MAKE:Technical Resources & Planing services PVT. LTD.

SR NO:2017/18-04-41

BIOCHEMICAL
OXYGEN
DEMAND

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INDEX
PAGE
SR NO DESCRIPTION NO.
1 INTRODUCTION 3
2 METHODS 4

3 PROCEDURE 5
4 OPERATING PROCEDURE 10
5 PRE-INSTALLATION 11

6 SPECIFICATION 12
MICROPROCESSOR BASED WITH PID CONTROLLER AND
7 PARAMETER (HEATCON) 13
8 PID CONTROLLER 16
9 TEMPERATURE SENSOR: PT-100 RTD 30
10 HEATING: U-SHAPED NICHROME WIRE HEATER. 34
11 SOLID STATE REALY 36
12 REFRIGERATION SYSTEM 41
13 DOOR SWITCH & COMPACT FLUORESCENT LIGHT 45

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1. NTRODUCTION
The method consists of placing a sample in a full, airtight bottle
and incubating the bottle in the dark at 20°C for five days. Dissolved oxygen
(DO) is measured before and after incubation. BOD is the difference between
initial and final DO.

Dissolved oxygen may be measured by either by the Winkler

titration, or by an oxygen electrode. In the case of Winkler titration, you must
take two identical samples, one at the beginning of the incubation, and one
after five days, because the sample is destroyed in the Winkler titration. The
alternative method uses a special stirring oxygen electrode, which fits snugly
within a standard 300 ml oxygen bottle with ground glass stopper. This method
does not destroy the sample, so that one sample is used for both initial oxygen
concentration and final oxygen concentration.

For the Winkler method, see MS312 Share Files,

ManualWinklerOxygen.doc. For, stirring oxygen electrode, see
ManualYSIBOD.doc.

The requirement of an ambient temperature of 20°C can be

met by an incubator, but if no incubator is available, ambient temperature
(which is usually 24-30°C) can be used, Keep notes on the temperature of
incubation.

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2.METHODS

EQUIPMENT

 GLASSWARE
Standard 300 ml borosilicate oxygen bottles with matching ground glass
stoppers. These bottles have a tapered point, to make it easy to place the
stopper without including air bubbles.

 REAGENTS
 1. Phosphate buffer solution: Dissolve 8.5g KH 2P04, 21.75g K2HP04, 83.49
Na2HP04.7H20 and 1.7g NH4Cl in about 500 ml distilled water and dilute
to 1 liter. The pH should be 7.2 without further adjustment. Discard reagent
(or any of the following reagents) if there is any sign of biological growth in
the stock bottle.

 Magnesium sulphate solution: Dissolve 22.5g MgS0 4.7H20 in distilled water

and dilute to 1 liter.

 Calcium chloride solution: Dissolve 27.5 CaCl 2 in distilled water and dilute to
1 liter.

 Ferric chloride solution: Dissolve 0.25g FeCl 2.6H20 in distilled water and
dilute to 1 liter.


Acid and alkali solutions, 1 N: For neutralization of caustic or acidic waste
samples. Not necessary for normal samples.


Glucose-glutamic acid solution: Dry reagent-grade glucose and reagent-
grade gluonic acid at 103°C for 1 hour. Add 105 mg glucose and 150

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mg gluonic acid to distilled water and dilute to 1 liter. Prepare fresh

immediately before use. For standard to check seed and dilution water.

3.PROCEDURE:

PROCEDURE: FIELD
Take samples for BOD in 1 l or larger plastic bottles. Fill with a funnel to about ½
full. Shake to oxygenate. If sample must be stored longer than 2 hr, refrigerate in
an ice-filled eskie.

PROCEDURE: LABORATORY
1. Preparation of dilution water: Place 20 liters distilled water in a container
and add 20 ml each of phosphate buffer, MgS04, CaCl2 and FeCl3 solutions.

2. Dilution water check: Use this procedure as a rough check on quality of

dilution water. Half fill two BOD bottles with dilution water. Add 1 ml of seed
(sewage from local source) and fill completely with dilution water. Determine
the initial DO in one bottle and incubate the other for five days at 20 °C.
Determine the final DO after 5 days. Use the azide modification method (see
WC 32.2) for determination of DO. The DO uptake in 5 days at 20 °C should be
no more than 0.2 mg/L, and preferably not more than 0.1 mg/L.

3. Additional checks for unusual samples.

3.1 Check pH of all samples before testing to unless previous experience has
shown that pH is within the acceptable range (6.0>pH >8.5). Neutralize as
appropriate with NaOH or HCl. Always seed samples that have been pH-
adjusted.

