Lecture 01

Chapter 1: Introduction

Operating System Concepts – 10h Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2018
 Chapter 1: Introduction

▪ What Operating Systems Do

▪ Computer-System Organization
▪ Computer-System Architecture
▪ Operating-System Operations
▪ Resource Management
▪ Security and Protection
▪ Virtualization
▪ Distributed Systems
▪ Kernel Data Structures
▪ Computing Environments
▪ Free/Libre and Open-Source Operating Systems

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 Objectives

▪ Describe the general organization of a computer system and the role

of interrupts
▪ Describe the components in a modern, multiprocessor computer
system
▪ Illustrate the transition from user mode to kernel mode
▪ Discuss how operating systems are used in various computing
environments
▪ Provide examples of free and open-source operating systems

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 What Does the Term Operating System Mean?

▪ An operating system is “fill in the blanks”

▪ What about:
• Car
• Airplane
• Printer
• Washing Machine
• Toaster
• Compiler
• Etc.

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 What is an Operating System?

▪ A program that acts as an intermediary between a user of a

computer and the computer hardware
▪ Operating system goals:
• Execute user programs and make solving user problems
easier
• Make the computer system convenient to use
• Use the computer hardware in an efficient manner

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 Computer System Structure

▪ Computer system can be divided into four components:

• Hardware – provides basic computing resources
 CPU, memory, I/O devices
• Operating system
 Controls and coordinates use of hardware among various
applications and users
• Application programs – define the ways in which the system
resources are used to solve the computing problems of the users
 Word processors, compilers, web browsers, database systems,
video games
• Users
 People, machines, other computers

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 Abstract View of Components of Computer

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 What Operating Systems Do
▪ Depends on the point of view
▪ Users want convenience, ease of use and good performance
• Don’t care about resource utilization
▪ But shared computer such as mainframe or minicomputer must keep
all users happy
• Operating system is a resource allocator and control program
making efficient use of HW and managing execution of user
programs
▪ Users of dedicate systems such as workstations have dedicated
resources but frequently use shared resources from servers
▪ Mobile devices like smartphones and tables are resource poor,
optimized for usability and battery life
• Mobile user interfaces such as touch screens, voice recognition
▪ Some computers have little or no user interface, such as embedded
computers in devices and automobiles
• Run primarily without user intervention
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 Defining Operating Systems

▪ Term OS covers many roles

• Because of myriad designs and uses of OSes
• Present in toasters through ships, spacecraft, game machines,
TVs and industrial control systems
• Born when fixed use computers for military became more
general purpose and needed resource management and
program control

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 Operating System Definition

▪ No universally accepted definition

▪ “Everything a vendor ships when you order an operating system” is a
good approximation
• But varies wildly
▪ “The one program running at all times on the computer” is the kernel,
part of the operating system
▪ Everything else is either
• A system program (ships with the operating system, but not part of
the kernel) , or
• An application program, all programs not associated with the
operating system
▪ Today’s OSes for general purpose and mobile computing also include
middleware – a set of software frameworks that provide additional
services to application developers such as databases, multimedia,
graphics

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 Overview of Computer System Structure

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 Computer System Organization

▪ Computer-system operation
• One or more CPUs, device controllers connect through common
bus providing access to shared memory
• Concurrent execution of CPUs and devices competing for memory
cycles

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 Computer-System Operation

▪ I/O devices and the CPU can execute concurrently

▪ Each device controller is in charge of a particular device type
▪ Each device controller has a local buffer
▪ Each device controller type has an operating system device driver
to manage it
▪ CPU moves data from/to main memory to/from local buffers
▪ I/O operations occur between the device and the local buffer of its
controller. For example, when you type on a keyboard, the data is
first sent to the keyboard’s local buffer.
▪ Device controller informs CPU that it has finished its operation by
causing an interrupt

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 Common Functions of Interrupts

▪ Interrupt transfers control to the interrupt service routine

generally, through the interrupt vector, which contains the
addresses of all the service routines
▪ Interrupt architecture must save the address of the interrupted
instruction
▪ A trap or exception is a software-generated interrupt caused
either by an error or a user request
▪ An operating system is interrupt driven

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 Interrupt Timeline

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 Interrupt Handling

▪ The operating system preserves the state of the CPU by

storing the registers and the program counter
▪ Determines which type of interrupt has occurred:
▪ Separate segments of code determine what action should
be taken for each type of interrupt

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 Interrupt-drive I/O Cycle

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 Storage Structure

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 Storage Structure
▪ Main memory – only large storage media that the CPU can
access directly
• Random access
• Typically volatile
• General-purpose computers run most of their programs
from rewritable memory, called main memory (also called
random-access memory,or RAM)
• Main memory is commonly implemented in a
semiconductor technology called dynamic random-
access memory (DRAM).
▪ Secondary storage – an extension of main memory that provides
large nonvolatile storage capacity

