd3 = 0.010022 lb/gal (Imperial) = 0.008345 lb/gal
(U.S) = 0.0007525 ton/yd3

221
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Dynamic or Absolute Viscosity Units Converting Table
The table below can be used to convert between common dynamic or absolute viscosity units.
Multiply by Convert to
Poise
(dyne s/
Convert Poiseuille
cm2 centiPoise kg / m h kgf s / m2
from (Pa s)
=
g / cm s)
Poiseuille
1 10 103 3.63 103 0.102
(Pa s)
Poise
(dyne s /
cm2 0.1 1 100 360 0.0102
=
g / cm s)
centiPoise 0.001 0.01 1 3.6 0.00012
kg / m h 2.78 10 -4 0.00278 0.0278 1 2.83 10-5
kgf s / m2 9.81 98.1 9.81 103 3.53 104 1
lbf s / inch 2 6.89 10 3 6.89 10 4 6.89 10 6 2.48 10 7 703
lbf s / ft2 47.9 479 4.79 10 4 1.72 10 5 0.0488
lbf h / ft 2 1.72 10 5 1.72 10 6 1.72 10 8 6.21 10 8 1.76 104
lb / ft s 1.49 14.9 1.49 103 5.36 103 0.152
lb / ft h 4.13 10 -4 0.00413 0.413 1.49 4.22 10-5
Multiply by Convert to
Convert
lbf s / inch2 lbf s / ft2 lbf h / ft2 lb / ft s lb / ft h
from
Poiseuille
1.45 10-4 0.0209 5.8 10-6 0.672 2.42 103
(Pa s)
Poise
(dyne s /
cm2 1.45 10-5 0.00209 5.8 10-7 0.0672 242
=
g / cm s)
centiPoise 1.45 10-7 2.9 10-5 5.8 10-9 0.000672 2.42
kg / m h 4.03 10-8 5.8 10-6 1.61 10-9 0.000187 0.672
kgf s / m2 0.00142 20.5 5.69 10-5 6.59 2.37 104
lbf s / inch 2 1 144 0.04 4.63 103 1.67 107
lbf s / ft2 0.00694 1 0.000278 32.2 1.16 105
lbf h / ft2 25 3.6 103 1 1.16 105 4.17 108
lb / ft s 0.000216 0.0311 8.63 10-6 1 3.6 103
lb / ft h 6 10-8 1.16 105 2.4 10-9 0.000278 1