3.2 Samples containing residual chlorine compounds. If the sample has been
chlorinated but no detectable chlorine residual is present, seed the dilution
water. If residual chlorine is present, dechlorinate sample and seed the dilution
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water (paragraph 40. Do not test chlorinated/dechlorinated samples without

seeding the dilution water. In some sample0073 chlorine will dissipate within 1
to 2 h of standing in the light. This often occurs during sample transport and
handling. For samples in which chlorine residual does not dissipate in a
reasonably short time, destroy chlorine residual by adding Na 2SO3 solution.
Determine required volume of Na 2SO3 solution on a 100- to 1000-mL portion of
neutralized sample by adding 10 mL of 1 + 1 acetic acid or 1 + 50 H 2SO4, 10 mL
potassium iodide (KI) solution (10 g/100 mL) per 1000 mL portion, and titrating
with Na2SO3 solution to the starch-iodine end point for residual. Add to
neutralized sample the relative volume of Na 2SO3 solution determined by the
above test, mix, and after 10 to 20 min check sample for residual chlorine.
(NOTE: Excess Na2SO3 exerts an oxygen demand and reacts slowly with certain
organic chloramine compounds that may be present in chlorinated samples.)

3.3 Samples containing other toxic substances. Certain industrial wastes, for
example, plating wastes, contain toxic metals. Such samples often require
special study and treatment.

3.4 Samples supersaturated with DO. Samples containing more than 9 mg DO/
L at 200C may be encountered in cold waters or in water where photosynthesis
occurs. To prevent loss of oxygen during incubation of such samples, reduce
DO to saturation at 20*C by bringing sample to about 200C in partially filled
bottle while agitating by vigorous shaking or by aerating with clean, filtered
compressed air.

4. Bring samples to ambient temperature before making dilutions.

5. Seeding: It is necessary to have present a population of microorganisms

capable of oxidizing the biodegradable organic matter in the sample. Some
samples, such as untreated industrial wastes, disinfected wastes, high
temperature wastes or wastes with extreme pH values do not contain a
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sufficient microbial population. For such wastes seed each dilution with an
appropriate seed material. Carry out the dilutions as described in Step 3 but
before filling completely with dilution water, add 1 ml of the seed material
(sewage effluent).

6. Seed control: To determine oxygen demand for the seed material, measure
initial and final DO of a 10 ml/l dilution of the seed material incubated for five
days at 20°C.

5. Dilution of samples. For each sample, at least three dilutions must be

prepared to achieve the proper range. The final DO should be at least 1 mg/l,
and the initial minus final DO should be at least 2 mg/l. Trial dilutions:

0.1-1.0% for strong industrial wastes

1-5% for raw wastewater

5-25% for biologically treated effluent

25-100% for polluted river waters

100% for clean river and ocean waters

Prepare dilutions in graduated cylinders. Carefully siphon dilution water

into 1-liter capacity measuring cylinders till about half full. Add sufficient
sample to obtain a series of dilutions in the 10x, to 100x range. Fill with
dilution, water completely and mix well with a plunger type mixing rod. Siphon
mixed dilution into two BOD bottles (If titration method is used) or one bottle
(if stirring oxygen electrode method is used). Determine initial DO. Stopper the
second bottle tightly, water seal, cover top with foil to reduce evaporation, or
better yet completely immerse the bottle. Incubate for 5 days at 20°C.
Determine final DO after incubation.

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6. Glucose-glutamic acid check (occasional): Determine the 5-day 20 °C BOD of a

20 ml/L dilution of the glucose-glutonic acid solution seeded as in Step 4.
Include a seed control. If the five days 20 °C BOD value of the check is outside
the range of 200 ± 37 mg/L, reject any BOD determination made with the seed
and dilution water. Seek the cause of the problem.

7. Dilution water blank: Together with each batch of samples incubate a bottle
of unseeded dilution water. Determine initial and final DO. The DO uptake
should be no more than 0.2 mg/L and preferably not more than 0.1 mg/L.

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CALCULATION AND REPORT

When not seeded

BOD, mg/L = D1 - D2

When seeded

BOD = (D1 - D2) - (B1 - B2) F

Where D1 =DO of diluted sample immediately after preparation, mg/L,

D2 =DO of diluted sample after 5 days incubation at 20 oC, mg/L,

P = Volumetric fraction of sample used,

B1 = DO of seed control before incubation,

mg/L, B2 =DO of seed control after incubation,

and

F =ratio of seed in sample to seed in control = (% seed in D1)/ (%

seed in B1),

P is the proportion of the original sample in the diluted sample.

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4.OPERATING PROCEDURE

 Connect power supply to using mains cord supply with equipment.

 Now switch on the mains switch given on panel.
 Panel is consisting of controller HEATING lamp indication, mains on/off
switch, heating regulator.
 When cooling is on lamp of it will not glow.
 When heating is on lamp of it will glow.
 Controller have four keys (SET, , , ENT) to operate it.
 Press SET key to change set point.

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5.PRE-INSTALLATION

 Room Temperature all around machine should be air

conditioned and maintained within 25c. In the absence of
adequate air conditioning the room can be well ventilated with
an exhaust fan. In such case temperature should not
exceed,30°C.