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 Storage Structure (Cont.)
▪ Hard Disk Drives (HDD) – rigid metal or glass platters covered
with magnetic recording material
• Disk surface is logically divided into tracks, which are subdivided
into sectors
• The disk controller determines the logical interaction between
the device and the computer
▪ Non-volatile memory (NVM) devices– faster than hard disks,
nonvolatile
• Various technologies
• Becoming more popular as capacity and performance increases,
price drops

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 Storage Definitions and Notation Review
The basic unit of computer storage is the bit. A bit can contain one of two
values, 0 and 1. All other storage in a computer is based on collections of bits.
Given enough bits, it is amazing how many things a computer can represent:
numbers, letters, images, movies, sounds, documents, and programs, to name
a few. A byte is 8 bits, and on most computers it is the smallest convenient
chunk of storage. For example, most computers don’t have an instruction to
move a bit but do have one to move a byte. A less common term is word,
which is a given computer architecture’s native unit of data. A word is made
up of one or more bytes. For example, a computer that has 64-bit registers and
64-bit memory addressing typically has 64-bit (8-byte) words. A computer
executes many operations in its native word size rather than a byte at a time.

Computer storage, along with most computer throughput, is generally

measured and manipulated in bytes and collections of bytes. A kilobyte, or
KB , is 1,024 bytes; a megabyte, or MB, is 1,0242 bytes; a gigabyte, or GB, is
1,0243 bytes; a terabyte, or TB, is 1,0244 bytes; and a petabyte, or PB, is 1,0245
bytes. Computer manufacturers often round off these numbers and say that
a megabyte is 1 million bytes and a gigabyte is 1 billion bytes. Networking
measurements are an exception to this general rule; they are given in bits
(because networks move data a bit at a time).

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 Storage Hierarchy
▪ Storage systems organized in hierarchy
• Speed
• Cost
• Volatility
▪ Caching – copying information into faster storage system; main
memory can be viewed as a cache for secondary storage
▪ Device Driver for each device controller to manage I/O
• Provides uniform interface between controller and kernel

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 Storage-Device Hierarchy

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 How a Modern Computer Works

A von Neumann architecture

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 Direct Memory Access Structure

▪ Used for high-speed I/O devices able to transmit information

at close to memory speeds
▪ Device controller transfers blocks of data from buffer storage
directly to main memory without CPU intervention
▪ Only one interrupt is generated per block, rather than the one
interrupt per byte

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 Operating-System Operations
▪ Bootstrap program – simple code to initialize the
system, load the kernel
▪ The bootstrap program must locate the operating
system kernel and load it into memory.
▪ Some services are provided outside of the kernel
by system programs that are loaded into memory
at boot time to become system daemons, which
run the entire time the kernel is running
▪ Kernel interrupt-driven (hardware and software)
• Hardware interrupt by one of the devices
• Software interrupt (exception or trap):
 Software error (e.g., division by zero)
 Request for operating system service –
system call
 Other process problems include infinite
loop, processes modifying each other or
the operating system

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 Multiprogramming (Batch system)

▪ Single user cannot always keep CPU and I/O devices busy
▪ Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code and data) so CPU
always has one to execute
▪ A subset of total jobs in system is kept in memory
▪ One job selected and run via job scheduling
▪ When job has to wait (for I/O for example), OS switches to
another job

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 Multitasking (Timesharing)

▪ A logical extension of Batch systems– the CPU switches jobs

so frequently that users can interact with each job while it is
running, creating interactive computing
• Response time should be < 1 second
• Each user has at least one program executing in memory
 process
• If several jobs ready to run at the same time  CPU
scheduling
• If processes don’t fit in memory, swapping moves them
in and out to run
• Virtual memory allows execution of processes not
completely in memory

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 Memory Layout for Multiprogrammed System

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 Dual-mode Operation

▪ Dual-mode operation allows OS to protect itself and other

system components
• User mode and kernel mode
▪ Mode bit provided by hardware
• Provides ability to distinguish when system is running user
code or kernel code.
• When a user is running  mode bit is “user”
• When kernel code is executing  mode bit is “kernel”
▪ How do we guarantee that user does not explicitly set the mode
bit to “kernel”?
• System call changes mode to kernel, return from call resets
it to user
▪ Some instructions designated as privileged, only executable in
kernel mode

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 Transition from User to Kernel Mode

At system boot time, the hardware starts in kernel mode. The operating
system is then loaded and starts user applications in user mode. Whenever a
trap or interrupt occurs, the hardware switches from user mode to kernel mode
(that is, changes the state of the mode bit to 0). Thus, whenever the operating
system gains control of the computer, it is in kernel mode. The system always
switches to user mode (by setting the mode bit to 1) before passing control to
a user program.
The dual mode of operation provides us with the means for protecting the
operating system from errant users—and errant users from one another. We
accomplish this protection by designating some machine instructions
that may cause harm as privileged instructions. The hardware allows privileged
instructions to be executed only in kernel mode. Suppose an attempt is made to
execute a privileged instruction in user mode. In that case, the hardware does not
execute the instruction but rather treats it as illegal and traps it to the operating
system.

