MARXISM AND CRITICAL THEORY

Submitted by
LACUESTA, Grace V.
MERINDO, Janaialaine C.

BSED English III – B

Submitted to
PROF. VLADIMIR MARIE E.
CABUTOTAN Instructor
I. Introduction
Marxism is one of the most significant theories and a philosophy that has
contributed much to the modern world. German Philosopher Karl Marx helped the
working class to question the injustice enforced upon them through their wages,
life style and oppression. Marxism, for many, is the beginning of progress and
evolution. Marx believed that instilling his ideology in the minds of people like him,
would one day make the world, an ideal classless society.

II. Body

MARXISM
Marxism is a social, political, and economic theory developed by Karl Marx
and Friedrich Engels in the mid-19th century. It focuses on the struggle between
the working class (proletariat) and the ruling class (bourgeoisie) in capitalist
societies. Marxism advocates for the eventual overthrow of the capitalist system
and the establishment of a classless society where the means of production are
owned collectively. It also emphasizes the importance of social equality, workers'
rights, and the eventual withering away of the state. It stimulates the workers to
protest the injustice. Marxism is important because this theory encourages one to
question the ideologies of a Capitalistic society and understand the link between
what we deserve and what we receive as rewards for our labor.
One of the key texts that outlines Marxist theory is “The Communist
Manifesto.” As stated by Cole (2019), "The Communist Manifesto," written by Karl
Marx and Friedrich Engels in 1848, is one of the most widely taught texts in
sociology. The Communist League in London commissioned the work, which was
originally published in German. At the time, it served as a political rallying cry for
the communist movement in Europe. This manifesto lays out the principles of
Marxism, including the critique of capitalism, the call for workers' solidarity, and the
vision of a communist society free from class distinctions. Today, it offers a shrewd
and early critique of capitalism and its social and cultural implications. For
sociology students, the text is a useful primer on Marx's critique of capitalism, but it
can be a challenging read for those outside this field of study. A summary that
breaks down its main points can make the manifesto easier to digest for readers
just getting acquainted with sociology.

Marxism in Literature
When you read a typical piece of literature, you're not just reading a story,
but you're getting a glimpse into a different culture and society. So, what is that
society like? Is it like yours? Do the rich and powerful have all the control? Or is it
more egalitarian? And what even inspired the author to create this society in the
first place? There are all sorts of questions asked in Marxist criticism, which
reviews a work of literature in terms of the society it presents.
Other than its enormous social and political influence, Marxism has also had
an impact on different aspects of culture, such as the study of literature and arts.
The branch of literary theory and criticism inspired by Marxism came to be known
as Marxist literary criticism. It examines how literature portrays materialism and
class struggles. Marxism in literature refers to the application of Marxist theory and
principles to the analysis of literary works. This approach focuses on examining
how literature reflects and critiques social and economic structures, power
dynamics, and class struggles within society. Marxist literary criticism seeks to
uncover the underlying ideologies present in literary texts, explore how they
perpetuate or challenge dominant social norms, and highlight issues of class
inequality, exploitation, and alienation. By analyzing literature through a Marxist
lens, scholars aim to reveal the ways in which literature can both reflect and
potentially contribute to social change and revolution. According to Marxists, even
literature itself is a social institution and has a specific ideological function, based
on the background and ideology of the author. The English literary critic and
cultural theorist Terry Eagleton defines.
According to Poetry Foundation, “In its simplest form, Marxist criticism
attempts to show the relationship between literature and the social—mainly
economic—conditions under which it was produced.” Originally, Marxist critics
focused on literary representations of workers and working classes. For later
Marxists, however, literature became a document of a kind of knowledge and a
record of the historical conditions that produced that knowledge. Like cultural
 criticism, Marxist literary criticism offers critiques of the “canon” and focuses on the
ways in which culture and power intersect; for a Marxist critic, literature both
reproduces existing power relations and offers a space where they can be
contested and redefined.

