Theory of Computation

UNIT 2

REGULAR EXPRESSIONS (RE)

 Regular Expressions Introduction
2

 Regular Language: The set of strings accepted by finite automata is known

as regular language.

 Such language can also be represented in compact form using set of

operators.

 These operators are

1. + union operator

2. . Concatenation operators

3. * Star or closure operator

 Regular Expressions Introduction
3

 Regular Expressions: An expressions written using set of operators such

as (+, . , * ) and describing regular language is known as regular

expressions.

 They are used to represent the regular language in compact form.

 Let us see some of the examples of Regular Expressions.

 Regular Expressions Introduction
4

Sr. Automata Language Regular

No. Expression
1 {} RE=

2 a {a} RE=a

3 a {a ,b} RE=a+b
b

4 {a ,b} RE=a.b
a b

5 a φ RE=φ
 Regular Expressions Introduction
5

Sr. Automata Language Regular

No. Expression
6 a {, a, aa, RE=a*
aaa,...}
7 a { a, aa, aaa,...} RE=aa* or a+
a

8 a {a ,b} RE=a+b
b
9 {, a, b, aa, ab, RE=(a+b)*
a, b
ba, aaa,...}
10 a. b
{ab,ba} RE=ab+ba
b. a
 Regular Expressions Introduction
6

⚫ A Regular Expression can be recursively defined as follows −

⚫ ε is a Regular Expression indicates the language containing an empty
string. (L (ε) = {ε})
⚫ φ is a Regular Expression denoting an empty language. (L (φ) = { })
⚫ x is a Regular Expression where L = {x}
⚫ If X is a Regular Expression denoting the language L(X) and Y is a Regular
Expression denoting the language L(Y), then
 X + Y is a Regular Expression corresponding to the language L(X) 𝖴
L(Y) where L(X+Y) = L(X) 𝖴 L(Y).
 X . Y is a Regular Expression corresponding to the language L(X) .
L(Y) where L(X.Y) = L(X) . L(Y)
 X* is also a Regular Expression.

 Y* is also a Regular Expression.

 Regular Expressions Introduction
7

⚫ X+ is also a Regular Expression.

⚫ Y+ is also a Regular Expression.
⚫ R* is a Regular Expression corresponding to the
language L(R*)where L(R*) = (L(R))*
 Regular Expressions Examples
8
Sr. Regular Language Regular Expression
No.
1 The Set {1010} RE=1010
2 The Set {10, 1010} RE=10+1010
3 The Set { 10, 01} RE=01
4 The Set { 0, 00, 000…} 0*
5 The Set {0, 00, 000…} 0+
6 The set of Strings over alphabet {0, 1} 0(0+1)*
starting with 0.
7 The set of Strings over alphabet {0, 1} (0+1)*1
ending with 1.
8 The set of Strings over alphabet {a, b} a(a+b)*b
starting with a and ending with b.
9 The set of string Recognized by (a+b)3 (a+b) (a+b) (a+b)
 Precedence of Operators
9

⚫ Similar to arithmetic operators, operators of regular expressions follow a

predefined precedence.
⚫ Precedence for operators of regular expressions are as follow.
⚫ Star (*) or closure operator has the highest precedence.
⚫ Dot (.) or concatenation operator has the next highest precedence.
⚫ Union (+) or operator has the lowest precedence.
 FA representing RE
10

⚫ Finite Automata and Regular Expressions are equivalent.

⚫ To show this:

 we can express a DFA as an equivalent RE

 we can express a RE as an ε-NFA using operators on alphabets, ε , φ, .

 The ε-NFA can be converted to a DFA and the DFA to an NFA,

 then RE will be equivalent to all the automata we have described.

 FA representing RE
11

⚫ Recursive nature of regular expressions

⚫ A regular expression R= (1+0(10)*)* can be written as by doing following
replacement.
⚫ Replace 1+0(10)* by P so R= P*
⚫ Rewrite P as P1 + P2 where P1=1 and P2=0(10)*
⚫ P2 can be written as P3. P4 where P3= 0 and P4=(10)*
⚫ P4 can be written as P5* where P5=10
⚫ P5 can be written as P6.P7 where P6 is 1 and P7 is 0.

⚫ From this recursive nature of RE we can conclude that if FAS for two RE R1
and R2 are given and if we can construct composite FAs for
1. R1+R2 2. R1.R2 3. R1*
Then we can construct Fas for any RE.
 FA representing RE
12
Sr. Regular Automata
No. Expression
1 RE=

2 RE=a a

3 RE=a+b a
b
4 RE=a.b a b

5 RE=φ
 FA representing RE
13

Sr. No. Regular Expression Automata

6 RE=a* a

7 RE=aa* or a+
a a

8 RE=a+b a
b
9 RE=(a+b)* a, b

a b
10 RE=ab+ba
b a
 FA representing RE
14
Sr. No.
Regular Expression Automata
6 b
RE=a*b* a