222
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Friction Loss Chart
The table below can be used to indicate the friction loss - feet of liquid per 100 feet of pipe - in
standard schedule 40 steel pipes.
Flow Rate Kinematic Viscosity - SSU
Pipe
Size 200 400 800 1500
31 100
(inches) (gpm) (l/s) (~Vegetable (~SAE (~Tomato (~SAE
(Water) (~Cream)
oil) 10 oil) juice) 30 oil)
1/2 3 0.19 10.0 25.7 54.4 108.0 218.0 411.0
3 0.19 2.5 8.5 17.5 35.5 71.0 131.0
3/4
5 0.32 6.3 14.1 29.3 59.0 117.0 219.0
3 0.19 0.8 3.2 6.6 13.4 26.6 50.0
5 0.32 1.9 5.3 11.0 22.4 44.0 83.0
1 10 0.63 6.9 11.2 22.4 45.0 89.0 165.0
15 0.95 14.6 26.0 34.0 67.0 137.0
20 1.26 25.1 46 46.0 90.0 180.0
5 0.32 0.5 1.8 3.7 7.6 14.8 26.0
1 1/4 10 0.63 1.8 3.6 7.5 14.9 30.0 55.0
15 0.95 3.7 6.4 11.3 22.4 45.0 84.0
10 0.63 0.8 1.9 4.2 8.1 16.5 31.0
15 0.95 1.7 2.8 6.2 12.4 25.0 46.0
1 1/2 20 1.26 2.9 5.3 8.1 16.2 33.0 61.0
30 1.9 6.3 11.6 12.2 24.3 50.0 91.0
40 2.5 10.8 19.6 20.8 32.0 65.0 121.0
20 1.26 0.9 1.5 3.0 6.0 11.9 22.4
30 1.9 1.8 3.2 4.4 9.0 17.8 33.0
2 40 2.5 3.1 5.8 5.8 11.8 24.0 44.0
60 3.8 6.6 11.6 13.4 17.8 36.0 67.0
80 5.0 1.6 3.0 3.2 4.8 9.7 18.3
30 1.9 0.8 1.4 2.2 4.4 8.8 16.6
40 2.5 1.3 2.5 3.0 5.8 11.8 22.2
2 1/2 60 3.8 2.7 5.1 5.5 8.8 17.8 34.0
80 5.0 4.7 8.3 9.7 11.8 24.0 44.0
100 6.3 7.1 12.2 14.1 14.8 29.0 55.0
60 3.8 0.9 1.8 1.8 3.7 7.3 13.8
100 6.3 2.4 4.4 5.1 6.2 12.1 23.0
125 7.9 3.6 6.5 7.8 8.1 15.3 29.0
3
150 9.5 5.1 9.2 10.4 11.5 18.4 35.0
175 11.0 6.9 11.7 13.8 15.8 21.4 40.0
200 12.6 8.9 15.0 17.8 20.3 25.0 46.0
223
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
 80 5.0 0.4 0.8 0.8 1.7 3.3 6.2
100 6.3 0.6 1.2 1.3 2.1 4.1 7.8
125 7.9 0.9 1.8 2.1 2.6 5.2 9.8
4 150 9.5 1.3 2.4 2.9 3.1 6.2 11.5
175 11.0 1.8 3.2 4.0 4.0 7.4 13.7
200 12.6 2.3 4.2 5.1 5.1 8.3 15.5
250 15.8 3.5 6.0 7.4 8.0 10.2 19.4
125 7.9 0.1 0.3 0.3 0.52 1.0 1.9
150 9.5 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 1.2 2.3
175 11.0 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.7 1.4 2.6
6 200 12.6 0.3 0.6 0.7 0.8 1.6 3.0
250 15.8 0.5 0.8 1.0 1.0 2.1 3.7
300 18.9 1.1 8.5 10.0 11.6 12.4 23.0
400 25.2 1.1 1.9 2.3 2.8 3.2 6.0
250 15.8 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.7 1.2
8 300 18.9 0.3 1.2 1.4 1.5 2.5 4.6
400 25.2 0.3 0.5 0.6 0.7 1.1 2.0
300 18.9 0.1 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.8 1.5
10
400 25.2 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.8

224
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Hazen-Williams Coefficients
Hazen-Williams factor for some common piping materials. Hazen-Williams coefficients are used
in the Hazen-Williams equation for friction loss calculation in ducts and pipes. Coefficients for
some common materials used in ducts and pipes can be found in the table below:

Hazen-Williams Coefficient
Material
-C-
Asbestos Cement 140
Brass 130 - 140
Brick sewer 100
Cast-Iron - new unlined (CIP) 130
Cast-Iron 10 years old 107 - 113
Cast-Iron 20 years old 89 - 100
Cast-Iron 30 years old 75 - 90
Cast-Iron 40 years old 64-83
Cast-Iron, asphalt coated 100
Cast-Iron, cement lined 140
Cast-Iron, bituminous lined 140
Cast-Iron, wrought plain 100
Concrete 100 - 140
Copper or Brass 130 - 140
Ductile Iron Pipe (DIP) 140
Fiber 140
Galvanized iron 120
Glass 130
Lead 130 - 140
Plastic 130 - 150
Polyethylene, PE, PEH 150
PVC, CPVC 150
Smooth Pipes 140
Steel new unlined 140 - 150
Steel
Steel, welded and seamless 100
Steel, interior riveted, no
100
projecting rivets
Steel, projecting girth rivets 100
Steel, vitrified, spiral-riveted 90 - 100
Steel, corrugated 60
Tin 130
Vitrified Clays 110
Wood Stave 110 - 120