 Stabilized Input Voltage of 230V AC, 20 Amps. Using a new

Servo Controlled Stabilizer is recommended.

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6.SPECIFICATION

 Temperature Control: Microprocessor based with PID Control,

 Temperature Sensor: PT-100 RTD,

 Temperature Display: Digital LED, 3½ digits,

 Temperature Range: 5° to 50°,

 Size of chamber: (70*50*50) cm.

 Heating: U-shaped Nichrome Wire heater.

 Cooling: CFC Free Copeland Make compressor R134-a eco-friendly

refrigerant.

 Air Circulation: MOTOR with FAN and IMPELLER.

 Chamber Illumination: Door switch with Compact Fluorescent light.

 Feet: Castor Wheels.

 Trays: SS Wire Mesh.

 SSR (solid state relay).

 Construction: Double-walled, insulation provided with outer stainless-

steel metal door and inner glass viewing door.

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7. Microprocessor based with PID Controller and Parameter (Heatcon)

Model PID 4D2/7D2/9D2

 Power Supply 230VAC

 Display Method Dual Display 7 Segments Red & Green Led Display

 In Put Sensor J/K/R/S 1°C RTD/0.1°C (Selectable) (No Jumpers)

 Control Output 1 C/O Relay O/P & +12VDC for O/P-2 On/Off Only.

 Display Occur ±/-0.2% Based On F.S Or 3°C Max.

 Resolution 1°C For T/C & 0.1°C For RTD

 Setting Type Setting by Front Key Pad

 Configuration of the Parameters. (Sensor, ON-OFF, T-P & 2nd Set Point)

Before the controller can be used it has to be Configured properly. This can
be Done as Follows.
 Keep the SET /ENT key Pressed & then Power.

 When the Display Shows CNF (configuration) message release

SET/ENT button,
 On releasing the SET/ENT key the display Indicates ESC
(escape)massage.
 Press the UP key briefly, display indicates the SEn
(sensor)massage, Now Press the SET/ENT Key. Display indicates
the selected sensor (factory selected is J-Type) press UP or DN key
to select the sensor.
 After the desired sensor is selected, press the SET/ENT key again.
the display now indicates the SEn.

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 Using UP or DN keys Negate the Other Below Mention

Configuration Parameter list.
 To change the value of any confi. Parameter press SET/ENT key %
than using UP or DN key to change to the desired value.
 After all the changes have been done use the UP or DN key to
come back to ESC (escape)message.
 To save the change made, select ESC (escape) to come out from
the setting &press SET/ENT key, Now Display will indicate the
actual temperature
 key again, the display now indicates the SEn.

Parameters Display (massage) range

I/P sensor (SEn) SEn: Sensor J/K/R/S/RTD1=1° RTD
I/P Indication Error IPC
Parameter (Loc) LOK YES/NO
low Set Point LSP -50°C to 999 °C
high Set Point HSP 00 ° C to 999°C
Control Method (COn) O-F: On-Off Control(Heating);) --
t-P: T-P (time Proportional Control --
COL: cooling Type --
hysteresis hYS 0.1 to 99.9 °C
Cooling Delay for Comp DLYi(Delay time) 1 to 254 seconds
cycle Time (for Tp Cont) Cyt: 1 to 250 seconds
proportional Band(Pb) P-b 2.0 to 100°C
Manual Reset(Reset) Reset:(rSt) 0 to 999°C
S2-h: Output-2 work as 2nd set point
Control O/P(OP2) (heating) -50° to 1750 °c
S2-h: Output-2 work as 2nd set point
(cooling) -50° to 1750 °c
ALH: Output -2 work as Heating Alarm -50° to 1750 °c
ALC: Output-2 work as Cooling Alarm -50° to 1750 °c

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ALHC: Output-2 works as both side

Alarm -50° to 1750 °c
hysteresis for second
relay off Hys1: for first relay, off 0.2 to 99.9°C
hysteresis for second
relay off Hys1: for first relay, off 0.2 to 99.9°C

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8. PID CONTROLLER
A proportional–integral–derivative controller (PID controller) is
a control loop feedback mechanism (controller) commonly used in industrial
control systems. A PID controller continuously calculates an error value as the
difference between a desired setpoint and a measured process variable and
applies a correction based on proportional, integral, and derivative terms
(sometimes denoted P, I, and D respectively) which give their name to the
controller type.

For discrete-time systems, the term PSD (proportional–summation–difference)

is often used.

FUNDAMENTAL OPERATION

A block diagram of a PID controller in a feedback loop. r(t) is the

desired process value or "set point", and y(t) is the measured process value.

A PID controller continuously calculates an error value as the

difference between a desired setpoint and a measured process variable and
applies a correction based on proportional, integral, and derivative terms. The
controller attempts to minimize the error over time by adjustment of a control
variable , such as the position of a control valve, a damper, or the power
supplied to a heating element, to a new value determined by a weighted sum:

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where and all non-negative, denote the coefficients for

the proportional, integral, and derivative terms, respectively (sometimes
denoted P, I, and D).