7 a
RE=(ab)* q1

q0 b

8 a
RE=a*b b
q0 q1

9 b
RE=ab* a
q0 q1

a c
10 RE=a*bc* b
q0 q1
 Examples on RE to Fas conversion
15

 Ex. 1: Convert following RE to FAs

1. a*b(a+b)*
2. (ab)*ab*
3. (a+ba)*ba
4. (aa+aaa)*
5. (0+1(01)*)*

Solution:

1. a*b(a+b)*

a a,b
b
q0 q2
 Examples on RE to Fas conversion
16

2. (ab)*ab*

ab b
a
q0 q1

Divide transition q2
ab by adding one
a b
more state. b

q0 q1
a
 Examples on RE to Fas conversion
17
3. (a+ba)*ba
a+ba
Divide transition
a+ba by adding one
b a more transition.
q0 q1 q1

Divide transition ba b a
by adding one more q0 q1 q1
state.
a
ba
b a
q0 q1 q2
b
a
q3
 Examples on RE to Fas conversion
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3. (a+ba)*ba
a+ba
Divide transition
a+ba by adding
b a one more state.
q0 q1 q1

Divide transition ba b a
by adding one more q0 q1 q1
state.
a
ba
b a
q0 q1 q2
b
a
q3
 Examples on RE to Fas conversion
19
5. (0+1(01)*)*
0+1(01)*
Divide transition

1
  0+1(01)* by adding
q0 q1 q2 one more transition.

1(01)*
Divide transition
2

1(01)* by adding  
one more state. q0 q1 q2

q3 0

1 (01)*

 
q0 q1 q2 3

0
 Examples on RE to Fas conversion
20
5. (0+1(01)*)*
Divide transition
1(01)* by adding
one more state.
q3  

q4 q5
1



q0 q1 q2
 
0
 Examples on RE to Fas conversion
21
Ex. 2: Show that P*(QP*)* = (P+ Q)*

Divide transition
P
QP* QP* by adding one
more state.

q0 q1

1
P

Q q2

P


q0 q1
 Examples on RE to Fas conversion
22

 Now remove  move from q1 and q0

 To remove  move from q2 to q1
• Duplicate transition of q1 on q2
• Make q2 as final state.
 To remove  move from q0 to q1
• Duplicate transition of q1 on qo
• Make q0 as final state.
P, Q
Q
q2
Q
P
P
p
q0 q1
 Examples on RE to Fas conversion
23

 As all q0, q1, q2 are final state so they can be merged in to single state.

P, Q

q0, q1, q2

 Thus both Expressions are equivalent so P*(QP*)* = (P+ Q)*.

 Examples on RE to Fas conversion
24

 Ex 3: Prove or disprove the following for a regular expressions.

 (r*s*)* = (r+s)*

Solution: r

q1   -NFA to DFA
  Closure of q0= {q0, q1, q2}


  Closure of q1= {q0, q1, q2}
  Closure of q2= {q0, q1, q2}
q0  So the equivalent DFA can be shown
s as bellow
q2
r, s


 So we can say both RE are q0, q1, q2

equivalent.
 (r*s*)* = (r+s)*
 Examples on Regular Expressions
25

 Ex. 4: Check the equivalence of the regular expression.

1. (a* bbb)*a* AND a*(bbb a*)*
Solution: Substitute P for a* and Q for bbb we will get:
 (PQ)*P and P(QP)* so both are equivalent from the besic lemma on RE.

 Thus both Expressions are equivalent so (QP)*P = P(QP)*.

2. ((a+bb)* aa)* AND +(a+bb)* aa

Solution: Substitute P for a+bb and Q for aa we will get:
(P*Q)* and + P*Q
Thus both Expressions are not equivalent.
 Examples on Regular Expressions
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 Ex. 5: Check the equivalence of the regular expression.

(ab)* is not equal to a*b*
Solutions:
The string abab Є (ab)*
But abab Є a*b*
 And hence both are not equal.
 Algebraic Laws of Regular Expressions
27

 There are a number of laws for algebraic laws, such as:

1. Associative And commutative
2. Identities and annihilators
3. Distributive law
4. The idempotent law
5. Laws involving closures
 Algebraic Laws of Regular Expressions
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1. Associative And commutative

 The commutative laws for union says that the union of two
regular languages can be taken in any order.

 For any two language X and Y

X+Y =Y+X
 The associative laws holds for union of regular languages.

(X+Y)+Z = (X+Z)+Y
 Algebraic Laws of Regular Expressions
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2. Identities and annihilators

  Is Identities and Φ is annihilators. There are three rules for regular
expression involving  and Φ .

 Φ + L = L + Φ =L Φ is identity for Union +.

 L=L.=L  is identity for concatenation.

 Φ . L = L . Φ =L Φ is identity for concatenation .

 Algebraic Laws of Regular Expressions
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3. Distributive Law
 The left distributive law of concatenation over union hold for
regular language.

