DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE IN MESOAMERICA

1600 500 001 350 757 918 1126 1434 1525 1697
BCE (Before Common Era) CE (Common Era)
Replaced B.C. (Before Christ) Replaced A.D. (Anno Domini means “in the year of our Lord”)
Preclassic Classic Post Classic
Olmec C.
Zapotec
Maya
Teotihuacan C. Toltec C.
Mixtec C.
Zapotec C.
Aztec E. Spanish Empire

Mesoamerica: Mexico and Central America (from Southern Mexico to border of South America)
A region rich in culture and knowledge prior to the arrival of European colonizers
Corn (Maize) – the staple crop in the region

How did people first get to the Americas?

Theory 1: Bering land bridge (between Alaska and Siberia) from east Africa to Mesoamerica
Theory 2: Coastal migration thru crossing Pacific Ocean

A. Olmec (Tabasco Mexico) – the 1st advanced Mesoamerican Civilization in southern Mexico
- Means “rubber people” – 1st to use rubber
- With large curved helmeted stone heads; used stone tools; jade mask
- 1st to use calendar and hieroglyphics in clay similar to Egypt
- 1st to play Pok-a-tok using rubber ball
- Jaguar – considered as god by Olmec
- Gods of Olmec:
1. Earth monster dragon god represented earth and agriculture
2. Maize god
3. Jaguar god as rain spirit
4. Jaguar man as strength and victory in battle
5. Bird monster god as sun ruler and agriculture
6. Fish monster god (shark) represented underworld

B. Zapotec Empire (in the Southeast Mesoamerica) – develop early calendar system
- Monte Alban as the capital

C. Maya Civilization (in Yacutan peninsula) – not an empire (each city-state has its own king or
ruler)
- Believed that people were from corn; believed in reincarnation
- One of the famous civilizations that lasted for approximately 2,000 years
- Known for work in astronomy; incorporated their advanced understanding of astronomy into their
temples and other religious structures – use their temples for astronomical observation.
Ex. Pyramid of Chichen Itza in Mexico is located at the location of the Sun during the spring
and fall equinoxes (when the day and night are equal length; Sept 22 and March 20; the sun
crosses the celestial equator)
- Mayan knowledge and understanding about celestial bodies:
1. Advance for their time: predicting eclipse & use astrological cycles in planting and harvesting
2. Known for measuring time using 2 complicated calendar systems for planning activities in
their religious rituals and cultural celebrations.

3 TYPES OF CALENDARS (USED SIMULTANEOUSLY)

1. Long Count (Universal Cycle)= the astronomical calendar
Katun = 20 years

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 Baktun = 395 years
Piktun = 7,885 years (ended in 2012)

2. Tzolkin (devine calendar) = the Sacred Round, determine the time of religious
and ceremonial events

3. Haab (Solar/civil) calendar = 365 days in a year;

(vs. Gregorian calendar of 365 days plus 1 leap year added on the 29th of
February to settle discrepancy with the Maya)
Haab (Solar/civil) calendar Gregorian calendar
• 365 days • 365.24219 days
• 18 months with 20 days, + • 7 months with 31 days, +
1 month with 5 days 4 months with 30 days, +
1 month with 28 days, +
1 day for a leap year every 4 years

- Developed the technology for growing different crops and building elaborates cities using ordinary
machines and tools
Ex. Built hydraulics system with sophisticated waterways to supply water to different
communities
- Used various tools and adapt themselves to innovations especially in the field of arts.
- Built looms for weaving cloth and devised a rainbow of glittery paints made from a mineral
called MICA
- One of the 1st people to produce rubber products (but Olmec is 1st) 3,000 years before
Goodyear received its patent in 1844
- One of the most scientifically advanced societies in Mesoamerica
- Famous as one of the world’s 1st civilizations to use a writing system known as the Mayan
Hieroglyphics.
- Skilled in mathematics and created a number system based on the numerical 20.
Ex. Developed the concept of zero and positional value, even before the Romans did
- Important places in Maya civilization:
1. Calakmul in northern state (500AD-900AD): “Snake Kingdom”; City of two pyramids
2. Tikal in southern state: founded Stone pyramid in Tikal Yucatan
3. Chichen Itza (“on the mouth of the well of Itza” = one of the largest cities of Maya
civilization; known for Great Ball Court for Pok-a-tok where losers became human sacrifice
4. Coba
5. Palengue (most beautiful Maya site) = ruled by K’inich Janaab Pakal, ruled for 70 years at
the age of 12.
- Missionary Bishop Diego D. Lando burnt documents about history and human sacrifices
documents

