Noise

For the subject of Electronics Communication (EC512) offered in B.Tech. Sem.-V (EC)
Prepared and Presented By:
Prof. Smith Thavalapill
Department of Electronics & Communication
D h a r m s i n h D e s a i U n i v e r s i t y, N a d i a d , G u j a r a t
Email id: [email protected], [email protected]
Contact No: 9825336543

This video is released under Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License. You are free to use, distribute and modify it,
including for commercial purpose, provided you acknowledge the source.
 Learning Objectives
❑ Learner should be able to the notion of noise in Communication system and
how it sets lower limit on the size of signal that can be usefully received

❑ Learner should be able to identify different source of noise generated due to

electronic components and their corresponding PSD

❑Learner should be able to appreciate the importance of SNR, Noise factor,

Equivalent noise temperature associated with communication circuit

❑Learner should be able to carry out analysis to determine various noise related
quantities like SNR, noise factor and equivalent noise temperature in the
communication receiver system

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 Introduction (1)
❑ In general noise means disturbance one “hears” but in communication noise is
an electrical disturbance that gives rise to audible as well as visual noise in a
system
❑ Noise can arise in variety of ways: [Few can be eliminated/suppressed]
❑ Faulty connection in communication receiver may result into crackling type of noise
(can be eliminated)
❑ Noise also occurs when electrical connections that carry current are made and
broken ( can be suppressed at source)
❑ Natural phenomena like storms, rain, certain belts of radiation that exist in
space etc also gives rise to noise which can’t be eliminated/suppressed
❑ Only solution is to reposition the receiving antenna to minimize the received noise
(maintain SNR level at the receiver antenna)

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 Introduction (2)
❑ Noise is present in the communication equipment's @ transmitter as well as receiver
due to the electronic components itself but it is mainly of concern in receiving systems

❑ These noise, due to electronic equipment, limit the receiver sensitivity

❑ Signal received @ receiver is very small and amplification will increase the level of
both signal as well as noise

❑ Unfortunately , amplifiers at the receiver also adds noise by itself too and hence SNR
may be degraded by the addition of amplifiers

❑ Hence the study of these fundamental source of noise within communication

equipment is essential, if effects of the noise is to be minimized

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 Noise in Communication equipment
❑ Various fundamental source of noise in communication equipment due to electronic
components are:
❑ Thermal noise
❑ Shot noise
❑ Partition noise
❑ Low frequency/flicker noise
❑ Burst noise
❑ Avalanche noise

❑ All the above specified noise are present in BJT as well as FET with varied effects and
are specified as:
❑ Bipolar transistor noise
❑ Field-effect Transistor noise

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 THERMAL NOISE (1)
❑ In conductors, the random motion of free electrons (due to heat exchange between
conductor and its surroundings) makes the electron density within the conductor to be
varying randomly

❑ It gives rise to the randomly varying voltage across the ends of the conductor

❑ Such voltage can be observed in the flickering of a very sensitive AC voltmeter

❑ Such noise arises from thermal causes, hence, name THERMAL NOISE (also known
as Johnson noise)

❑ The average or mean noise voltage is 0 but rms value is finite and can be measured

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 THERMAL NOISE (2)
❑ Experimentally it has been found that mean square thermal noise voltage is
proportional to the resistance of the conductor (R), to its absolute temperature (T) in
Kelvin and to the bandwidth of the device measuring (or responding to) the noise (Bn)
❑ The mean square measure voltage measure on meter is given by
𝐸𝑛2 = 4𝑅𝑘𝑇𝐵𝑛
where En = root mean square (rms) noise voltage (volts)
R = resistance of the conductor (ohm)
T = conductor temperature (kelvins)
Bn = equivalent noise bandwidth (Hz)
k = Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38 * 10-23 J/K

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 THERMAL NOISE (3)
❑ The rms thermal noise voltage is given by 𝐸𝑛 = 4𝑅𝑘𝑇𝐵𝑛
❑ This suggest R can be considered as free source of energy but to abstract the noise
power, R has to be connected to a resistive load and in thermal equilibrium the load
will supply as much energy to R as it receives
❑ Hence noise power cannot be utilized as a free source of energy but power can be
calculated.
❑ Available thermal noise power is given by
𝑃𝑛 = 𝑘𝑇𝐵𝑛

