1.1.

TRANSLATION DEFINED
For centuries, people believed in the relation between translation and the story
of the tower of Babel in the Book of Genesis. According to the
Bible, the descendants of Noah decided, after the great flood, to settle down in
a plain in the land of Shinar. There, they committed a great sin. Instead of setting
up a society that fits God’s will, they decided to challenge his authority and build
a tower that could reach Heaven. However, this plan was not completed, as
God, recognizing their wish, regained control over them through a linguistic
stratagem. He caused them to speak different languages so as not to understand
each other. Then, he scattered them all over the earth. After that incident, the
number of languages increased through diversion, and people started to look for
ways to communicate, hence the birth of translation (Benabdelali, 2006). With the
birth of translation studies and the increase of research in the domain, people
started to get away from this story of Babel, and they began to look for specific
dates and figures that mark the periods of translation history.

What defines translation? Below are definitions of translation from various scholars.

1. Translation is an act through which the content of a text is transferred from the
source language in to the target language (Foster, 1958). The language to be
translated is called the source language (SL), whereas the language to be
translated into or arrived at is called the target language (TL). The translator needs
to have good knowledge of both
the source and the target language, in addition to a high linguistic sensitivity as
he should transmit the writer's intention, original thoughts and opinions in the
translated version as precisely and faithfully as a possible.

2. “Translation is a communicative process which takes place within a social

context” (Hatim, B. and Masim, I. 1990). This would mean that Translation is putting
across message considering the culture, the speaker, and the context
of conversation.

Due to its prominence, translation has been viewed differently.

3. According to Ghazala (1995), "translation is generally used to refer to all the

process and methods used to convey the meaning of the source language in to
the target language" (P.1.) Ghazala's definition focuses on the notion of meaning
as an essential element in translation. That is, when translating, understanding the
meaning of the source text is vital tohave the appropriate equivalent in the target
text thus, it is meaning that is translated in relation to grammar, style and sounds
(Ghazala, 1995).
4. Translation is a process and a product. Catford (1995:20), states that “translation
is the replacement of textual material in one language (SL) by equivalent textual
material in another language (TL) ". This definition shows that translation is a
process in the sense that is an activity. Performed by people through time, when
expressions are translated in to simpler ones in the same language (Rewording
and para-phrasing). It can be done also from one language into another different
language. Translation is, on the other hand, a product since it provides us with
other different cultures, to ancient societies and civilization life when the
translated texts reaches us.

5. Translation is when a general management idea is transferred and

reinterpreted in a new setting (Morris & Lancaster, 2006). Translation accepts that
this transfer of an idea is not a ‘friction-less’ process, like diffusion, but change
(transformation) is expected to occur in the translation process. This, therefore,
implies that each translation is unique (Cassell & Lee, 2017).

The view about the role of translation in language education has been
spreading around the world and the idea of using translation as an aid in
language teaching has undergone a positive change.
For instance, Ross (2000) claims that translation is accepted as the fifth language
skill:
“Translation is sometimes referred to as the fifth language skill alongside the
other four basic skills (listening, speaking, reading, writing): “Translation
holds a special importance at an intermediate and advanced level: in the
advanced or final stage of language teaching, translation from L1 to L2
and L2 to L1 is recognized as the fifth skill and the most important social skill
since it promotes communication and understanding between strangers”
(cited in Kavaliauskienė et al, 2010: 36).

1.2 TRANSLATION AND ITS HISTORY

Writings on translation go back to the Romans. Jacobsen (1958) claims that

translating is a Roman invention (see McGuire, 1980).

Cicero and Horace (first century BC) were the first theorists who distinguished
between word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation. Their
comments on translation practice influenced the following generations of
translation up to the 20th century.

The first instance of Bible translation took place in about 300 B.C., when the Old
Testament was translated from Hebrew to Greek. The Old and New Testaments
were translated into different languages beginning in 382 A.D. with the work of St.
Jerome. The translation work was originally done by hand.

Tracing the origins of translation, the term has been derived from the Latin word
translation, which itself comes from trans- and latum—together meaning "a
carrying across" or "a bringing across. In other words, it is the business of carrying
across a message/written content from one text to another, from one person to
another and from one language (source language) to a different language
(target language). It can happen within the same language (from one dialect to
another dialect or from one form to another) or between languages. It is best
seen as a communication process where the transfer of a message/written
content from one language into a new language takes place.