225
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Pressure Head
A pressure difference of 5 psi (lbf/in2) is equivalent to
5 (lbf/in2) 12 (in/ft) 12 (in/ft) / 62.4 (lb/ft3) = 11.6 ft of water
5 (lbf/in2) 12 (in/ft) 12 (in/ft) / 847 (lb/ft3) = 0.85 ft of mercury
When specific weight of water is 62.4 (lb/ft3) and specific weight of mercury is 847 (lb/ft3).
Heads at different velocities can be taken from the table below:
Velocity Head Water
(ft/sec) (ft)
0.5 0.004
1.0 0.016
1.5 0035
2.0 0.062
2.5 0.097
3.0 0.140
3.5 0.190
4.0 0.248
4.5 0.314
5.0 0.389
5.5 0.470
6.0 0.560
6.5 0.657
7.0 0.762
7.5 0.875
8.0 0.995
8.5 1.123
9.0 1.259
9.5 1.403
10.0 1.555
11.0 1.881
12.0 2.239
13.0 2.627
14.0 3.047
15.0 3.498
16.0 3.980
17.0 4.493
18.0 5.037
19.0 5.613
20.0 6.219
21.0 6.856
22.0 7.525
1 ft (foot) = 0.3048 m = 12 in = 0.3333 yd.

226
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Thermal Properties of Water

Specific
Absolute Specific Specific
Temperature Density volume
pressure Heat entropy
-t- -ρ- -v-
-p- - cp - -e-
( C)
o (kg/m3) (m3/kgx10-
(kN/m2) 3) (kJ/kgK) (kJ/kgK)

0 0.6 1000 100 4.217 0

5 0.9 1000 100 4.204 0.075
10 1.2 1000 100 4.193 0.150
15 1.7 999 100 4.186 0.223
20 2.3 998 100 4.182 0.296
25 3.2 997 100 4.181 0.367
30 4.3 996 100 4.179 0.438
35 5.6 994 101 4.178 0.505
40 7.7 991 101 4.179 0.581
45 9.6 990 101 4.181 0.637
50 12.5 988 101 4.182 0.707
55 15.7 986 101 4.183 0.767
60 20.0 980 102 4.185 0.832
65 25.0 979 102 4.188 0.893
70 31.3 978 102 4.190 0.966
75 38.6 975 103 4.194 1.016
80 47.5 971 103 4.197 1.076
85 57.8 969 103 4.203 1.134
90 70.0 962 104 4.205 1.192
95 84.5 962 104 4.213 1.250
100 101.33 962 104 4.216 1.307
105 121 955 105 4.226 1.382
110 143 951 105 4.233 1.418
115 169 947 106 4.240 1.473
120 199 943 106 4.240 1.527
125 228 939 106 4.254 1.565
130 270 935 107 4.270 1.635
135 313 931 107 4.280 1.687
140 361 926 108 4.290 1.739
145 416 922 108 4.300 1.790
150 477 918 109 4.310 1.842
155 543 912 110 4.335 1.892
160 618 907 110 4.350 1.942
227
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
165 701 902 111 4.364 1.992
170 792 897 111 4.380 2.041
175 890 893 112 4.389 2.090
180 1000 887 113 4.420 2.138
185 1120 882 113 4.444 2.187
190 1260 876 114 4.460 2.236
195 1400 870 115 4.404 2.282
200 1550 863 116 4.497 2.329
220
225 2550 834 120 4.648 2.569
240
250 3990 800 125 4.867 2.797
260
275 5950 756 132 5.202 3.022
300 8600 714 140 5.769 3.256
325 12130 654 153 6.861 3.501
350 16540 575 174 10.10 3.781
360 18680 526 190 14.60 3.921

228
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Viscosity Converting Chart
The viscosity of a fluid is its resistance to shear or flow, and is a measure of the fluid’s adhesive/
cohesive or frictional properties. This arises because of the internal molecular friction within the
fluid producing the frictional drag effect. There are two related measures of fluid viscosity which
are known as dynamic and kinematic viscosity.