In the standard form (see below), and are respectively replaced by , and
the advantage of this being that and have some understandable physical
meaning.

In this model:

 P accounts for present values of the error. For example, if the error is
large and positive, the control output will also be large and positive.

 I account for past values of the error. For example, if the current output
is not sufficiently strong, the integral of the error will accumulate over
time, and the controller will respond by applying a stronger action.

 D accounts for possible future trends of the error, based on its current
rate of change.[2]. For example, continuing the P example above, when
the large positive control output succeeds in bringing the error closer to
zero, it also puts the process on a path to large negative error in the
near future; in this case, the derivative turns negative and the D module
reduces the strength of the action to prevent this overshot.

The use of the PID algorithm (see below: Limitations of PID control) does
not guarantee optimal control of the system or even its stability. It is not
guaranteed to work; noticeably it may be affected by delays (the calculated
error doesn't come immediately, or the control action does not apply
instantaneously), needing Lead–lag compensator to be effective. The
response of the controller can be described in terms of its responsiveness
to an error, the degree to which the system overshoots a setpoint, and the
degree of any system oscillation.

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But it is broadly applicable since a PID controller relies only on the

measured process variable, not on knowledge of the underlying process; it
has a long history of successful use in a wide range of applications. A PID
controller has three parameters to deal with specific process requirements.

Some applications use only one or two terms to provide the appropriate
system control. This is achieved by setting the other parameters to zero. A
PID controller is called a PI, PD, P or I controller in the absence of the
respective control actions. PI controllers are fairly common, since derivative
action is sensitive to measurement noise, whereas the absence of an
integral term may prevent the system from reaching its target value.

Similarly, modern industrial controls are often required to regulate processes

as part of a control loop. The controller receives a setpoint request from the
programmer and compares it to a measured feedback. The setpoint can be
thought of as where I want to be and feedback can be thought of as where I
really am. The difference between the setpoint and feedback is called the
error ε. The job of the controller is to eliminate the error — so where I am is
where I want to be.

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HOW DO PID LOOPS WORK?

PID is an acronym for the mathematical terms Proportional, Integral,

and Derivative. Proportional means a constant multiple. A number is said to
be a proportion to another if there exists a constant n such that y = nx.
This n can be positive or negative, greater or less than one. To make the
formula more accurate by PID controller standards, proportion is given
by KP and the xterm is the control loop error ε: y = KP(ε).

The term Integral means the summation of a function over a given interval. In
the case of controller PID that is the sum of error over time: y = ∫f (ε)dt.

Finally, Derivative is the rate of change during a given interval. Interpreted by a

PID controller:

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All three of these PID controller components create output based on

measured error of the process being regulated. If a control loop functions
properly, any changes in error caused by setpoint changes or process
disturbances are quickly eliminated by the combination of the three factors P,
I, and D. Let us now analyse how each contributes to performance.

PROPORTIONAL FACTOR

The proportional factor is easiest to understand: The output of the

proportional factor is the product of gain and measured error ε. Hence, larger
proportional gain or error makes for greater output from the proportional
factor. Setting the proportional gain too high causes a controller to repeatedly
overshoot the setpoint, leading to oscillation.

The downside to a proportional-only loop is that when error becomes too

small, loop output becomes negligible. Therefore, even when the proportional
loop reaches steady state, there is still error. The larger the proportional gain,
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the smaller the steady state error — but the larger the proportional gain, the
more likely the loop is to become unstable. This dilemma leads to inevitable
steady-state error called offset.

INTEGRAL FACTOR

Think of the integral factor as a basket in which the loop stores all measured
error (∫ε). Remember that error can be positive or negative, so sometimes
error fills the basket (when positive error is added to positive error or negative
error is added to negative) and sometimes it empties the basket — as when
positive error is added to negative, or vice versa.

When the integral factor functions properly in the control loop, the basket is
nearly empty. Even when error is so small that the proportional factor is no
longer effective, the integral is still hard at work, collecting error until it is large

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enough to matter — as part of the integral's function is to eliminate steady-

state offset.

In fact, most control loop action at steady state is due to the integral factor.
Controllers that feature integral reset prove it: Resetting the integral when a
loop is in steady state causes controller output to momentarily drop to zero as
the integral “basket” is emptied.

The downside to the integral factor is that it strongly contributes to controller

output overshoot past the target setpoint. The shorter the integral time, the
more aggressively the integral works.

Derivative factor

The derivative factor is the least understood and used of the three
factors. In fact, a majority of PID loops in the real world are really just PI loops.
That does not negate the fact that there are certain applications in which the
derivative plays a very important role. The proportional corrects instances of
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error, the integral corrects accumulation of error, and the derivative corrects
present error versus error the last time it was checked.