It is an adaptation from the Greeks concept of <metaphrasis= (word-for-word

or literal) vs. <paraphrasis= (saying in other word). In linguistic approach, these
terms are tantamount to formal equivalence vs. dynamic equivalence.

Writings on translation go back to the Romans. Jacobsen (1958) claims that

translating is a Roman invention (see McGuire, 1980). Cicero and Horace (first
century BC) were the first theorists who distinguished between word-for-word
translation and sense-for-sense translation. Their comments on translation
practice influenced the following generations of translation up to the 20th
century. Another period that knew a changing step in translation development
was marked by St. Jerome (fourth century CE). “His approach to translating the
Greek Septuagint Bible into Latin would affect later translations of the scriptures”
(Munday, 2001).

Later on, the translation of the Bible remained a subject to many conflicts
between western theories and ideologies of translation for more than a thousand
years. As Zakhir (2008) points out, the invention of printing techniques in the 15th
century developed the field of translation and helped in the appearance of early
theorists.

The 17th century knew the birth of many influential theorists, such as Sir John
Denhom, Abraham Cowley, John Dryden who was famous for his distinction
between three types of translation; metaphrase, paraphrase and imitation.

In the 18th century, the translator was compared to an artist with a moral duty
both to the work of the original author and to the receiver. Moreover, the study of
translation started to be systematic; Alexander Tayler’s volume “Principle of
Translation” is a case in point.

The 19th century was characterized by two conflicting tendencies; the first
considered translation as a category of thought and saw the translator as a
creative genius, who enriches the literature and the language into which he is
translating, while the second saw him through the mechanical function of making
a text or an author known (McGuire, 1980). This period of the nineteenth century
knew also the birth of many theories and translations in the domain of literature,
especially poetic translation. An example of these translations is the one used by
Edward Fitzgerald for Rubalyat Omar Al- Khayyam.

In the second half of the 20th century, studies on translation became an important
course in language teaching and learning at schools. The period is also
characterized by pragmatic and systematic approach to the study of translation.

Nowadays, translation research has started to take another path, which is more
automatic. The invention of the internet, together with the new technological
developments in communication and digital materials, has increased cultural
exchanges between nations. This leads translators to look for ways to cope with
these changes and to look for more practical techniques that enable them to
translate more and waste less. They also felt the need to enter the world of
cinematographic translation, hence the birth of audiovisual translation. The latter
technique, also called screen translation, is concerned with the translation of all
kinds of TV programs, including films, series, and documentaries. This field is based
on computers and translation software programs, and it is composed of two
methods; dubbing and subtitling. In fact, audiovisual translation marks a
changing era in the domain of translation.

In short, translation has very wide and rich history in the West. Since its birth,
translation was the subject of a variety of research and conflicts between
theorists. Each theorist approaches it according to his viewpoint and field of
research, the fact that gives its history a changing quality.

“Translation is a communicative process which takes place within a

social context” (Hatim, B. andMasim, I. 1990). This would mean that Translation
is putting across message considering the culture, the speaker, and the context
of conversation.

Why the need to consider these?

Consider the analysis below:

Those from Batangas and those from the southern part would tend to use
the word ‘na’ plus verb. na + verb in their context usually indicates something
that is being performed/happening at this very moment.
 For example: “Kumain ka na ba” is “Have you eaten,” while “Nakain ka na
ba” is “Are you eating (right now?)” Similarly, “Umulan ngayon” means it rained
some time ago today, while “Naulan ngayon” means it is raining right now, at this
very moment. If a translator would have to do his role, this context of their
language has to be understood.
Translation is when a general management idea is transferred and reinterpreted
in a new setting (Morris & Lancaster, 2006). Translation accepts that this transfer of
an idea is not a ‘friction-less’ process, like diffusion, but change (transformation) is
expected to occur in the translation process. This, therefore, implies that each
translation is unique (Cassell & Lee, 2017).

The view about the role of translation in language education has been
spreading around the world and the idea of using translation as an aid in
language teaching has undergone a positive change.
For instance, Ross (2000) claims that translation is accepted as the fifth language
skill:
“Translation is sometimes referred to as the fifth language skill alongside the
other four basic skills (listening, speaking, reading, writing): “Translation
holds a special importance at an intermediate and advanced level: in the
advanced or final stage of language teaching, translation from L1 to L2
and L2 to L1 is recognized as the fifth skill and the most important social skill
since it promotes communication and understanding between strangers”
(cited in Kavaliauskienė et al, 2010: 36).