D. Teotihuacan (in Northern Mesoamerica) – construction of Pyramid of the Sun and Pyramid of the
Moon as religious center at Quetzapapalotl Complex
- Quetzalcoatl – the feathered serpent god from Venus
- Fall due to burning

E. Toltec – the greatest conqueror in Mesoamerica; disappeared due to 7 years famine and civil
wars

F. Aztec Empire / Civilization (Central America / New Mexico)

- Led by Montezuma (last Aztec emperor)
- Some of the contributions:
- Found the eagle with snake at the atop the cactus in the swampy island in lake Texcoco with
capital city, the Tenochtitlan (Mexico City)
1. Mandatory education – regardless of social class, gender, or age; an early form of
universal or inclusive education
2. Chocolates – valued the cacao beans highly and made it as part of their tribute to their
gods. (Mayan culture, uses it as currency)
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 3. Antispasmodic medication
4. Chinampa, a form of Aztec technology for agricultural farming in which the land was
divided into rectangular areas and surrounded by canals.
5. Sun stone (Piedra del Sol) or calendar stone, is the most iconic object from pre-
Colombian Mexico; enable them to plan their activities, rituals, and planting season from
Tonatiuh (Aztec sun god); 12 ft in diameter, 24 tons made of basalt
= records the origin of the Aztec cosmos, the creation of the five suns:
1st sun = that 1st era is death by jaguars
2nd sun = that the 2nd era is death by high winds
3rd sun = that the 3rd era is death by rain of fire
4th sun = that the 4th ear is death by water
5th sun called “four movement” = that the current era is death by earthquakes
6. Invention of the canoe, a light narrow boat used for traveling in water systems
- Polytheistic with main god as Huitzilopochtli (weets se lo poch tlee)
- For the consecration of Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan in 1487, the Aztecs reported that they
sacrificed 84,400 prisoners over the course of 4 days
- Spanish conquistadors led by Hernan Cortes conquered Tenochtitlan and defeated the Aztecs in
1521 and burnt many documents to end human sacrifices
- Also played Pok-a-tok

G. Inca Civilization (South America: Peru, Chile, Bolivia, Colombia, Argentina, Equador ), known
as sky people
- Led by emperor Sepa Inca; empire was divided into 4 regions with the capital at Cuzco
- Machu Picchu in Peru the best preserved Inca civilization (discovered in 1911)
- Polytheistic with main god as Inti, the sun god; believed in reincarnation; practice cranial
deformation (cone-like shape)
- Made advanced scientific ideas considering their limitations as an old civilization.
- The ff. were scientific ideas and tools that they developed to help them in everyday life
1. Roads paved with stones
2. Stone buildings that surmounted earthquakes and other disasters
3. Irrigation system and technique for storing water for their crops to grow in all types of
lands
4. Terrace farming
5. Calendar with 12 months to mark their religious festivals and prepare them for planting
seasons
6. 1st suspension bridge
7. Quipu, a system of knotted ropes to keep records that only expert can interpret
8. Inca textiles since cloth was one of the specially prized artistic achievements.
9. Performed successful skull surgery
- Fall was caused by: 1. Civil war in the empire
2. smallpox from Spanish conquerors
3. Francisco Pizzaro, Spanish conquistador that led the final fall of
Inca.

DEVELOPMENT OD SCIENCE IN ASIA

H. Indian Civilization
- Known for manufacturing iron and in metallurgical works; sewage system
- Known for medicine
1. Ayurveda, a system of traditional medicine that originated in ancient India before 2500 BC, is
still practiced as a form of alternative medicine
2. Susruta Samhita, describes different surgical and other medical procedures famous in
Ancient India.
3. Also notable in the field of astronomy
a. Developed theories on the configuration of the universe, the spherical self-supporting
earth, and the year of 360 days with 12 equal parts of 30 days each
b. 1st 12 chapters of Siddhanta Shiromani – as evidence in the interest of Indian in
astronomy; written in 12th century. It covers topics in:
1. mean longitudes of the planets;