Marxism in Literary Criticism

It is through the theories of class struggle, politics, and economics that
Marxist literary criticism emerged. Marxism borrows some concepts from the mid-
19th century writings of Karl Heinrich Marx, though many of Marx's ideas gained
popularity in the twentieth century. It aims to revolutionize the concept of work
through creating a classless society built on control and ownership of the means of
production (Erna, 2022). Marxist literary criticism is valuable because it enables
readers to see the role that class plays in the plot of a text. A premise of
Marxist criticism is that literature can be viewed as ideological, and that it can be
analyzed in terms of a Base/Superstructure model. Marx argues that the economic
means of production in a society account for its base. A base determines its
superstructure.
Marxist Criticism refers to a method you'll encounter in literary and cultural
analysis. It breaks down texts and societal structures using foundational concepts
like class, alienation, base, and superstructure. By understanding this, you'll gain
insights into how power dynamics and socio-economic factors influence narratives
and cultural perspectives. Marxist Criticism as both a theoretical approach and a
conversational genre within academic discourse. Critics using this framework
analyze literature and other cultural forms through the lens of Marxist theory, which
includes an exploration of how economic and social structures influence ideology
and culture. For example, a Marxist reading of a novel might explore how the
narrative reinforces or challenges the existing social hierarchy and economic
inequalities.
Marxist criticism as a distinct approach to literature and culture developed
later, as thinkers in the 20th century began to apply Marx’s ideas to the arts and
humanities. It is a product of various scholars and theorists who found Marx’s
social theories to be useful tools for analyzing and critiquing literature and culture.
These include figures such as György Lukács, Walter Benjamin, Antonio Gramsci,
and later the Frankfurt School, among others, who expanded Marxist theory into
the realms of ideology, consciousness, and cultural production.

William Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet (Marxist Literary Criticism)

In applying Marxist Literary Criticism to the story of Romeo and Juliet, one
could analyze the play through the lens of class struggle and economic inequality.
The feud between the Montagues and Capulets can be seen as a reflection of the
conflict between different social classes, with the Montagues representing the
bourgeoisie and the Capulets representing the proletariat. The forbidden love
between Romeo and Juliet can be interpreted as a challenge to the social norms and
class boundaries that separate them.
Additionally, one could examine the role of money and power in the play,
such as the influence of wealth and social status on the characters' actions and
decisions. The character of Mercutio, for example, could be seen as a
representation of the working class, while characters like Lord Capulet and Lord
Montague could be viewed as symbols of the ruling class.
By applying Marxist Literary Criticism to Romeo and Juliet, one can
uncover themes of class conflict, economic disparity, and social hierarchy within
the play, shedding light on the underlying power dynamics and societal structures
at play in Shakespeare's work.

CRITICAL THEORY
Critical theory has several different meanings in sociology, although it often
refers to the writings and analysis of the members of the Frankfurt School. As
critique it is usually considered to be a critique of modernity and the developments
and institutions associated with modern society.
It can also be a critique of particular schools of thought within sociology, or of
sociology and social science as a whole. A large part of critical theory has been to
critique of art and culture, in particular the consumer culture, advertising, the media,
and other forms of popular culture.
Marxism can also be considered a form of critical theory, since Marxism provides a
critique of capitalist modernism. Weber’s theory of rationalization of modern society
can also be considered a form of critical theory. Weber argued that rationalization
was a force that increasingly dominated western societies and societies around the
globe, limiting creativity and the human spirit

Critical Theory has been deeply concerned with the fate of modernity, and has
offered systematic and comprehensive theories of the trajectory of modernity,
combined with critical diagnoses of some of the latter’s limitations, pathologies and
destructive effects – while providing defenses of some of its progressive elements.
(Kellner, 1989, p. 3)

Critical theorists are committed to modernity and progress (as opposed to reaction
and tradition), but argue that some of the features of the modern era are very
negative – lack of autonomy, conformity, totalizing ideologies and authority, and
violence. These developments have often stifled human creativity, limited freedom,
and have led to problems for both individuals and society.

Historical background of the Frankfurt School

When critical theory is mentioned in connection with social theory, it is usually
associated with the so-called Frankfurt School. It was launched in 1937 by Max
Horkheimer, the Director of the Frankfurt Institute for Social Research” (Turner, 1996,
p. 56). The Institute had begun in 1923, with a financial endowment from a wealthy
German grain merchant (who lived in Argentina) and was attached to Frankfurt
University in Germany. German universities were generally conservative, but with the
proletarian and revolutionary social and political movements following World War I,
Marxism and other critical approaches became influential within the universities.