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 Example (1)
❑ Calculate the thermal noise power available from any resistor at room temperature
(290 K) for a bandwidth of 1 MHz. Calculate also the corresponding noise voltage ,
given that R = 50 . [ use k = 1.38 * 10-23 J/K]

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 Example (2)
❑ Thermal noise from a resistor is measured as 4 * 10-17 W for a given bandwidth and at
a temperature of 20C. What will the noise be when the temperature is changed to
50C and 70 K. [ use k = 1.38 * 10-23 J/K]

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 Equivalent thermal noise voltage
generator
❑ For determining noise performance of
any equipment, the equivalent thermal
noise voltage generator (as voltage source
or current source) as shown in figure can
be used
❑ Resistors in series/Parallel
❑ Let Rser = R1 + R2 + R2 + .... be total
resistance of series chain then thermal
noise voltage of series chain is given by
2 2 2
𝐸𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑟 = 𝐸𝑛1 + 𝐸𝑛2 + 𝐸𝑛3 +⋯
❑For parallel Enpar = 4RparkTBn

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 Example (3)
❑ Three resistors have values R1 = 10 k, R2 = 14 k, and R3 =24 k. It is known that
the thermal noise voltage generated by R1 is 0.3V. Calculate the thermal noise voltage
generated by three resistors connected in series as well as in parallel [ use k = 1.38 *
10-23 J/K]

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 Example (4)
❑ A 50  source is connected to a T-attenuator , two series resistors being 100 , and
the central parallel resistor being 150 . Calculate the noise voltage appearing at the
output terminals for a noise bandwidth of 1 MHz [ use k = 1.38 * 10-23 J/K]

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 Spectral Densities (1) : Generalized
Explanation

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 Spectral Densities (2)
❑ Thermal noise voltage falls in the category of power signals and it has PSD
(watt/Hz)
❑ Power per unit bandwidth is PSD. It is graph depicting the power contribution
(continuous) over the range of frequency

❑ A similar argument can be applied to mean- square voltage spectral density

(V2/Hz)

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 Thermal Noise Spectral Density
𝑃𝑛
❑ Noise PSD 𝐺𝑝 𝑓 = = 𝑘𝑇0 and spectral density for mean square voltage is
𝐵𝑛
𝐸𝑛2
given by 𝐺𝑎 𝑓 = = 4𝑅𝑘𝑇0
𝐵𝑛

❑ Hence spectral density is flat and hence thermal noise is also termed as white
noise
❑ When white noise is passed through a ntk., then
spectral density will be altered by the ntk. frequency
response.

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 Output PSD in terms of frequency
response (Using pen & tablet)

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 Equivalent Noise Bandwidth
❑ Let a resistor R is connected to the input of an LC filter.

❑ Spectral density for the mean square voltage output

is 4RkT|H(f)|2
∞
❑ 𝑉𝑛2 = ‫׬‬0 4𝑅𝑘𝑇|𝐻 𝑓 |2 𝑑𝑓 = 4𝑅𝑘𝑇 ×(area under |H(f)|2)
∞
but 𝑉𝑛2 = 4𝑅𝑘𝑇𝐵𝑛 and hence 𝐵𝑛 = ‫׬‬0 |𝐻 𝑓 |2 𝑑𝑓

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 Example (5)
❑ Consider a ckt. which consists of resistor in parallel to capacitor as shown
below. Determine the output mean square voltage

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 Example (6)
❑ Consider a tuned ckt. as shown below. Determine the mean square voltage @
resonant frequency and also over complete range of frequency

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 Example (6) Cont...
❑ Determine the mean square voltage @ resonant frequency and also over
complete range of frequency

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 Example (7)
❑ The parallel tuned circuit at the input of a radio receiver is tuned to resonate at
120 MHz by a capacitance of 25 pF. The Q-factor of the circuit is 30. The
channel bandwidth of the receiver is limited to 10 kHz by the audio sections.
Calculate the effective noise voltage appearing at the input at room temperature.

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 Example (8) -1
❑ The available noise power spectral density at the input to an LC filter is kTo joules. The
filter has a transfer function that can be approximated by
1, 0 ≤ 𝑓 ≤ 15 𝑘𝐻𝑧
𝑓
𝐻 𝑓 = 1.75 − , 15 < 𝑓 ≤ 35 𝑘𝐻𝑧
2 × 104
0, 𝑓 > 35 𝑘𝐻𝑧

Calculate the available output noise power.