Z (X+Y) = ZX + ZY
 The right distributive law of concatenation over union hold for
regular language.

(X+Y) Z = XZ + YZ
 Algebraic Laws of Regular Expressions
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4. The idempotent Law

 It says that the union of two identical expression can be
replaced by one copy of expression.

L+L=L
 Algebraic Laws of Regular Expressions
32

5. Laws involving closures:

 These laws includes:
1. (L*)* = L Closure of the closure does not change the language.
2. Φ*= 
  
4. L*=LL*=L*L
5. L*=L* + 
 Determination of Regular Expressions
33

 A regular expression over alphabet

q= (a1, a2, a3……….an) is defined recursively as follows.

1. A null string ε is a Regular Expression.

2. An empty set φ is a Regular Expression .

3. An alphabet a is a regular expression.

4. If x & y are regular expressions then

5. Their concatenation is regular expressions .

6. Closure of x (x*) is regular expressions .

 Basic properties of Regular Expressions
34
 If P, Q & R are regular expressions then basic properties of RE are given
bellow.

1. Φ + R =R

2. Φ . R =R . Φ =R

  R = R .   R

    

5. Φ* = 

6. R + R = R

7. PQ + PR = P(Q + R)

8. QP + RP = (Q + R)P
 Basic properties of Regular Expressions
35

9. R* R* =R*

10. R R* =R * R

11. (R*)* = R*

   R R* =R*

13. (PQ)* P = P (QP)*

14. (P+Q)* = (P*Q*)* = (P*+Q*)*

15. (P*Q)*=  (P + Q)*Q

 Examples on Regular Expressions
36

 Ex. 1: Prove that (1+00*1)+ (1+00*1) (0+10*1)* (0+10*1)=0*1 (0+10*1)

 LHS= (1+00*1)+ (1+00*1) (0+10*1)* (0+10*1)
= (1+00*1) ( + (0+10*1)* (0+10*1) ) ……… By Eq. 7
= (1+00*1) (0+10*1)* ……….By Eq. 12
= [(    (0+10*1)* ……….By Eq. 8
= 0* 1 (0+10*1)*
= RHS
 Examples on Regular Expressions
37

 Ex. 2: If S= {a, bb} find the set of all strings in S* with string length less than
or equal to 5. Also for given S, Prove whether following is true or false.
(S*)*=(S+)*

Solution:
String of length 0= 
String of length 1= a
String of length 2= aa, bb
String of length 3= aaa, abb, bba
String of length 4= aaaa, bbbb, aabb, bbaa, abba
String of length 5= aaaaa, abbbb, bbabb, bbbba, abbaa, aabba, bbaaa, aaabb
And (S*)*=(S+)* is true as  is belonging to both expressions.
 Examples on Regular Expressions
38

 Ex. 2: Find all regular expressions for following languages over {a, b}.
1. The set of all strings ending in b.
2. The set of all strings ending in ba.
3. The set of all strings ending neither in b nor in ba.
4. The set of all strings ending in ab.
5.The set of all strings ending neither in ab nor in ba.
Solutions:
1. The set of all strings ending in b  (a+b)*b
2. The set of all strings ending in ba  (a+b)*ba
3. The set of all strings ending neither in b nor in ba.  (a+b)*aa+a+
4. The set of all strings ending in ab.  (a+b)*ab
5. The set of all strings ending neither in ab nor in ba.
   a +b + (a+b)*(aa+bb)
 Examples on Regular Expressions
39
 Ex. 3: Find all regular expressions for following subset of (0, 1)*.
1. The Language of all strings containing exactly two 0’s.
2. The Language of all strings containing at least two 0’s.
3. The Language of all strings that do not end with 01.
4. The Language of all strings starting with 11.

Solutions:
1. The Language of all strings containing exactly two 0’s.
RE  1*01*01*
2. The Language of all strings containing at least two 0’s.
RE 1*01*0(1+0)*
3. The Language of all strings that do not end with 01.
RE  (1+0)*(00+11+10)
4. The Language of all strings starting with 11.
RE  11(0+1)*
 Examples on Regular Expressions
40

 Ex. 4: For each of the following RE draw DFA.

1. (11+00)* 2. (111+100)*0 3. 0+10*+01*0 4. 10+ (0+11)0* 1

Solution: 1 q1
1. (11+00)*
11
11+00
1
q0 q0
q0 0
00

q2 0
 Examples on Regular Expressions
41
Solution:
2. (111+100)*0

(111+100)*
(111+100)*0
0

(111+100)
(111+100)
0 0
q0 q1

 Examples on Regular Expressions
42

Solution:
0 q
2. (111+100)*0 3
q2 0

100 1

0
q0 q0 q1
q1
0
111
1
1

1
 Examples on Regular Expressions
43

Solution:
3. 0+ 10* + 01* 0
01* 0
0+ 10* + 01* 0
0
q0 q1 q0 q1

q0 0* 10*
1

0
q0 q1

0 1*
0
q0 q0
 Examples on Regular Expressions
44

Solution:
3. 0+ 10* + 01* 0

q2

1 0

0
q0 q1

0
0 

q3 q4 q5

1
 Examples on Regular Expressions
45

Solution:
4. 10+ (0+11)0* 1 0
0

 1
q0 q2 q3 q5

1 0
q1

1
1
q4
 Examples on Regular Expressions
46

Ex 5: Find FA for given RE (0+1)* . (010+101) . (0+1)*

0,1
0,1

(010+101)