For a time, many Marxists thought that Germany would become a socialist
society, following the lead of the revolution in Russia. When this seemed increasingly
unlikely to occur, some intellectuals attracted to Marxism argued that it was
necessary to re-examine Marxist theory in light of the changes that had occurred in
Europe. In particular, some of these Marxists considered that while the objective
conditions for socialism existed, the subjective consciousness of workers was not
favorable to overthrowing capitalism and creating socialism. In particular,
“revolutionary consciousness, culture and organization and a clear notion of
socialism seemed to be lacking.” As a result, it was necessary to reconsider various
aspects of Marxism and focus on “consciousness, subjectivity, culture, ideology and
the concept of socialism … in order to make possible radical political change”
(Kellner, 1989, p. 12).

Major critical theorists:

Max Horkheimer (1895-1973)
Theodor Adorno (1903-1969)
Herbert Marcuse (1898-1979)
Jurgen Habermas (1929)

Critical theory began by putting Marxian political economy at the center of

analysis, and early critical theory was materialist and committed to socialism. One of
its major features was the argument that social theory could not take the familiar and
observed as given and unchanging. Rather, all of social life is a reflection of the
economic system and the role of social theory was to investigate the ways in which
this changed and affected people. Horkheimer argued that there needed to be a
study of “how the categories of our consciousness were shaped and how they in turn
constituted both the world we saw and what we took to be possible” (Calhoun, p.
515). This was not a simplistic or crude materialism where economic position directly
structures individual consciousness. Neither was it an idealist theory, where
consciousness is unconnected with material reality. Rather, critical theory “describes
the complex set of mediations that interconnect consciousness and society, culture
and economy, state and citizens” (Kellner, 1990).

Critical Theory Approach in Literature

A critical theory is any approach to humanities and social philosophy that
focuses on society and culture to attempt to reveal, critique, and challenge power
structures.[1] With roots in sociology and literary criticism, it argues that social
problems stem more from social structures and cultural assumptions rather
than from individuals. Some hold it to be an ideology, [2] others argue that
ideology is the principal obstacle to human liberation. [3] Critical theory finds
applications in various fields of study, including psychoanalysis, film theory,
literary theory, cultural studies, history, communication theory, philosophy,
and feminist theory.

William Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet (Feminist Theory)

One of the key aspects of feminism is women having the capability to pick their own
path in life, and women throughout this time period were allocated very little free will.

Juliet has utterly no choice, as her father warns that she must marry Paris or "I will
drag thee on a hurdle thither/ Out, you green-sickness carrion! Out, you baggage,/
You tallow-face!" (Romeo and Juliet, Act 3, Scene 5, Lines 155-157).

In reality, Juliet only has a handful of options she can either lose her free will and
essentially her life to her father or forever be wed to Paris, or she can lose her life by
holding onto her will and take her own life.

A final moment in which Juliet exhibits herself as a feminist persona is in her

realization that she has the ability to govern her own life.
In reality, Juliet is perhaps the Shakespearean woman that most exudes a feminist
trait, and that takes control over her.
III. Conclusion
In literary criticism, the connection between Marxism and Critical Theory lies in
their shared focus on analyzing power dynamics, social structures, and ideology
within literary works. Marxist literary criticism, influenced by Marxist theory, examines
how literature reflects and reinforces class struggle, economic inequality, and societal
power dynamics. Critical Theory provides a specific interpretation of Marxist
philosophy with regards to some of its central economic and political notions like
commodification, reification, fetishization and critique of mass culture. Both Marxism
and Critical Theory aim to uncover hidden meanings, question established norms,
and promote social change through literary analysis.

ACTIVITY

Directions: Using the Venn diagram below, differentiate Marxism and

Critical Theory. Answers must be substantial.
 References
2024. Marxism.
https://www.poetryfoundation.org/learn/glossary-terms/marxism. 2024. What is
Marxism. https://m.economictimes.com/definition/marxism/amp.
Cole, D. (2023). Marxist Criticism | Definition, Theory & Examples.
https://study.com/academy/lesson/marxist-criticism-
definitionexamples.html #:~:text=The%20Marxist%20criticism%20definition
%20is,have%2 0attained%20positions%20of%20power.
Erna, M. (2022). Marxism and Critical Theory.
https://youtu.be/tgIJBp5OYA?si=b9VRK7d-WvJ9KKHs.
Hansen, H. (2021). ECONOMICS Marxism: What It Is and Comparison
to Communism, Socialism, and Capitalism.
https://www.investopedia.com/terms/m/marxism.asp.
Kellner, Douglas. (1989). Critical Theory, Marxism and
Modernity. https://www.uta.edu/huma/illuminations/kell.htm.