In other words, the derivative is looking at the rate of change of the error
Δε. The more error changes or the longer the derivative time, the larger the
derivative factor becomes. The effect of the derivative is to counteract the
overshoot caused by P and I. When the error is large, the P and the I will push
the controller output. This controller response makes error change quickly,
which in turn causes the derivative to more aggressively counteract the P and
the I. A properly used derivative allows for more aggressive proportional and
integral factors. Larger derivative time makes the derivative more aggressively
dampen P and I.

Controllers: How they work

How a PID controller works is a pretty easy concept to understand.

The PID controller looks at the current value of an error ε, the integral of the
error over a time interval ∫ε and the rate of change of the error Δε to

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determine how much of a correction to apply. The controller continues to

apply the correction until change is seen on the feedback. Depending on the
error calculation update rate (which in turn may depend on how often the loop
feedback is read) the corrective action can be adjusted at a fast rate — for
instance, the analogy feedback on some variable frequency drives is updated
every 10 msec.

The job of a PID controller is to force feedback to match a setpoint. Sometimes

error between feedback and setpoint is caused by a setpoint change, but in
most applications the setpoint is not adjusted much. More often, error in a
loop is caused by disturbances in measured feedback.

In our beginning example, the disturbance of cruise-control regulation was a

hill encountered on a road over which a car travels. Other examples of
disturbances are double doors opening in a building where pressure is
regulated, or people showering while a control loop works to regulate the
connected water-tank level.

Techniques for fine tuning

Tuning a control loop is the adjustment of its control parameters

(gain/proportional band, integral gain/reset, derivative gain/rate) to optimum
values for a target response. Tuning is part of loop design, usually required if
the system oscillates too much, responds too slowly, has steady-state error, or
is unstable.

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One must be careful when determining whether a PID needs tuning or not:
Always check hardware first, as it could be the problem and not the controller
that needs tuning. A PID most likely needs tuning if:

• The operator thinks that the controller can perform better

• process dynamics weren't well understood when gains were first set

• dynamics were changed

• some control-system characteristics are direction dependent, or

• careful consideration wasn't given to the units of gains and other

parameters.

On the other hand, problems may have nothing to do with the PID loop
tuning if a control valve sticks, measurement taps are plugged, sensors are
disconnected, or if a control valve is stripped out from high-pressure flow.

Some systems have interactions of widely varied strengths — and there is no

single definition of “best tuned” that applies to all loops, so no single method
optimizes all loops.
The optimum behaviour in a process or setpoint change depends on
the application. Some processes must not allow overshoot of a process
variable, while others must minimize energy expended in reaching a new
setpoint. Generally, response must be stable and systems must not oscillate for
any combination of conditions and setpoints. Tuning of loops is further
complicated by process response time, as it may take minutes or hours for a
setpoint change to produce a stable effect. Some processes also exhibit
nonlinearity, so parameters that work well at full-load conditions don't work
when starting from no-load.
Several methods are available for tuning a PID loop; the choice of
method largely depends on whether or not the loop can be taken offline for

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tuning, and the system response speed. If the system can be taken offline, the
best tuning method often involves subjecting the system to a step change in
input, measuring output as a function of time, and using this response to
determine control parameters.
If the system must remain online, one tuning method is to first set I
and D values to zero and increase P until loop output oscillates — then
increase I until oscillation stops, and increase D until the loop is acceptably
quick in reaching its reference. A fast PID loop tuning usually overshoots
slightly to reach the setpoint more quickly.

Another is known as the Ziegler-Nichols method, introduced by

John G. Ziegler and Nathaniel B. Nichols of Taylor Instruments in 1942. This
technique also involves setting I and D gains to zero and then increasing P gain
until the loop output starts to oscillate. Document critical gain Kc and the
oscillation period of the output Pc before adjusting P to 0.5. Kc, I to 0.45 Kc,
and D to 0.6. Kc. This proven online method is adequate for loops where
quarter-wave decay is acceptable.

In fact, most industrial facilities no longer tune loops with manual calculation,
but use tuning and loop optimization software. These software packages
gather data, develop process models, suggest optimal tuning, and even
develop tuning by gathering data from reference changes. This can be done
both on and offline. It may also include valve and sensor analysis, and
simulation before downloading. The only drawbacks: Software is somewhat
costly and involves some training.

The analytical approach involves mathematics. PID loop tuning induces an

impulse in the system, and then uses the controlled system's frequency
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response to design PID loop values. In loops with response times of several
minutes, mathematical loop tuning is recommended because trial and error
can literally take days just to find a stable set of loop values. Optimal values are
harder to find, but can save a company huge amounts of money. Commercial
software is available from several sources, and can easily pay for itself if a PID
loop runs large or expensive processes. Some digital controllers even feature
self-tuning, in which small setpoint changes are sent to the process, allowing
the controller itself to calculate optimal values.

One can also tune by feel, which is an online method that doesn't require
math. The main problem with this method is that it is erratic, not repeatable,
and can be inefficient.