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 Example (8)-2

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 Example (8)-3

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 Example - HW

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 Noise Bandwidth Calculations @
receiver

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 Shot Noise (1)
❑ It is a random fluctuation which accompanies any direct current (DC) crossing
a potential barrier.
❑ Reason: Since carriers in semiconductor do not cross barrier simultaneously,
but rather with random distribution in the timing of each carrier.
❑ Consequence: Hence it gives rise to a random component of current
superimposed on the steady current
❑ In BJT: bias current crossing forward biased E-B junction carries shot noise. In
FET: ideally not present.
❑ Expected FET is less noisy than BJT and diode wrt to shot noise.
❑ The name coined due to connection to vacuum tubes.

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 Shot Noise (2)
❑ Spectral density is flat and mean-square noise component is proportional to
the dc flowing and is given by 𝐼𝑛2 = 2𝐼𝑑𝑐 𝑞𝐵𝑛 ampere2 , where Idc is direct current
in ampere, q = 1.6 * 10-19 C and Bn is equivalent noise bandwidth in Hz.
❑ Calculate the shot noise current present on a direct current of 1 mA flowing
across a semiconductor junction, given that effective noise bandwidth is 1 MHz.

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 Partition Noise
❑ It occurs whenever current has to divide between two or more electrodes.
❑ Reason: Due to random fluctuations in the division.
❑ Diode and FET is expected to be less noisy compared to BJT wrt partition
noise
❑ Spectral density is flat.
❑ Input stage of microwave receivers prefer to use GaAs FET , which draw zero
gate current.

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 Low frequency or flicker noise
❑ Below frequencies of few KHz, a component of noise appears whose spectral
density increases as frequency decreases.
❑ This is known as flicker noise (1/f noise)
❑ Reason : In semiconductor, this noise arise due to fluctuations in the carrier
densities which in turn gives rise to fluctuations in the conductivity of the
material.
❑ Consequence: Mean-square voltage will be proportional to square of direct
current that flows through semiconductor.
❑ Why this low frequency noise to take into consideration at RF receivers???

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 Burst noise
❑ Another type of low-frequency noise observed specially in bipolar transistor is
burst noise.
❑ The name so because the noise appears as a bursts at two or more levels
(like noisy pulses)
❑ Reason : NOT YET KNOWN
❑ If present in audio system, it produce popping sounds and hence also known
as popcorn noise
❑ Spectral density increases as frequency decreases.

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 Avalanche Noise
❑ When diode operated in the breakdown region, the collisions that result in
avalanching occur at random.
❑ Hence it result into large noise spikes in the avalanche current.
❑ This noise can’t be avoided in Zener diode.
❑ Spectral density is flat
❑ Avalanche noise is put to good use in NOISE MEASUREMENT.

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 Avalanche Noise
❑ When diode operated in the breakdown region, the collisions that result in
avalanching occur at random.
❑ Hence it result into large noise spikes in the avalanche current.
❑ This noise can’t be avoided in Zener diode.
❑ Spectral density is flat
❑ Avalanche noise is put to good use in NOISE MEASUREMENT.

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 Bipolar Transistor Noise
NOISE TYPE REASON
Thermal Noise Generated due to bulk or extrinsic resistances of base,
emitter and collector but significant component is due to
extrinsic base resistance (rbb’)
Shot Noise Bias current IEQ to overcome forward biased E-B junction
Partition Noise IE partitioned into IB and IC
Flicker and Burst Usually associated with base current
Noise

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 Field- Effect Transistor Noise
NOISE TYPE REASON
Thermal Noise Main source of noise generated due to physical resistance
of the drain-source channel
Shot Noise Associated with Gate-Leakage Current and this will
develop a noise component of voltage across the signal-
source impedance and is significant only if this impedance
is in M range
Partition Noise Not present
Flicker Noise Originates in the channel

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 Equivalent Noise Generator (1)

➢ Fictious noise generator 𝑉𝑛𝑎 = 4𝑅𝑛 𝑘𝑇0 𝐵𝑛 , where fictious resistance Rn is known
as equivalent input noise resistance of amplifier.
➢ Fictious noise generator 𝐼𝑛𝑎 = 2𝑞𝐼𝐸𝑄 𝐵𝑛 , where IEQ is known as equivalent shot
noise current .
➢ Both Rn and IEQ have to be calculated or specified for a transistor under given
operating conditions