1
q1 q2
0 0,1
0,1
0

q0 q5
1 1
0
q3 q4
 Examples on Regular Expressions
47
Ex 5: Find FA for given RE 1. (a+b)* abb 2. (11)* . 010 . (11)*
Solution:
1. (a+b)* abb
(a+b)* abb

a, b

a b b
q0 q1 q2 q3
 Examples on Regular Expressions
48

Solution:
2. (11)* . 010 . (11)*

(11)* . 010 . (11)*

11
11

 010 
q0 q1 q2 q3
 Examples on Regular Expressions
49

Solution:
2. (11)* . 010 . (11)*

q6
q4
1
1
1 1

 1 
q0 q1 q2 q3
 DFA to Regular Expressions
50

 There are two methods to convert DFA to regular expressions.

 By State or Loop elimination.
 Arden’s Theorem
 DFA to Regular Expressions : By State or Loop
elimination.
51

 The process to Eliminate State/loop:

1. Every state qi Є F can be eliminated if qi is not initial state.
2. That is qi can be eliminated if it is not a initial or final state.
3. Elimination of state involve writing of regular expression as label on arc.
4. Example:

a b a. b

RE= ab
 DFA to Regular Expressions : By State or Loop
elimination.
52
Example: 2

q2

1
0 10
 0
q1 q3 q0 q1

01
1
0

q4
RE= 0(10+01)*
 DFA to Regular Expressions : By State or Loop
elimination.
53
Example: 3

q2

1 10
0

q1
q3
01
1
0

q1
RE= (10+01)*
 Examples on DFA to RE: By State or Loop elimination
54
Examples 1: Find a Regular expression for the given two State machine.
a
c
b
q0 q1
d
Solution:
Now here nor q0 or q1 can be eliminated as both are final states.
But loop can be eliminated by moving its effect either to state q0 or q1, so let us move
it to q0.
a+bc*d
c
b
q0 q1
 Examples on DFA to RE: By State or Loop elimination
55
The above machine has two final states. The machine can be divided in to two machines,
Machine with q0 as final state and machine with q1 as final state.
a+bc*d a+bc*d c
b

q0 q0 q1

So RE for first machine with q0 final state (RE1)= (a+bc*d)*

And RE for Second machine with q1 final state (RE2)= (a+bc*d)* bc*
So the final RE can be obtained by taking union of both the RE.

So RE= RE1+RE2
RE= (a+bc*d)* + (a+bc*d)* bc*
= (a+bc*d)* ( + bc*)
 Examples on DFA to RE: By State or Loop elimination
56
Example 2: Find Regular Expression for given three state machine.
a b
d f c
q0 q1 q2
e
g

Solution: For given machine state q1 is the crossing point o three loops
1. q1 to q1 on input b.
2. Loop between q1 and q0 on input ea*d
3. Loop between q1 and q2 on input fc*g
Now eliminate the loop by moving these loop effects on state q1.

a b+da*e+fc*g

d f c
q0 q1 q2
 Examples on DFA to RE: By State or Loop elimination
57
Example 2:
Now eliminate the state q1 can be eliminated.

a d(b+ea*d+fc*g)f c
q0 q1

Now the RE for given machine is

RE = a* d(b+ea*d+fc*g)f c*
 Examples on DFA to RE: By State or Loop elimination
58
Example 3: Find Regular Expression for given three state machine

1. 0,1
0
q0 q1
1

Solutions: Machine is reduced by moving effect of loop between q0 and q1 to q0

(01)* 0, 1
0
q0 q1

So final require RE= 01*0 (0+1)*

 Examples on DFA to RE: By State or Loop elimination
59
Example 3: Find Regular Expression for given three state machine
b
2. a, b
a
a
q0 q1 q2
b

Solutions: Machine is reduced by moving effect of loop between q0 and q1 to q0

b+ab a, b b+ab a, b

a a aa
q0 q1 q2 q0 q2

After eliminating q1

So final required RE= (b+ab)* aa (a+b)*

 Examples on DFA to RE: By State or Loop elimination
60
Example 3: Find Regular Expression for given three machines
Solutions: Machine is reduced by
q1 moving effect of loop between q0 and
3. 0 0
q1 to q0
0 q2
q0 1