1.3. PURPOSE OF TRANSLATION

Translation is the process of turning one language into another. It is a form of
communication used throughout history to share information between different
cultures. The history of translation is a long and complicated one, and it has been
a significant part of human civilization for thousands of years. However, it has
been more challenging than it is
Today.

1. The aim of using translation in language classrooms is not to train professional

translators, but to develop learners’ language skills and their knowledge of English.

Along this purpose, Koppe & Kremer (2010: 2) list the benefits of the use of
translation for learners of foreign language:

 translation provides learners with the practice and skills necessary to

communicate accurately, meaningfully and appropriately;
  through translation activities, teachers can promote interaction among
learners since they involve the negotiation of multiple possibilities of form
and meaning;
 translation can help learners to interpret, negotiate and express meaning
from different perspectives, according to the context and its different
interpretive communities (Fish, 1980/2003);
 the practice of translation encourages the reflection on language
usage and the exchange of different points of view, raising language
awareness.

1.4. TRANSLATION AS PART OF APPLIED LINGUISTICS

Applied linguists work in many fields and one of them is translation. The main
concern of translation theory is to predict and explain all phenomena included in
the area of translation. Therefore, it deals with constructing principles, rules and
hints for translating texts and criticizing translations.

In this way, it suggests appropriate translation methods for different kinds of texts;
and in general it provides a background for solving the problems that arise during
the process of translation. McDonough (2002: 16) lists the questions that
Translation theory tries to answer and illustrates the relationship between applied
linguistics and translation:

language be;

also in the case of propositional meaning, but also in the case of metaphor
and idiomatic language;
-based meanings may be represented in the other language
How translation may be evaluated;
How translators may be trained;
How the process of translating as a mental activity develops

Several of these topics have directed implications for questions in other areas of
applied linguistics, for instance in the area of translation as a language learning
task; the advocacy and use of translation as a ‘natural’ language learning
strategy; and the place of translation in second language competence, that is,
as a skill to be expected of all speakers of two languages as a rather special skill
only to be expected of specialists.
To conclude; applied linguistics is an interdisciplinary field occupying the middle
ground as a mediator between the disciplines. It combines the theoretical bases
of these disciplines with professional practices. For this reason, applied linguistics
gives way to practice the translation theories in many aspects via different
disciplines

PRINCIPLES IN TRANSLATION

Below are some general principles which are relevant to all translation:

a. Meaning. The translation should reflect accurately the meaning of the original
text. Nothing should be arbitrarily added or
removed, though occasionally part of the meaning can be 'transposed', for
example, He was limp with fatigue might become: Il était tellement fatigué
qu'llne tenait plus debout.

Ask yourself:
- is the meaning of the original text clear? if not, where does the uncertainty lie?
- are any words 'loaded', that is, are there any underlying implications? ('Correct
me if I'm wrong . . .' suggests 'know I'm right'!)
- is the dictionary meaning of a particular word the most suitable one? (should
suboerzijabe suboersion in English?)
- does anything in the translation sound unnatural or forced?

b. Form. The ordering of words and ideas in the translation should match the
original as closely as possible. (This is particularly important in translating legal
documents, guarantees, contracts,
estress falls.

c. Register. Languages often differ greatly in their levels of formality in a given

context (say, the business letter). To resolve these differences, the translator must
distinguish between formal or fixed expressions (le oous prie, madame, d'agréer
I'expression de mes sentiments distingués, or Please find enclosed . . .) and
personal expressions, in which the writer or speaker sets the tone.

Consider also:
- would any expression in the original sound too formal/informal, cold/warm,
personal/impersonal . . . if translated literally?
- what is the intention of the speaker or writer? (to persuade/dissuade,
apologize/criticize?) Does this come through in the translation?

d. Source language influence. One of the most frequent criticisms of translation

is that 'it doesn't sound natural'. This is because the translator's thoughts and
choice of words are too strongly
molded by the original text. A good way of shaking off the source language (SL)
influence is to set the text aside and translate a few sentences aloud, from
memory. This will suggest natural patterns of thought in the first language (L1),
which may not come to mind when the eye is fixed on the SL text.

e. Style and clarity. The translator should not change the style of the original. But
if the text is sloppily written, or full of tedious repetitions, the translator may, for the
reader's sake, correct the defects.