The final method of tuning is a quality process model called the Cohen-Coon,
which is a modified version of the Ziegler-Nichols approach. This offline
method involves some math, but is only good for the first-order process. Under
manual mode, wait until the process is at a steady state before introducing a
step change in the input. From the measurements based on the step test,
evaluate the process parameters. Based on these, formulas should prescribe
controller settings.

Additional note: PID benefits almost anything measurable and regulable

The main benefit of any PID loop is that a designer can “set it and forget it”
while still maintaining a well-regulated system. PID control is so universal that
PI and PID loops can be small and fast like a current-regulating loop inside a
servo drive or vector controller, or a slower loop regulating the liquid level in a

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giant tank holding thousands of gallons. PID loops are one of the simplest yet
most effective means to achieve that control on almost anything measurable
and regulable. Frankly, if PID didn't already exist, we would be forced to invent
it or factory automation would be very limited.

PID loops provide technicians and engineers with a customizable way to

control a variety of conditions, from temperature to speed and everything in
between. The loop's control is used to modify application behaviour to keep
output at stable and improve response rates. What's particularly exciting is
that special software and computers can perform calculations to make PID
design easier.

One last consideration: PID loop applications

A PID controller can be used to control any measurable variable, including

those affected by manipulating other process variables. In other words,
anything that can be measured and manipulated is eligible for PID loop control.
Think of the air pressure in a length of ductwork. A simple pressure sensor can
be used to measure duct pressure and anything that can increase that
pressure, such a variable-speed fan or solenoid-controlled dampers. Voila—
these are all the ingredients needed for PID control. Other typical PID loop
targets are temperature, flow rate, chemical composition, speed, and level.

Note that most PID loops are single-loop setups, though some control systems
arrange PID controllers in cascades or networks. Here, a master control
produces signals used by slave controllers. Coupled and cascaded controls are

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common in chemical process control, heating, ventilation, and air conditioning

systems, and other systems where many parts cooperate.

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9.TEMPERATURE SENSOR: PT-100 RTD

An RTD (resistance temperature detector) is a temperature sensor that

operates on the measurement principle that a material’s electrical resistance
changes with temperature.

The relationship between an RTD’s resistance and the surrounding

temperature is highly predictable, allowing for accurate and consistent
temperature measurement. By supplying an RTD with a constant current and
measuring the resulting voltage drop across the resistor, the RTD’s resistance
can be calculated, and the temperature can be determined.

RTD Materials

Different materials used in the construction of RTDs offer a different

relationship between resistance and temperature. Temperature sensitive
materials used in the construction of RTDs include platinum, nickel, and
copper; platinum being the most commonly used. Important characteristics of
an RTD include the temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR), the nominal
resistance at 0 degrees Celsius, and the tolerance classes.

The TCR determines the relationship between the resistance and the
temperature. There are no limits to the TCR that is achievable, but the most
common industry standard is the platinum 3850 ppm/K. This means that the
resistance of the sensor will increase 0.385 ohms per one-degree Celsius
increase in temperature. The nominal resistance of the sensor is the resistance
that the sensor will have at 0 degrees Celsius.

Although almost any value can be achieved for nominal resistance, the most
common is the platinum 100 ohm (pt100). Finally, the tolerance class
determines the accuracy of the sensor, usually specified at the nominal point
of 0 degrees Celsius. There are different industry standards that have been set
for accuracy including the ASTM and the European DIN. Using the values of
TCR, nominal resistance, and tolerance, the functional characteristics of the
sensor are defined.

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RTD Configurations

In addition to different materials, RTDs are also offered in two major

configurations: wire wound and thin film. Wire wound configurations feature
either an inner coil RTD or an outer wound RTD. An inner coil construction
consists of a resistive coil running through a hole in a ceramic insulator,
whereas the outer wound construction involves the winding of the resistive
material around a ceramic or glass cylinder, which is then insulated.

The thin film RTD construction features a thin layer of resistive material
deposited onto a ceramic substrate through a process called deposition. A
resistive meander is then etched onto the sensor, and laser trimming is used to
achieve the appropriate nominal values of the sensor. The resistive material is
then protected with a thin layer of glass, and lead wires are welded to pads on
the sensor and covered with a glass dollop.

Thin film RTDs have advantages over the wire wound configurations. The main
advantages include that they are less expensive, are more rugged and vibration
resistant, and have smaller dimensions that lead to better response times and
packaging capabilities. For a long time, wire wound sensors featured much
better accuracy. Thanks to recent developments, however, there is now thin
film technology capable of achieving the same level of accuracy.

Operations of RTD

An RTD takes a measurement when a small DC current is supplied to the

sensor. The current experiences the impedance of the resistor, and a voltage
drop is experienced over the resistor. Depending on the nominal resistance of
the RTD, different supply currents can be used. To reduce self-heating on the
sensor the supply current should be kept low. In general, around 1mA or less
of current is used.