Dynamic viscosity is also termed "absolute viscosity" and is the tangential force per unit area
required to move one horizontal plane with respect to the other at unit velocity when maintained
a unit distance apart by the fluid.
Centipoise Saybolt
(CPS) Poise Centistokes Stokes Seconds
Millipascal (P) (cSt) (S) Universal
(mPas) (SSU)
1 0.01 1 0.01 31
2 0.02 2 0.02 34
4 0.04 4 0.04 38
7 0.07 7 0.07 47
10 0.1 10 0.1 60
15 0.15 15 0.15 80
20 0.2 20 0.2 100
25 0.24 25 0.24 130
30 0.3 30 0.3 160
40 0.4 40 0.4 210
50 0.5 50 0.5 260
60 0.6 60 0.6 320
70 0.7 70 0.7 370
80 0.8 80 0.8 430
90 0.9 90 0.9 480
100 1 100 1 530
120 1.2 120 1.2 580
140 1.4 140 1.4 690
160 1.6 160 1.6 790
180 1.8 180 1.8 900
200 2 200 2 1000
220 2.2 220 2.2 1100
240 2.4 240 2.4 1200
260 2.6 260 2.6 1280
280 2.8 280 2.8 1380
300 3 300 3 1475
320 3.2 320 3.2 1530

229
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
 340 3.4 340 3.4 1630
360 3.6 360 3.6 1730
380 3.8 380 3.8 1850
400 4 400 4 1950
420 4.2 420 4.2 2050
440 4.4 440 4.4 2160
460 4.6 460 4.6 2270
480 4.8 480 4.8 2380
500 5 500 5 2480
550 5.5 550 5.5 2660
600 6 600 6 2900
700 7 700 7 3380
800 8 800 8 3880
900 9 900 9 4300
1000 10 1000 10 4600
1100 11 1100 11 5200
1200 12 1200 12 5620
1300 13 1300 13 6100
1400 14 1400 14 6480
1500 15 1500 15 7000
1600 16 1600 16 7500
1700 17 1700 17 8000
1800 18 1800 18 8500
1900 19 1900 19 9000
2000 20 2000 20 9400
2100 21 2100 21 9850
2200 22 2200 22 10300
2300 23 2300 23 10750
2400 24 2400 24 11200

230
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Various Flow Section Channels and their Geometric Relationships:
Area, wetted perimeter and hydraulic diameter for some common geometric sections like
 rectangular channels
 trapezoidal channels
 triangular channels
 circular channels.

Rectangular Channel
Flow Area
Flow area of a rectangular channel can be expressed as
A = b h (1)

where
A = flow area (m2, in2)
b = width of channel (m, in)
h = height of flow (m, in)

Wetted Perimeter
Wetted perimeter of a rectangular channel can be expressed as
P = b + 2 h (1b)

where
P = wetted perimeter (m, in)

Hydraulic Radius
Hydraulic radius of a rectangular channel can be expressed as
Rh = b h / (b + 2 y) (1c)

where
Rh = hydraulic radius (m, in)

Trapezoidal Channel
Flow Area
Flow area of a trapezoidal channel can be expressed as
A = (a + z h) h (2)

where
z = see figure above (m, in)

Wetted Perimeter
Wetted perimeter of a trapezoidal channel can be expressed as
P = a + 2 h (1 + z2)1/2 (2b)

Hydraulic Radius
Hydraulic radius of a trapezoidal channel can be expressed as
Rh = (a + z h) h / a + 2 h (1 + z2)1/2 (2c)

231
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Triangular Channel
Flow Area
Flow area of a triangular channel can be expressed as
A = z h2 (3)
where
z = see figure above (m, in)

Wetted Perimeter
Wetted perimeter of a triangular channel can be expressed as
P = 2 h (1 + z2)1/2 (3b)

Hydraulic Radius
Hydraulic radius of a triangular channel can be expressed as
Rh = z h / 2 (1 + z2)1/2 (3c)

Circular Channel
Flow Area
Flow area of a circular channel can be expressed as
A = D2/4 (α - sin(2 α)/2) (4)

where
D = diameter of channel
α = cos-1(1 - h/r)