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 Equivalent Noise Generator (2)
2
𝑉𝑛𝑠 = 4𝑅𝑠 𝑘𝑇0 𝐵𝑛
2 = 4𝑅 𝑘𝑇 𝐵
𝑉𝑛𝑎 𝑛 0 𝑛
2
𝐼𝑛𝑎 = 2𝑞𝐼𝐸𝑄 𝐵𝑛
Combining all the sources @ input
, we get
2 2
𝑉𝑛 = 𝑉𝑛𝑠 + 𝑉𝑛𝑎 + (𝐼𝑛𝑎 𝑅𝑆 )2
with assumption that all noise are
uncorrelated to each other

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 Comparison of the performance of
BJT and FET Amplifiers
𝑉𝑛 = 2
𝑉𝑛𝑠 2
+ 𝑉𝑛𝑎 + (𝐼𝑛𝑎 𝑅𝑆 )2 , where ❑ Rn is generally smaller and IEQ larger for BJTs
compared to FETs.
2
𝑉𝑛𝑠 = 4𝑅𝑠 𝑘𝑇0 𝐵𝑛
❑ For low input signal source resistance (RS), where
2
𝑉𝑛𝑎 = 4𝑅𝑛 𝑘𝑇0 𝐵𝑛 the noise voltage InaRS is small enough to be
2 = 2𝑞𝐼 𝐵 neglected, BJT will produce less noise because of
𝐼𝑛𝑎 𝐸𝑄 𝑛 its smaller value of Rn
❑ If RS is large such that InaRS voltage is significant,
then the FET will produce lesser noise than BJT
because of its lower IEQ

➢ So definitely there will be some intermediate value of RS where the thermal

noise generated by RS itself dominates and type of transistor has little bearing
on overall noise performance of amplifier

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 Signal-to-Noise ratio (S/N)
❑ In communication link, S/N is important rather than absolute value of noise.
❑ S/N is defined as a power ratio and is given by
𝑆 𝑃𝑠 𝑉𝑠2
= = 2
𝑁 𝑃𝑛 𝑉𝑛
❑ S/N is generally specified in terms of dB instead of power ratio.

𝑆 𝑃𝑠 𝑉𝑠
= 10 log10 = 20 log10
𝑁 𝑑𝐵
𝑃𝑛 𝑉𝑛

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 Example (9)
❑ The equivalent noise resistance for an amplifier is 300 Ω, and the equivalent
shot noise current is 5 A. The amplifier is fed from a 150-Ω, 10- V rms
sinusoidal signal source. Calculate the individual noise voltages at the input and
the input signal-to-noise ratio in decibels. The noise bandwidth is 10 MHz . [ Use
k = 1.38 * 10-23 J/K and T0 =290 K]

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 Using pen-Tablet

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 Example (10)
❑ An emf source of 1 V rms has an internal resistance of 600 . Calculate the
S/N ratio at its terminals. Calculate the new S/N ratio at the terminals when the
source is connected to a 600  load.

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 S/N ratio of Tandem Connection (1)
❑ In an analog telephone system it is usually necessary to insert amplifiers (repeaters) to
make up for the loss in the telephone cables as shown below. Lets carry out analysis to
find overall S/N.

❑Total noise at Mth link is Pn = Pn1 + Pn2 + Pn2 + ... + PnM . If all the links are identical
such that each link contributes Pn total noise power becomes MPn and
𝑆 𝑃𝑆 𝑆
= 10 log10 = − (𝑀)𝑑𝐵
𝑁 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙(𝑑𝐵) 𝑀𝑃𝑛 𝑁 1(𝑑𝐵)

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 S/N ratio of Tandem Connection (2)
❑ If links are not identical then ?????

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 Example (10)
❑ Calculate the output S/N ratio in dB for three links, if the first link have S/N
ratio of 60 dB, second link have S/N ratio of 40 dB and third link have S/N ratio
of 25 dB.