An RTD can be connected in a two, three, or four-wire configuration. The two-

wire configuration is the simplest and also the most error prone. In this setup,
the RTD is connected by two wires to a Wheatstone bridge circuit and the
output voltage is measured. The disadvantage of this circuit is that the two

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connecting lead wire resistances add directly two the RTD’s resistance and an
error is incurred.

2-Wire Configuration

The four-wire configuration consists of two current leads and two potential
leads that measure the voltage drop across the RTD. The two potential leads
are high resistance to negate the effect of the voltage drop due to current
flowing during the measurement.

This configuration is ideal for cancelling the lead wire resistances in the circuit
as well as eliminating the effects of different lead resistances, which was a
possible problem with the three-wire configuration. The four-wire
configuration is commonly used when a highly accurate measurement is
required for the application.

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3-Wire Configuration

The four-wire configuration consists of two current leads and two potential
leads that measure the voltage drop across the RTD. The two potential leads
are high resistance to negate the effect of the voltage drop due to current
flowing during the measurement.

This configuration is ideal for cancelling the lead wire resistances in the circuit
as well as eliminating the effects of different lead resistances, which was a
possible problem with the three-wire configuration. The four-wire
configuration is commonly used when a highly accurate measurement is
required for the application.

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10.HEATING: U-SHAPED NICHROME WIRE HEATER.

 Nichrome: Most heating elements use nichrome 80/20 (80% nickel, 20%
chromium) wire, ribbon, or strip. Nichrome 80/20 is an ideal material,
because it has relatively high resistance and forms an adherent layer
of chromium oxide when it is heated for the first time. Material beneath
this layer will not oxidize, preventing the wire from breaking or burning out.

A coiled heating element from an electric toaster

 Resistance wire: Metallic resistance heating elements may be wire or

ribbon, straight or coiled. They are used in common heating devices
like toasters and hair dryers, furnaces for industrial heating, floor heating,
roof heating, pathway heating to melt snow, dryers, etc. The most common
classes of materials used include:

 Kanthal (FeCrAl) wires

 Nichrome 80/20 wire and strip

 Cupronickel (CuNi) alloys for low temperature heating

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 Etched foil: Etched foil elements are generally made from the same alloys
as resistance wire elements, but are produced with a subtractive
photo-etching process that starts with a continuous sheet of metal foil and
ends with a complex resistance pattern. These elements are commonly
found in precision heating applications like medical diagnostics and
aerospace.

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11.SOLID STATE REALY

 -Solid state relay work by input 3-32 vdc which will be getting by PID
Controller, then we can obtain power supply by output side which will
connected with load

 A solid-state relay (SSR) is an electronic switching device that switches

on or off when a small external voltage is applied across its control
terminals. SSRs consist of a sensor which responds to an appropriate
input (control signal), a solid-state electronic switching device which
switches power to the load circuitry, and a coupling mechanism to
enable the control signal to activate this switch without mechanical
parts. The relay may be designed to switch either AC or DC to the load. It
serves the same function as an electromechanical relay, but has
no moving parts.

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 Packaged solid-state relays use power semiconductor devices such

as thyristors and transistors, to switch currents up to around a
hundred amperes. Solid-state relays have fast switching speeds
compared with electromechanical relays, and have no physical contacts
to wear out. Application of solid-state relays must consider their lower
ability to withstand momentary overload, compared with
electromechanical contacts, and their higher "on" state resistance.
Unlike an electromechanical relay, a solid-state relay provides only
limited switching arrangements (SPST switching).

Coupling

The control signal must be coupled to the controlled circuit in a way which
provides galvanic isolation between the two circuits.

Many SSRs use optical coupling. The control voltage energizes an internal
LED which illuminates and switches on a photo-sensitive diode (photo- voltaic);
the diode current turns on a back-to-back thyristor, SCR, or MOSFET to switch
the load. The optical coupling allows the control circuit to be electrically
isolated from the load.

Operation

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An SSR based on a single MOSFET, or multiple MOSFETs in a paralleled array,

can work well for DC loads. MOSFETs have an inherent substrate diode that
conducts in the reverse direction, so a single MOSFET cannot block current in
both directions. For AC (bi-directional) operation two MOSFETs are arranged
back-to-back with their source pins tied together. Their drain pins are
connected to either side of the output. The substrate diodes are alternately
reverse biased to block current when the relay is off. When the relay is on, the
common source is always riding on the instantaneous signal level and both
gates are biased positive relative to the source by the photo-diode.

It is common to provide access to the common source so that multiple

MOSFETs can be wired in parallel if switching a DC load. Usually a network is
provided to speed the turn-off of the MOSFET when the control input is
removed.

In AC circuits, SCR or TRIAC relays inherently switch off at the points of zero
load current. The circuit will never be interrupted in the middle of a sine wave
peak, preventing the large transient voltages that would otherwise occur due
to the sudden collapse of the magnetic field around the inductance. This
feature is called zero-crossover switching.