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 2. true longitudes of the planets; the three problems of diurnal rotation; syzygies;
3. lunar eclipses; solar eclipses; latitudes of the planets; risings and settings; the
moon’s crescent; conjunctions of the planets with each other; conjunctions of the
planets with the fixed stars; and the paths of the Sun and Moon.
4. Also known for mathematics; noted in Indus Valley Civilization (Indian subcontinent), tried
to standardize measurement of length to a high degree of accuracy and designed a ruler, the
Mohenjodaro ruler.
a. Aryabhatiya by Indian astronomer and mathematician Aryabhata (476-550), introduced
a number of trigonometric functions, tables, and techniques, as well as algorithms of
algebra.
b. In 628 AD, Brahmagupta suggested that gravity was a force of attraction, and lucidly
explained the use of zero as both a placeholder and a decimal digit, along with the
Hindu-Arabic numeral system now used universally.
c. Madhava of Sangamagrama, another founder of mathematical analysis.
- Mohenjo Daro = 1st urban center in human history located at Southern Pakistan along Indus River
valley, divided into 2 districts:
1. Citadel = with Great Bath;
2. Lowe town

I. China Civilization
- Influence many countries like Korea, Philippines, Vietnam, Thailand, Cambodia, Myanmar, and
other countries that belong to the old Silk Road.
- Known for traditional medicine, ex. Acupuncture.
- Among the famous discoveries of Chinese civilization:
1. Compass
2. Papermaking
3. Gunpowder
4. Printing tools
5. Others: Iron plough, wheelbarrow, and propeller, etc.
- Developed a design of different models of bridges; invented the 1st seismological detector and
developed a dry dock facility
- In Astronomy, made significant records on supernovas, lunar and solar eclipses, and comets;
uses lunar calendars;
- Known in seismology, made them more prepared in times of natural calamities.
- Cultural factors prevented Chinese achievement from developing into modern science.
J. Middle East Civilization
- Dominantly occupied by Muslims
- Golden Age of Islam, the spread of Islam from 7th to 8th centuries that lasted until 13th century.
- Contributory to the intellectualization of the Muslims:
1. Arabic, common language;
2. Access to Greek texts from the Byzantine Empire; and
3. Their proximity to India
- Muslim scientist placed greater value on science experiments rather than plain-thought
experiments of Greeks
1. Led the development of scientific method in the Muslim world
2. Made significant improvements by using experiments to distinguish between competing
scientific theories set within a generally empirical orientation.
- Ibn Al-Haytham, “the Father of Optics”, a Muslim scientist, proved the intromission theory of
light.
- In mathematics, Muhammad Ibn Musa Al-Khwarizmi gave his name to the concept of the
algorithm while the term algebra is derived from al-jabr, the beginning of the title of one of his
publications.
1. What is now known as the Arabic Numerical System originally came from India, but Muslim
mathematicians did make several refinements to the number system, such as the introduction
of decimal point notation.
- Jabin ibn Hayyan considered as the “Father of Chemistry”.
- Ibn Sina, pioneered the science of experimental medicine and was the 1st physician to conduct
clinical trials; wrote:

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 1. The Book of Healing
2. The canon of Medicine
3. Other contributions: the discovery of the contagious nature of infectious diseases and the
introduction of clinical pharmacology
- The decline of Islam golden age was due to the conquest of the Mongols whereby libraries,
observatories, and other learning institutions were destroyed

K. DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE IN AFRICA

- Ancient Egyptian civilization has contributed immensely and made significant advances in the
fields of astronomy, mathematics, and medicine
- Development of geometry. The rules of geometry were developed and used to build rectilinear
structures, the post of lintel architecture of Egypt.
- Other proof of advance civilization: great structures of the Egyptian pyramids and the early dams
built to divert water from the Nile River
- Egypt was known to be a center of alchemy, which is known as the medieval forerunner of
chemistry
- Studied human anatomy and pharmacology, and applied important components such as
examination, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis for the treatment of diseases.
- Astronomy: Africans used 3 types of calendar: lunar, solar, and stellar, or a combination of the
three.
- Metallurgy. North Africa and the Nile Valley imported iron technology from the Near East Region
that enabled them to benefit from the developments during the Bronze Age until the Iron Age
- Mathematics. Lebombo Bone from the mountains between Swaziland and South Africa, which
may have been a tool for multiplication, dividion, and simple mathematical calculation or a six-
month lunar calendar, is considered to be the oldest known mathehmatical artefact dated from
35,000 BCE.
- Ancient Egyptians are good in the 4 fundamental mathematical operations and other
mathematical skills.