1 1
q3
10
q1
0 0

q2
q0

1 1
q3
So final required RE= 0(10)* (0+11)+ 1 (01)* (1+00)
01
 Examples on DFA to RE: By State or Loop elimination
61
Example 4: Write a RE for the following.
  =(0, 1) Odd number of 1’s in String.
  =(0, 1) Triple 0 must never appear in Strings.
3. Identities in C language.
4. Obtain plain English language represented by RE.
a. 0* (10* 10*)* 1(0* 10* 1)* 0*
b. 0* (0* 10* 1)* 0*
Solution:
i. DFA for Given Language is

0 0+10*1
0 0
1 1
q0 q0 q1
q1
1

RE=(0+10*1)*10*
 Examples on DFA to RE: By State or Loop elimination
62

ii. DFA for Given Language is

1 1+01+001
0 0
q0 q1 q2 0 0
q0 q1 q2
1
0
1
Φ
O, 1

RE= 1+01+0011+01+0011+01+001)
RE=(1+01+001)*()
 Examples on DFA to RE: By State or Loop elimination
63

iii. Identities in C language

RE= (A+ B + C +………+ Z + a + b + c + ….. + z + 0 + 1 +………+ 9)

3. iv. Obtain plain English language represented by RE.

a. 0* (10* 10*) 1(0* 10* 1)* 0*
 The Language with all strings containing odd numbers of 1s.

b. 0* (0* 10* 1)* 0*

 The Language with all strings containing even numbers of 1s.
 Examples on DFA to RE: By State or Loop elimination
64

Example 5: Write RE for following language over {0, 1}*.

a. The set of strings that begin with 110.
b. The set of all strings not containing 101 as a substring.

Solutions:
a. The set of strings that begin with 110.
RE  110 (1+0)*

b. The set of all strings not containing 101 as a substring.

DFA for given language is.
0 1

1 0 1
q0 q1 q2 q3
0
 Examples on DFA to RE: By State or Loop elimination
65

Example 5:
b. The set of all strings not containing 101 as a substring.

0+11*00 1

1 0
q0 q1 q2

RE = (0+11* 00) * (    )

 Arden’s Theorem
66

Let P, Q and R be regular expressions on . Then if p does not contain  then the
following equation

R=Q + RP …………………….(1)

Has the unique solution given by

R= QP*. ----------------------(2)
 Arden’s Theorem Solved Examples
67

Example 1: Consider the following transition diagram convert it to an

equivalent RE using Arden’s theorem.
1
0 1
A B C
1
0
Solution: The Set of equations for regular sets (Incoming Transition to every
state (A, B & C)) represented as follow.

A= A1+B1+  
   C0 
C= B1 
 Arden’s Theorem Solved Examples
68

Example 1:
So now Equation (1) can be rewritten as
A= A1+(B1+   (B1+   
Now compare above equation with first equation of Arden’s theorem. It is of
the form R=Q+RP. With R=A, Q= (B1+   P=1 so it’s solution is given by.
R=QP*;
So A= (B1+   ……………………….

Now substitute the value of A from equitation 4 & the value of C from
equitation 3 in eq. 2
B= (B1+     
=1*0+B11*0+B10
=1*0+B(11*0+10)
 Arden’s Theorem Solved Examples
69

Example 1:
Now compare above equation with first equation of Arden’s theorem. It is of
the form R=Q+PR. With R=B, Q= 1*0 & P=(11*0+10) so it’s solution is given
by R=QP*;

B= 1*0(11*0+10)* ……………………….(5)

Now substitute the value of B from equitation 5 in equitation 3

C= 1*0(11*0+10)* 1
Since the state C is final state the regular set represented by C is required RE
for given FA.
 Arden’s Theorem Solved Examples
70

Example 2: Consider the following transition diagram convert it to an

equivalent RE using Arden’s theorem.
0 1
1
q1 q2
1
0 0
q3

Solution: The Set of equations for regular sets (Incoming Transition to every
state (q1, q2 & q3)) represented as follow.
q1= q10+q30+  
q2= q11+ q31+q21 
q3= q20 
 Arden’s Theorem Solved Examples
71

Now substitute the value of eq. 3 in eq. 2 we get

q2=q11+q21+q210
=q11+q2(1+10)
Now compare above equation with first equation of Arden’s theorem. It is of
the form R=Q+PR. so it’s solution is given by R=QP*.
So q2=q11(1+10)* ……………………(4)
Now put value of q3 and q2 in eq1 we get
q1= q10+ q200 + 
=q10+ q11(1+10)* 00 + 
= + q1 (0+1(1+10)*00)
This eq. is of the form R=Q+PR so by Arden’s theorem solution is given by
R=QP*.
So q1= (0+1(1+10)*00)* which is required RE.
 Arden’s Theorem Solved Examples
72

Example 3: Prove that following FA accepts strings with equal number of 0’s and 1’s
such that each prefix has atmost one more 0 than 1’s or at most one more 1 than
0’s.