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 Noise Factor (1)
❑ Suppose a signal source , providing signal power of Psi , at To = 290 K is
𝑆 𝑃𝑠𝑖
connected to an amplifier. The available S/N at input will be ( )𝑖𝑛 =
𝑁 𝑘𝑇𝑜 𝐵𝑛

❑ If power gain of the amplifier is G and amplifier is entirely noiseless then

available output S/N ratio has to be same as that at input
❑ But all real amplifiers contribute noise, hence available output S/N will be less
than that at the input. The factor by which output S/N is lesser than input S/N is
known as noise factor and denoted by F
(𝑆ൗ𝑁)𝑖𝑛 𝑃𝑠𝑖 𝑃𝑛𝑜 𝑃𝑛𝑜
❑ Mathematically, 𝐹 = = × =
(𝑆ൗ𝑁)𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑘𝑇𝑜 𝐵𝑛 𝐺𝑃𝑠𝑖 𝐺𝑘𝑇𝑜 𝐵𝑛

❑ Hence 𝑃𝑛𝑜 = 𝐹𝐺𝑘𝑇𝑜 𝐵𝑛 .

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 Noise Factor (2)
❑Hence 𝑃𝑛𝑜 = 𝐹𝐺𝑘𝑇𝑜 𝐵𝑛 . So F can be interpreted as the factor by which amplifier
increases the noise.

❑ Noise factor is a measured parameter and will usually be specified for a given
amplifier or network. It is specified in decibels, where is referred as noise
figure.

❑ Noise Figure = [𝐹]𝑑𝐵 = 10 log10 (𝐹)

❑ Hence [𝐹]𝑑𝐵 = [ 𝑆Τ𝑁 𝑖𝑛 ]𝑑𝐵 −[

𝑆Τ
𝑁 𝑜 ]𝑑𝐵

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 Amplifier input noise in terms of F
❑ Amplifier noise is generated in many components throughout the amplifier
❑ But while doing calculations , its better to represent the noise due to amplifier
as equivalent power source at its input and hence can consider amplifier as
noiseless
❑ We know 𝑃𝑛𝑜 = 𝐹𝐺𝑘𝑇𝑜 𝐵𝑛 and hence total available
𝑃𝑛𝑜
input noise should be 𝑃𝑛𝑖 = = 𝐹𝑘𝑇𝑜 𝐵𝑛 but the source
𝐺
contributes power of kToBn and hence amplifier must
contribute power 𝑃𝑛𝑎 = 𝐹 − 1 𝑘𝑇𝑜 𝐵𝑛

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 Example (11-12)
❑The noise factor of an amplifier is given as 5:1.If the input S/N is 50 dB,
calculate the output S/N ratio in decibels.

❑ The noise figure of an amplifier is 11dB.Determine the fraction of the total

available noise power contributed by the amplifier, referred to the input.

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 Noise Factor of Amplifiers in
Cascade (1)

𝑃𝑛𝑜1 = 𝐹1 𝐺1 𝑘𝑇𝑜 𝐵𝑛 and act as input to amplifier 2 which has noise (𝐹2 − 1)𝑘𝑇𝑜 𝐵𝑛 of its own at its
input , hence total available noise power at i/p of amplifier 2 is

𝑃𝑛𝑖2 = 𝐹1 𝐺1 𝑘𝑇𝑜 𝐵𝑛 + (𝐹2 − 1)𝑘𝑇𝑜 𝐵𝑛

and hence 𝑃𝑛𝑜2 = 𝐺2 (𝐹1 𝐺1 𝑘𝑇𝑜 𝐵𝑛 + (𝐹2 − 1)𝑘𝑇𝑜 𝐵𝑛 )

The overall power gain of two cascaded amplifier is given by G = G1G2 and let overall noise
factor be F then we know 𝑃𝑛𝑜 = 𝐹𝐺𝑘𝑇𝑜 𝐵𝑛

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 Noise Factor of Amplifiers in
Cascade (2)
❑ Comparing 𝑃𝑛𝑜2 = 𝐺2 (𝐹1 𝐺1 𝑘𝑇𝑜 𝐵𝑛 + (𝐹2 − 1)𝑘𝑇𝑜 𝐵𝑛 ) with 𝑃𝑛𝑜 = 𝐹𝐺𝑘𝑇𝑜 𝐵𝑛 , we get

❑ The argument can be extended for additional amplifier to give

❑ This is known as Friss’s formula. Try to understand the significance of this formula!!!

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 Example (13)
❑ A mixer stage has a noise figure of 20 dB, and this is preceded by an amplifier
that has a noise figure of 9 dB and an available power gain of 15 dB. Calculate
the overall noise figure referred to the input.