Wetted Perimeter
Wetted perimeter of a circular channel can be expressed as
P = α D (4b)

Hydraulic Radius
Hydraulic radius of a circular channel can be expressed as
Rh = D/8 [1 - sin(2 α) / (2 α)] (4c)

Velocity Head: Velocity head can be expressed as

h = v2/2g (1)

where
v = velocity (ft, m)
g = acceleration of gravity (32.174 ft/s2, 9.81 m/s2)

232
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Heads at different velocities can be taken from the table below:
Velocity Velocity Head
-v- - v2/2g -
(ft/sec) (ft Water)
0.5 0.004
1.0 0.016
1.5 0035
2.0 0.062
2.5 0.097
3.0 0.140
3.5 0.190
4.0 0.248
4.5 0.314
5.0 0.389
5.5 0.470
6.0 0.560
6.5 0.657
7.0 0.762
7.5 0.875
8.0 0.995
8.5 1.123
9.0 1.259
9.5 1.403
10.0 1.555
11.0 1.881
12.0 2.239
13.0 2.627
14.0 3.047
15.0 3.498
16.0 3.980
17.0 4.493
18.0 5.037
19.0 5.613
20.0 6.219
21.0 6.856
22.0 7.525

233
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Some Commonly used Thermal Properties for Water

 Density at 4 oC - 1,000 kg/m3, 62.43 Lbs./Cu.Ft., 8.33 Lbs./Gal., 0.1337 Cu.Ft./Gal.

 Freezing temperature - 0 oC
 Boiling temperature - 100 oC
 Latent heat of melting - 334 kJ/kg
 Latent heat of evaporation - 2,270 kJ/kg
 Critical temperature - 380 - 386 oC
 Critical pressure - 23.520 kN/m2
 Specific heat capacity water - 4.187 kJ/kgK
 Specific heat capacity ice - 2.108 kJ/kgK
 Specific heat capacity water vapor - 1.996 kJ/kgK
 Thermal expansion from 4 oC to 100 oC - 4.2x10-2
 Bulk modulus elasticity - 2,068,500 kN/m2

234
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Reynolds Number
Turbulent or laminar flow is determined by the dimensionless Reynolds Number.

The Reynolds number is important in analyzing any type of flow when there is substantial velocity
gradient (i.e., shear.) It indicates the relative significance of the viscous effect compared to the
inertia effect. The Reynolds number is proportional to inertial force divided by viscous force.

A definition of the Reynolds’ Number:

The flow is
 laminar if Re < 2300
 transient if 2300 < Re < 4000
 turbulent if 4000 < Re

The table below shows Reynolds Number for one liter of water flowing through pipes of different
dimensions:
Pipe Size
(inches) 1 1? 2 3 4 6 8 10 12 18
(mm) 25 40 50 75 100 150 200 250 300 450
Reynolds
number
with 835 550 420 280 210 140 105 85 70 46
one (1)
liter/min
Reynolds
number
with 3800 2500 1900 1270 950 630 475 380 320 210
one (1)
gal/min

235
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Linear Motion Formulas
Velocity can be expressed as (velocity = constant):

v = s / t (1a)

where
v = velocity (m/s, ft/s)
s = linear displacement (m, ft)
t = time (s)

Velocity can be expressed as (acceleration = constant):

v = V0 + a t (1b)

where
V0 = linear velocity at time zero (m/s, ft/s)

Linear displacement can be expressed as (acceleration = constant):

s = V0 t + 1/2 a t2 (1c)

Combining 1a and 1c to express velocity

v = (V02 + 2 a s)1/2 (1d)

Velocity can be expressed as (velocity variable)

v = ds / dt (1f)

where
ds = change of displacement (m, ft)
dt = change in time (s)

Acceleration can be expressed as

a = dv / dt (1g)

where
dv = change in velocity (m/s, ft/s)