0 0
q0 q1
1
0
0 1
q2
q3
Solution: As q3 is dead state so can be eliminated. The Set of equations for
regular sets (Incoming Transition to every state (q1, q2 & q0)) represented as
follow.
q0= q11+q20 +  
q1= q00 
q2= q01 
 Arden’s Theorem Solved Examples
73

Example 3:
Now substitute q1 and q2 in eq. 1

q0= q001+q010 +  

q0= e + q0 (01+10)
Now compare above equation with first equation of Arden’s theorem. It is of
the form R=Q+RP. so it’s solution is given by R=QP*.
q0= (01+10)*

RE= (01+10)* As q0 is final state.

 Arden’s Theorem Solved Examples
74

Example 4: Consider the following transition diagram and prove that the
string recognized are (0 + 0(1+00)*1*) 0 (1+00)* 1 using Arden’s theorem.
0 1
0 0
q1 q2 q3
1
0

Solution: The Set of equations for regular sets (Incoming Transition to

every state (q1, q2 & q3)) represented as follow.
q1= q10+q21 +  
q2= q10 + q21 + q3 0 
q3= q21 
 Arden’s Theorem Solved Examples
75
Example 4:
Now substitute value of q3 in eq. 2
q2= q10 + q21 + q2 10
q2= q10+q2 (1+10)
Now compare above equation with first equation of Arden’s theorem. It is of
the form R=Q+RP. so it’s solution is given by R=QP*.
q2=q10 (1+10)* 
So now substitute the value of f q2 from eq. 4in eq. 1
q1= q10+q10 (1+10)*1 + 
   q1 
Now compare above equation with first equation of Arden’s theorem. It is of
the form R=Q+RP. so it’s solution is given by R=QP*.
 Arden’s Theorem Solved Examples
76

Example 4:
So q1=   
=  
Now put value of q1 from eq. 5 in eq. 4
q2=  0 (1+10)* 

Now put value of q2 from eq. 6 in eq. 3

q3=  0 (1+10)* 1

Hence Proved.
 Arden’s Theorem Solved Examples
77

Example 5: Consider the following transition diagram convert it to an

equivalent RE using Arden’s theorem.
1 0
1
A B C
0
1
0
Solution: The Set of equations for regular sets (Incoming Transition to
every state (A, B & C)) represented as follow.
A= A1+C1 +  
B= A0 + B1 + C0 
C= B1 
 Arden’s Theorem Solved Examples
78

Example 5:
Now substitute value of q3 in eq. 2
B= A0 + B1 + B1 0
 A0 + B(1 + 1 0)
Now compare above equation with first equation of Arden’s theorem. It is of the
form R=Q+RP. so it’s solution is given by R=QP*.
B=A0 (1 + 1 0)* 
So substitute the value of C in eq. 1
A= A1+B11 +  
Now substitute the value of b from eq. 4 in eq. 5
A= A1+A0 (1 + 1 0)* 11 + 
   
Now compare above equation with first equation of Arden’s theorem. It is of the
form R=Q+RP. so it’s solution is given by R=QP*.
A= 
 Arden’s Theorem Solved Examples
79

Example 5:
Hence B from Eq. 4 is
B= 0 (1 + 1 0)*
Hence C from Eq. 3 is
C= 0 (1 + 1 0)* 1
Limitations of Finite Automata
80
 Pumping Lemma
81

 Pumping Lemma is used as a proof for irregularity of a language.

 Thus, if a language is regular, it always satisfies pumping lemma.

 If there exists at least one string made from pumping which is not in L,
then L is surely not regular.

 The opposite of this may not always be true.

 That is, if Pumping Lemma holds, it does not mean that the language is

regular.
 Pumping Lemma
82

If A is a regular language, then there is a number p (the pumping length),

where, if x is any string in A of length at least p, then s may be divided into
three pieces, s=xyz, satisfying the following conditions: 2
1. For each i ≥ 0, xyi z ∈ A,
2. 2. y≠ є, and
3. 3. |xy|≤p
 Pumping Lemma
83

The Pumping Lemma says that is a language A is regular, then any string
in the language will have a certain property, provided that it is ‘long
enough’ (that is, longer than some length p, which is the pumping length).
Inside any string in A that’s longer than p, we can find a piece that can be
repeated (pumped) as many times as we want, and the result will always
be in A. Moreover, this piece can be found within the first p letter of our
string. That is, given any string s in A longer than p, we can find a
substring in s that can be pumped. We’ll call this substring y. Then
anything before y we’ll call x, and anything after y we’ll call z. Then the
whole string can be rewritten as x – y – z. (Remember that these are
strings and not letters!) By repeating y zero or more times, we get: Xz, xyz,
xyyz, xyyyz, …, xyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyz, … What the Pumping Lemma says is
that each of these must be in A.
 Pumping Lemma
84

Condition 1: For each i ≥ 0, xyi z ∈ A xy 2 z is the same as xyyz, etc. So this

says that sticking in multiple copies of y will give you strings that are still
in the language. For I=0, you get no copies of y, i.e., the string xz.
 Pumping Lemma
85