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 Timer
We must ensure that the operating system maintains control over the CPU.
We cannot allow a user program to get stuck in an infinite loop or to fail to
call system services and never return control to the operating system. To
accomplish this goal, we can use a timer
▪ Timer to prevent infinite loop (or process hogging resources)
• Timer is set to interrupt the computer after some time period
• Keep a counter that is decremented by the physical clock
• Operating system set the counter (privileged instruction)
• When counter zero generate an interrupt
• Set up before scheduling process to regain control or terminate
program that exceeds allotted time

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 Cloud Computing
◼ Delivers computing, storage, even apps as a service across a network
◼ Logical extension of virtualization as based on virtualization
⚫Amazon EC2 has thousands of servers, millions of VMs, PBs
of storage available across the Internet, pay based on usage
◼ Many types
⚫Public cloud – available via Internet to anyone willing to pay
⚫Private cloud – run by a company for the company’s own use
⚫Hybrid cloud – includes both public and private cloud components
⚫Software as a Service (SaaS) – one or more applications
available via the Internet (i.e. word processor)
⚫Platform as a Service (PaaS) – software stack ready for application
use via the Internet (i.e a database server)
⚫Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) – servers or storage available
over Internet (i.e. storage available for backup use)

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 Cloud Computing
Cloud compute environments composed of traditional OSes, plus VMMs,
◼

plus cloud management tools

Internet connectivity requires security like firewalls
⚫

Load balancers spread traffic across multiple applications

⚫

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 Computing Environments – Real-Time Embedded Systems

Real-time embedded systems most prevalent form of computers

◼

❑ Vary considerable, special purpose, limited purpose OS, real-time

OS
❑ Use expanding
❑ Many other special computing environments as well
❑ Some have OSes, some perform tasks without an OS
❑ Real-time OS has well-defined fixed time constraints
❑ Processing must be done within constraint
❑ Correct operation only if constraints met
For example Scientific experiments, medical imaging systems, industrial
◼

control systems, weapon systems, robots, and home-appliance controllers,

Air traffic control system etc.

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 Computing Environments – Real-Time Embedded Systems
There are two types of real-time operating systems.

Hard real-time systems

Hard real-time systems guarantee that critical tasks complete on time. In hard
real-time systems secondary storage is limited or missing with data stored in ROM.
In these systems virtual memory is almost never found.

Soft real-time systems

Soft real time systems are less restrictive. Critical real-time task gets priority over
other tasks and retains the priority until it completes. Soft real-time systems have
limited utility than hard real-time systems. For example,
Multimedia, virtual reality, Advanced Scientific Projects like
undersea exploration and planetary rovers etc.

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 Distributed operating System

Distributed systems use multiple central processors

to serve multiple real time application and multiple
users. Data processing jobs are distributed among
the processors accordingly to which
one can perform each job most efficiently.

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 Distributed operating System

The advantages of distributed systems are following.

With resource sharing facility user at one site may be able to
use the resources available at another.
Speedup the exchange of data with one another via
electronic mail.
If one site fails in a distributed system, the remaining sites can
potentially continue operating.
Better service to the customers.
Reduction of the load on the host computer.
Reduction of delays in data processing.

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 Network operating System

Network Operating System runs on a server and provides server the capability to
manage data, users, groups, security, applications, and other networking functions.
The primary purpose of the network operating system is to allow shared file
and printer access among multiple

computers in a network, typically a local area network (LAN), a private network or to oth
networks. Examples of network operating systems are Microsoft Windows Server 2003
Microsoft Windows Server 2008, UNIX, Linux, Mac OS X, Novell NetWare, and BSD.

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 Open-Source Operating Systems
Operating systems made available in source-code format rather than just
◼

▪ binary closed-source

◼ Counter to the copy protection and Digital Rights Management (DRM)

▪ movement

Started by Free Software Foundation (FSF), which has “copyleft” GNU Public
◼

License (GPL)

Examples include GNU/Linux and BSD UNIX (including core of Mac OS X), and
◼

many more
◼ Can use VMM like VMware Player (Free on Windows), Virtualbox (open
▪ source and free on many platforms - http://www.virtualbox.com)
⚫ Use to run guest operating systems for exploration

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 End of Chapter
1

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