236
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Water - Dynamic and Kinematic Viscosity
Dynamic and Kinematic Viscosity of Water in Imperial Units (BG units):
Dynamic Kinematic
Temperature
Viscosity Viscosity
-t-
- µ - -ν-
(oF)
10-5 (lbs./ft2) 10-5 (ft2/s)
32 3.732 1.924
40 3.228 1.664
50 2.730 1.407
60 2.344 1.210
70 2.034 1.052
80 1.791 0.926
90 1.500 0.823
100 1.423 0.738
120 1.164 0.607
140 0.974 0.511
160 0.832 0.439
180 0.721 0.383
200 0.634 0.339
212 0.589 0.317

Dynamic and Kinematic Viscosity of Water in SI Units:

Kinematic
Temperature Dynamic Viscosity
Viscosity
-t- -µ-
-ν-
(oC) 10-3 (N.s/m2)
10-6 (m2/s)
0 1.787 1.787
5 1.519 1.519
10 1.307 1.307
20 1.002 1.004
30 0.798 0.801
40 0.653 0.658
50 0.547 0.553
60 0.467 0.475
70 0.404 0.413
80 0.355 0.365
90 0.315 0.326
100 0.282 0.294

237
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
Water and Speed of Sound
Speed of sound in water at temperatures between 32 - 212oF (0-100oC) - imperial and SI units
Speed of Sound in Water - in imperial units (BG units)
Temperature Speed of Sound
-t- -c-
(oF) (ft/s)
32 4,603
40 4,672
50 4,748
60 4,814
70 4,871
80 4,919
90 4,960
100 4,995
120 5,049
140 5,091
160 5,101
180 5,095
200 5,089
212 5,062

Speed of Sound in Water - in SI units

Temperature Speed of Sound
-t- -c-
(oC) (m/s)
0 1,403
5 1,427
10 1,447
20 1,481
30 1,507
40 1,526
50 1,541
60 1,552
70 1,555
80 1,555
90 1,550
100 1,543

238
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
References
Burrill, Claude (1967). Foundations of real numbers. McGraw-Hill. LCC QA248.B95.

Copi and Cohen

D. Dummit and R. Foote (1999). Abstract algebra (2e ed.). Wiley. ISBN 0-471-36857-1.

Durbin, John R. (1992). Modern Algebra: an Introduction (3rd ed.). New York: Wiley. p. 78.
ISBN 0-471-51001-7. "If are elements of a set with an associative
operation, then the product is unambiguous; this is, the same element will be
obtained regardless of how parentheses are inserted in the product"

Enderton, Herbert (1977). Elements of set theory. Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-238440-7.

Fine, Henry B. . The Number System of Algebra – Treated Theoretically and Historically, (2nd
edition, with corrections, 1907), page 90,

Hungerford, Thomas W. (1974). Algebra (1st ed.). Springer. p. 24. ISBN 0387905189.
"Definition 1.1 (i) a(bc) = (ab)c for all a, b, c in G."

Lee, John (2003). Introduction to smooth manifolds. Springer. ISBN 0-387-95448-1.

Martin, John (2003). Introduction to languages and the theory of computation (3e ed.). McGraw-
Hill. ISBN 0-07-232200-4.

Moore and Parker

Rudin, Walter (1976). Principles of mathematical analysis (3e ed.). McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-
054235-X.

Stewart, James (1999). Calculus: Early transcendentals (4e ed.). Brooks/Cole. ISBN 0-534-
36298-2.

239
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018
We welcome you to complete the assignment in Microsoft Word. You can
find the assignment at www.abctlc.com.

Once complete, just simply fax or e-mail the answer key along with the
registration page to us and allow two weeks for grading.

Once we grade it, we will e-mail a certificate of completion to you. Call us if

you need any help.

If you need your certificate back within 48 hours, you may be asked to pay a
rush service fee of $50.00.

You can download the assignment in Microsoft Word from TLC’s website
under the Assignment Page. www.abctlc.com

You will have 90 days to successfully complete this assignment with a score
of 70% or better. If you need any assistance, please contact TLC’s Student
Services.

240
Operator Math Review 3/1/2018