Condition 2: y≠ є While x or z may have length zero, the length of y is not

zero. That is, y is not the empty string. If you allowed y to be the empty
string, the theorem would be trivially true. This is because if y was the
empty string, you would end up with xz, which is just s, the original string
you started with, no matter how many times you pumped y.
 Pumping Lemma
86

Condition 3: |xy|≤p Since x is the piece before y, this says that all of y
must come from the first p letters of our string s, so that the combined
length of x and y is at most p.
How to use the Pumping Lemma to prove that a language is
not regular?
87

The pumping lemma is most useful when we want to prove that a

language is not regular, We do this by using a proof by contradiction. To
prove that a given language L is not regular:
1. Assume that L is regular.
2. 2. Use the pumping lemma to guarantee the existence of a pumping
length p such that all strings of length p or greater in L can be
pumped.
3. 3. Find a string s in L that has length p or greater but that cannot be
pumped.
4. 4. Demonstrate that s cannot be pumped by considering all ways of
dividing s into x, y, and z, and for each division, finding a value I
where xyi z∉L Ö The existence of s contradicts the pumping lemma if
L were regular. Hence L cannot be regular.
 Pumping Lemma
88

 Pumping Lemma is used as a proof for irregularity of a language.

 Thus, if a language is regular, it always satisfies pumping lemma.

 If there exists at least one string made from pumping which is not in L,
then L is surely not regular.

 The opposite of this may not always be true.

 That is, if Pumping Lemma holds, it does not mean that the language is

regular.
How to use the Pumping Lemma to prove that a language is
not regular?
89

Let L be a regular language and M=(Q, ∑, δ, q0, F) be FA with n states.

Language L is accepted by M. Let some string w ∈ L and |w| >=n then w can
be written in the form of xyz such that
i. |y|>0
ii. |xy|<=n
iii. xyi z ∈ L for all i>0 here yi denotes that y is repeated or pumped i times
where i>0.
 Pumping Lemma Examples
90

Example 1: Using Pumping Lemma Show that the language L={anb2n} is not
regular.
Solution:
Step 1: Let us assume that L is a regular and L is accepted by FA with n states.
Step 2: Let us choose a string represented by given language L and accepted
by FA.
According to language no of occurrences of a should be followed by double
no. of occurrences of b. So let us consider the string |w|
L= anb2n | w |= aabbbb
Now let us write w as xyz with |y|>0 and |xy| <= n
aa bb bb

x y z
 Pumping Lemma Examples
91

Example 1:
Now let us pump the y i times write i >0
Let us consider i=2
aa bbbb bb

x yi z
Now let us check xy2 z belongs to L or not.

xy2 z = aabbbbbb
So as per given language no of occurrences of a should be followed by
double no. of occurrences of b is not followed by string after pumping so
which indicates |w| Є L, and hence the given language is not regular.
 Pumping Lemma Examples
92
Example 2: Using Pumping Lemma Show that the language L={anbn} is not
regular.
Solution:
Step 1: Let us assume that L is a regular and L is accepted by FA with n states.
Step 2: Step 2: Let us choose a string represented by given language L and
accepted by FA.
According to language no of occurrences of a should be followed by equal no.
of occurrences of b. So let us consider the string |w|
L= anbn
| w |= aaabbb
Now let us write w as xyz with |y|>0 and |xy| <= n
aa abb b

x y z
 Pumping Lemma Examples
93

Example 2:
Now let us pump the y i times write i >0
Let us consider i=2
aa abbabb bb

x yi z
Now let us check xy2 z belongs to L or not.

xy2 z = aaabbabbbb
So as per given language no of occurrences of a should be followed by same
no. of occurrences of b is not followed by string after pumping so which
indicates |w| Є L, and hence the given language is not regular.
 Pumping Lemma Examples
94

Example 3: Show that the language L={0m1n 0m+n m>=1 and n>=1} is not
regular.
Solution:
Step 1: Let us assume that L is a regular and L is accepted by FA with n states.
Step 2: Step 2: Let us choose a string represented by given language L and
accepted by FA. According to language no of m times occurrences of 0 should
be followed by n times occurrences of 1 followed by m+n times occurrences
of 0 should be followed by n times occurrences of 1 followed by m+n times
occurrences of 0 . So let us consider the string |w|
L= 0m1n 0m+n | w |= 00110000
Now let us write w as xyz with |y|>0 and |xy| <= n
001 10 000

x y z
 Pumping Lemma Examples
95

Example 3:
Now let us pump the y i times write i >0
Let us consider i=2
001 0101 000

x yi z
Now let us check xy2 z belongs to L or not.

xy2 z = 0010101000
So as per given language m times occurrences of 0 should be followed by n
times occurrences of 1 followed by m+n times occurrences of 0 should be
followed by n times occurrences of 1 followed by m+n times occurrences of 0
. is not followed by string after pumping so which indicates |w| Є L, and
hence the given language is not regular.
 Pumping Lemma Examples
96