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 Relation between NF and Equivalent
Noise Generator (1)
❑ Total mean square input noise voltage is 𝑉𝑛2 and
2
noise from source is 𝑉𝑛𝑠 . Noise factor can be written
as below

𝑉𝑛2
❑𝐹= 2
𝑉𝑛𝑠

𝑅 𝐼𝐸𝑄 𝑅𝑠 𝑘𝑇𝑜
❑ 𝐹 = 1 + 𝑅𝑛 + , where 𝑉𝑇 = = 26𝑚𝑣
𝑠 2𝑉𝑇 𝑞

❑ It shows 2nd term is  1/ Rs and 3rd term is  Rs

hence there must be an optimum value for RS that
minimizes F

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 Relation between NF and Equivalent
Noise Generator (2)
❑ The value of Rs that minimizes F can be found by differentiating below
equation w.r.t. Rs and equate to 0
𝑅𝑛 𝐼𝐸𝑄 𝑅𝑠
❑ 𝐹 =1+ 𝑅𝑠
+
2𝑉𝑇

𝑑𝐹 𝑅𝑛 𝐼𝐸𝑄 2𝑅𝑛 𝑉𝑇
❑ =0− + = 0, after simplifying we get 𝑅𝑠𝑜𝑝𝑡 =
𝑑𝑅𝑠 𝑅𝑠2 2𝑉𝑇 𝐼𝐸𝑄

❑ Thus, knowing the input generator parameters helps to determine the optimum value
of source resistance.
❑ An input transformer coupling circuit may be necessary in order to transform the actual
source resistance to the optimum value.

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 Example (14)
❑ An amplifier has an equivalent noise resistance of 350  and an equivalent shot noise
current of 400 A. It is fed from a 1000- source. Calculate the noise factor. Calculate
the optimum source resistance for the amplifier and hence determine the turns ratio of
the input transformer required to minimize the noise factor, assuming that impedance is
transformed according to the square of the turns ratio.

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 Using Pen-Tablet

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 Noise Factor of a Lossy Network (1)
❑ When a signal source is matched through a lossy network, such as a
connecting cable, the available signal power at the output of the network is
reduced by the power insertion loss(L) of the network
❑ The output noise remains unchanged at kToBn (assuming source and network
to be at room temperature), since available noise power is independent of
source resistance.
❑ In effect, the network attenuates the source noise, but at the same time adds
noise of its own. Hence the S/N is reduced by the amount that the output power
is attenuated.

❑ So gain of lossy network is Gnw = 1/L and noise factor Fnw = L

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 Noise Factor of a Lossy Network (2)
❑ Therefore when a lossy network, such as a connecting cable, is placed ahead
of an amplifier, Friis’s formula gives for the overall noise factor
𝐹𝑎 − 1
𝐹 = 𝐹𝑛𝑤 + = 𝐿 + 𝐹𝑎 − 1 𝐿
𝐺𝑛𝑤
❑ Hence the loss L adversely affects the overall noise factor in two ways: by its
direct contribution and by increasing the effect of the amplifier noise.
❑ Alternatively, if the amplifier is placed ahead of the lossy network, the overall
noise factor is given by
𝐹𝑛𝑤 − 1 𝐿−1
𝐹 = 𝐹𝑎 + = 𝐹𝑎 +
𝐺𝑎 𝐺𝑎
❑ In this case, if the amplifier has high gain, then overall noise factor is that of
amplifier alone. Example: Satellite Receiving System (uses LNA and then cable)

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 Example (15-16)
❑ A signal source is connected to an amplifier through a cable that is matched, but that
introduces a loss of 2.3 dB. What is the noise factor of the cable?

❑ An attenuator has an insertion loss IL = 0.24. Determine its noise figure.

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 Noise Temperature (1)
❑ The concept of noise is based on the available noise power equation given by
𝑃𝑛 = 𝑘𝑇𝑒 𝐵𝑛 , where Te is the noise temperature associated with available noise power
and may not be same as physical temperature of noise source. (Example noise picked
by antenna)
❑ When this concept is applied to amplifier, Te (equivalent noise temperature referred to
the input) relates to the equivalent noise of the amplifier (Pna) referred to the input as
𝑃
follows: 𝑇𝑒 = 𝑛𝑎
𝑘𝐵𝑛

❑ The equivalent input power for an amplifier (in terms of F) is given by

𝑃𝑛𝑎 = 𝐹 − 1 𝑘𝑇𝑜 𝐵𝑛
∴ 𝑇𝑒 = (𝐹 − 1)𝑇𝑜
❑ In general, for low-noise devices like LNA in satellite receiving systems, Te is specified
while F is a better measure for the main receiving system