f. Idiom. Idiomatic expressions are notoriously untranslatable. These include

similes, metaphors, proverbs and sayings (as good as gold), jargon, slang, and
colloquialisms (user-friendly, the Big
Apple, yuppie, etc.), and (in English) phrasal verbs. If the expressions cannot be
directly translated, try any of the following:
- retain the original word, in inverted commas: 'yuppie'
- retain the original expression, with a literal explanation in
brackets: Indian stunrner (dry, hazy weather in late autumn)
- use a close equivalent: talk of the deoil : ouk na úrotirna
(literally, 'the wolf at the door')
- use a non-idiomatic or plain prose translation: a bit ooer the top
: un peu excessif.
The golden rule is: if the idiom does not work in the Ll, do not force it into the
translation.
(The principles outlined above are adapted from Frederick Fuller:
The Translator's Handbook. Fot more detailed comments, see Peter
Newmark: Approaches to Translation.)
tc.) But differences in language structure often require changesin the form and
order of words. When in doubt, underline in the original text the words on which
the main

In translation, inevitably there will be difference in word used, forms of expressing

the ideas, structure of the lines. Probably there will be words added, omitted,
changed and even another idea. According to Savory (Almario, V. et.al 2003), it
is impossible to give a principle in translation that will not contradict to another
principle.

Here are some example in principle of translation.

1. Every language is rooted from the culture of the people who owns it.

Example: English-‘as white as snow’

Filipino- ‘simputi ng bulak’
 English- get the dipper
Ibanag- Afam mu yu Caltex

Ilocano- Alam jay taku

2. Every language has its own property and characteristics which explains its
own behavior. This refers to the structure of the sentence.

English: Subject + Predicate

Filipino: Paksa + Panaguri/ Panaguri+ Paksa

Examples: English: The students participated in the class discussion.

Filipino: Predicate +Subject/ Subject + Predicate
Sumali and mga mag aaral sa talakayan ng Klase
Ang mga mag-aaral ay sumali sa talakayan ng klase

3. Translation should be accaepted by the target receiver. Is the translation

appropriate to the level of the audience?
Examokes: Science-syensya, agham
Psychology-sikolohiya
Mathematics- Matematika

4. Abbreviations and Acronyms including formulas that are considered

established or universal in use need not be changed to conform with spelling
and equivalence.

Examples DEpEd- Department of Education

CSU- Cagayan State University

5. In instances when more than one equivallece are acceptable, use any of the
equivalences, but provide a footnote for the rest of the meaning.

Examples: terminology – terminolohiya, katawagan

testimony – patotoo patibay, salaysay. patunay. pahayag,
paliwanag
framework – balangkas

6. Brief, concise, condensed expressions should always be observed in translation

process. This principle refers to 'brevity' o katipiran in Filipino.
Examples: It is right to give him thanks and praise.
Marapat na siya'y pasalamatan.
7. A word may have a definite meaning once it becomes a part of a sentence.
The meaning may depend upon the topic, the speaker and the intention of the
message.
Examples: May bukas pa. - Hindi pa ito ang katapusan ng lahat
Bukas ay kaarawan ko. Tomorrow is my birthday.
Ano ang magiging bukas mo? What will be your future?

8. There are instances when direct expressions are best said euphemistically to
avoid awkwardness.
Examples: Namatay na siya.
Sumakabilang buhay na siya.
Nauna na siya.
Wala na siya
Kinuha na siya ni Lord

9. The believe that Filipino language is inadequate, hence, translators resort to

imitation or borrowing not only the word, but also the idioms, way of expression,
and the structure of the sentences of English.
Examples: green thumb – green thumb/malamig ang kamay
mouse – mouse
keyboard – keyboard

10. Consider differences in written expression from spoken expression. It requires

formality of words in translation.
Examples: mayroon – meron
Huwag – wag

11. Consider unity of related words borrowed from English.

Examples: Solid at liquid - solido at likido
Linguistics and Literature – linggwistika at literatura

12. The property or characteristics of a certain language should not be transferred

to the receptor language.
Examples: magandang babae/babaeng maganda – beautiful girl
Loanwords in English/English Loanwords
salitang hiram sa Ingles/hiram na salita sa lngles

13. Dictionary is an auxiliary tool in translation. A translator should not be totally

dependent to dictionaries. Not all words could be defined by the dictionary,
especially when the word is used in a different context.

Examples: Comedia – moro-moro

Comedy – a type of drama
upload – mag-iinput ng data sa web/computer
 download – manguha ng datos sa web/computer

KEEP IN MIND In translation, inevitably there will be difference in word used, forms
of expressing the ideas, structure of the lines. Probably there will be words added,
omitted, changed and even another idea. Hence a better understanding of the
SL and TL is required to fully grasp the true intention of translation.