Example 4: Using Pumping Lemma Show that the given language is not
regular. L={wwR | w ∈ {0, 1}*}
Solution:
Step 1: Let us assume that L is a regular and L is accepted by FA with n states.
Step 2: Let us choose a string represented by given language L and accepted
by FA.
According to language is set of string of {0 & 1} such that string consist of
string followed by reverse of itself . So let us consider the string |w|
| w |= 1001
Now let us write w as xyz with |y|>0 and |xy| <= n
10 0 1

x y z
 Pumping Lemma Examples
97

Example 4:
Now let us pump the y i times write i >0
Let us consider i=2
10 00 1

x yi z
Now let us check xy2 z belongs to L or not.

xy2 z = 10001
So as per given is set of string of {0 & 1} such that string consist of string
followed by reverse of itself . So is not followed by string after pumping so
which indicates |w| Є L, and hence the given language is not regular.
 Pumping Lemma Examples
98

Example 5: Using Pumping Lemma Show that the given language is not
regular. L={ww | w ∈ {0, 1}*}
Solution:
Step 1: Let us assume that L is a regular and L is accepted by FA with n states.
Step 2: Step 2: Let us choose a string represented by given language L and
accepted by FA.
According to language is set of string of {0 & 1} such that string consist of
string followed by itself . So let us consider the string |w|
| w |= 1010
Now let us write w as xyz with |y|>0 and |xy| <= n
1 01 0

x y z
 Pumping Lemma Examples
99

Example 5:
Now let us pump the y i times write i >0
Let us consider i=2
1 0101 0

x yi z
Now let us check xy2 z belongs to L or not.

xy2 z = 101010
So as per given is set of string of {0 & 1} such that string consist of string
followed by itself . So is not followed by string after pumping so which
indicates |w| Є L, and hence the given language is not regular.
 Closure Properties of Regular Language
100

⚫ Closure properties on regular languages are defined as certain operations on

regular language which are guaranteed to produce regular language.

⚫ Regular languages are closed under following operations.

1. Union

2. Intersection

3. Difference

4. Concatenation

5. Kleene Closure

6. Reversal

7. Complementation
 Closure Properties of Regular Language
101

1. Regular languages Closed under Union:

 Let M1=(Q1 ,Σ, δ1 , q0 , F1) and M2=(Q2 ,Σ, δ2 , S0 , F2) are given FA

and are closes Under union if another FA M3 which acceptes all string
generated by M1 & M2.

 Machine M3 is constructed to accept L (M1) U L (M2) then

 M3=(Q3 ,Σ, δ3, R0 , F3) where

 Q3= Q1 U Q2 U {R0} R0 new initial state generated.
 F3= F1 U F2
 δ3 = δ1 U δ2
 Closure Properties of Regular Language
102

2. Regular languages Closed under Complementation :

 Let M=(Q1 ,Σ, δ , q0 , F) is a given FA. Then The set of regular

languages is closed under complementation.

 The complement of language L, written L, is all strings not in L but with

the same alphabet. The statement says that if L is a regular language,

then so is L
 Closure Properties of Regular Language
103

3. Regular languages Closed under Difference :

 If L and M are regular languages, then the difference L – M is set of

strings in L but not in M.

 Closure Properties of Regular Language
104

4. Regular languages Closed under Intersection :

 Let L and M be the languages of regular expressions R and S, respectively then it a

regular expression whose language is L intersection M.

 Closure Properties of Regular Language
105

5. Regular languages Closed under Reversal:

 Given language L which is regular language the reverse of it is represented by LR is the

set of strings whose reversal is in L and is also regular.

 Example: L = {0, 01, 100}; LR = {0, 10, 001}.

 Closure Properties of Regular Language
106

6. Regular languages Closed under Kleen Star:

 Let M1=(Q1 ,Σ, δ1 , q0 , F1) is given FA representing regular language.

So we can construct FA M2 such that L (M2) =L(M1)* which is also

represent regular language.

 R is a regular expression whose language is L, and automata M then R*

is a regular expression whose language is L*.

 Closure Properties of Regular Language
107

7. Regular languages Closed under Concatenation:

 Let M1=(Q1 ,Σ, δ1 , q0 , F1) and M2=(Q2 ,Σ, δ2 , S0 , F2) are given FA

and are closes Under concatenation if another FA M3 such that

 L (M3) =L (M1) . L (M2).

 Machine M3 is constructed to accept L (M1) . L (M2) then

 M3=(Q3 ,Σ, δ3, R0 , F3)

 Applications of Regular Expressions
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 Followings are the applications of RE.

1. Regular Expressions in Unix: The grep utility in Unix scans a file for

occurrences of patters and displays those lines in which the given

patters are found.

2. Regular Expressions in Lexical Analysis: Lexical Analysis is a

important phase of compiler . It scans the source program and convert

it into a steam of tokens. A token is a string of consecutive symbol
defining an entity.
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