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 Noise Temperature (2)
❑ Friss’s formula can also be expressed in terms of equivalent noise
temperature

❑ If the overall noise temperature of cascaded system is Te and the noise

temperature of the individual stages are Te1, Te2 and so on, then Friss’s formula
𝑇 𝑇
gives 𝑇𝑒 = 𝑇𝑒1 + 𝑒2 + 𝑒3 + ⋯
𝐺1 𝐺1 𝐺2

❑ This too indicates its always better to connect the high gain low noise amplifiers at the
start of any cascaded system, if the effect of noise due to cascaded devices is to be
minimized

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 Example (17)
❑ A satellite receiving system consists of a low noise amplifier (LNA) that has a gain of
47 dB and a noise temperature of 120 K, a cable with a loss of 6.5 dB, and a main
receiver with a noise factor of 9 dB . Calculate the equivalent noise temperature of the
overall system referred to the input for the following system connections: (a) the LNA at
the input, followed by the cable connecting to the main receiver; (b) the input direct to the
cable, which then connects to the LNA, which in turn is connected directly to the main
receiver.

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 Using Pen and Tablet

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 Measurement of Te and F (1)
❑ Different methods are available for measurement of noise temperature (and
hence noise factor). The choice of method depends largely on the range of
values expected
❑ For normal receiving systems, an avalanche diode noise source is
commonly employed.
❑ Avalanche Diode Noise Measurement : When operated in the avalanche
mode, the diode generates a comparatively large amount of noise and can be
considered as a source of noise power at some equivalent “hot” temperature Th.
With the reverse bias removed, the diode reverts to normal noise output and
generates noise at some equivalent “cold” temperature Tc

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 Measurement of Te and F (2)
❑ These measurement is encapsulated as excess noise ratio (ENR) is defined
𝑇 −𝑇
as [𝐸𝑁𝑅]𝑑𝐵 = 10 log10 ℎ 𝑐
𝑇𝑐

❑ Tc is, in general, taken as To = 290 K. The ENR for the source is normally printed on the
diode enclosure and is specified by the manufacturer for a range of frequencies.
❑Knowing the ENR and Tc, the hot temperature Th can be found
❑ Now let the diode source be matched to the input of the amplifier under test and let the
(unknown) equivalent input noise temperature of the amplifier be denoted by Te
❑The amplifier output noise is measured for two conditions : one with the diode in the
avalanche mode, denoted by Ph, and one with the reverse bias switched off, denoted by
Pc

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 Measurement of Te and F (3)
❑ The two equation for noise are as follows:
𝑃ℎ = 𝐺𝑘(𝑇ℎ + 𝑇𝑒 )𝐵𝑛
𝑃𝑐 = 𝐺𝑘(𝑇𝑐 + 𝑇𝑒 )𝐵𝑛
where G is the power gain of the amplifier under test
𝑃ℎ
❑ The power ratio, termed as Y-factor , is given by 𝑌 =
𝑃𝑐
𝑇ℎ −𝑌𝑇𝑐
❑ Hence we get, 𝑇𝑒 =
𝑌−1

❑ Note: gain and noise bandwidth do enter into final equation and Y represents
measured power ratio, which does not need an absolute measure of power
❑ Knowing Te, F can be found. Alternatively the equation can be rearranged to give
𝐸𝑁𝑅
𝐹=
𝑌−1

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 Example (18)
❑ In a noise measurement using an avalanche diode, the ENR was 14.3 dB. The noise
power output with the diode on was 45 dBm, and with the diode off, 36 dBm. Calculate
the noise temperature of the device under test.

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 Example (19)
❑ In the measurement of noise factor, the ENR=13.7 dB and Y=7 dB . Calculate the
noise figure and the equivalent noise temperature of the device under test.

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 Acknowledgement
❖ Schematic Diagram
Source: Schematic diagram drawn in student evaluation version of Multisim-14.1 software

❖ Power Point Presentation

Source: Presentation made in Microsoft office licensed version

❖ Books

[1] Electronic Communications by Dennis Roddy & John Coolen, 4th Edition,PHI, ISBN: 81-
203-0984-7

[2] Principles of Electronic Communication Systems by Louis E. Frenzel Jr.,MHE, ISBN:

978-0-07-337385-0

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 Thank You

Email id: [email protected] , [email protected]

Contact No: 9825336543

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