Parameters

SSRs are characterised by a number of parameters including the required

activating input voltage, current, output voltage and current, whether it is AC
or DC, voltage drop or resistance affecting output current, thermal resistance,
and thermal and electrical parameters for safe operating
area (e.g., derating according to thermal resistance when repeatedly switching
large currents).

Advantages over mechanical relays

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Most of the relative advantages of solid state and electromechanical relays are
common to all solid-state as against electromechanical devices.

 Inherently smaller and slimmer profile than mechanical relay of similar

specification, allowing tighter packing. (If desired may have the same
"casing" form factor for interchangeability.)

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 Totally silent operation.

 SSRs switch faster than electromechanical relays; the switching time of a

typical optically coupled SSR is dependent on the time needed to power the
LED on and off - of the order of microseconds to milliseconds.

 Increased lifetime, even if it is activated many times, as there are no

moving parts to wear and no contacts to pit or build up carbon.

 Output resistance remains constant regardless of amount of use.

 Clean, boneless operation.

 No sparking, allows it to be used in explosive environments, where it is

critical that no spark is generated during switching.

 Much less sensitive to storage and operating environment factors such

as mechanical shock, vibration, humidity, and external magnetic fields.

Disadvantages

 Voltage/current characteristic of semiconductor rather than mechanical

contacts:

 When closed, higher resistance (generating heat), and increased electrical

noise

 When open, lower resistance, and reverse leakage current (typically µA

range)

 Voltage/current characteristic is not linear (not purely resistive), distorting

switched waveforms to some extent. An electromechanical relay has the
low ohmic (linear) resistance of the associated mechanical switch when
activated, and the exceedingly high resistance of the air gap and insulating
materials when open.

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 Some types have polarity-sensitive output circuits. Electromechanical

relays are not affected by polarity.

 Possibility of spurious switching due to voltage transients (due to much

faster switching than mechanical relay)

 Isolated bias supply required for gate charge circuit

 Higher transient reverse recovery time (Trr) due to the presence of the
body diode

 Tendency to fail "shorted" on their outputs, while electromechanical relay

contacts tend to fail "open".

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12.REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

CFC Free hermetically sealed Emerson Copeland make compressor for better
cooling with R134 A (Eco Friendly) refrigerant with time delay to safe guard
compressor system.

Refrigeration compressors and air conditioning compressors provide air

conditioning, heat pumping, and refrigeration for large-scale facilities and equipment.
They use compression to raise the temperature of a low-pressure gas, and also
remove vapor from the evaporator. Most refrigeration compressors (refrigerant
compressors) are large, mechanical units that form the heart of industrial cooling,
heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems. Many air conditioning
compressors are also large-scale mechanical devices; however, these compressors are
designed specifically for air conditioning systems and do not provide heating or
ventilation functions.

Refrigerant compressors work by taking in low pressure gas on the inlet and
compressing it mechanically. Different types of compression mechanisms are what
differentiate compressors (discussed below). This compression creates a high
temperature, high pressure gas - an essential step in the overarching refrigeration
cycle.

Refrigeration Cycle

The refrigeration cycle or heat pump cycle is the model describing the transfer of
heat from regions of lower temperature to regions of higher temperature. It defines
the operating principles behind refrigerators, air conditioners, heaters, and other
"heat pumping" devices.
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 This diagram presents a visual overview of the refrigeration cycle:

The letters A-D indicate the different system components. The numbers 1-5
indicate the different physical states of the refrigerant fluid as it moves
through the system.

 State 1 is the state after the refrigerant passes through an evaporator (D),
where warm air heats the fluid and converts it completely to vapor.

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 State 2 is the state after the fluid passes through a compressor (A) which
increases the fluid's pressure and temperature up to superheated levels.
 States 3 and 4 are when the fluid passes through an evaporator (B), which
transfers heat to the ambient and condenses the fluid to liquid.
 State 5 is the state after the fluid passes through an expansion
valve or metering device (C), which lowers the pressure of the fluid. This
cools the fluid and subsequently turns the liquid into a liquid/vapor mixture.
Temperature-entropy and pressure-enthalpy diagrams are often used
to construct and describe these systems. They define the properties of the
fluid at different stages in the system.

The diagram below depicts temperature-entropy a typical refrigeration cycle:

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The following diagram shows pressure-entropy of a typical refrigeration cycle:

REFRIGERANTS
Usually compressors are designed to work with a particular type of
refrigerant. Selecting a proper refrigeration compressor or air conditioning
compressor requires finding a compressor rated for the desired refrigerant for
the application. Refrigerants are given names such as R-12 or R-134a from the
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers
(ASHRAE). Ideal refrigerants have favourable thermodynamic properties and
are chemically inert (noncorrosive), environmentally friendly (degradable), and
safe (nontoxic, non-flammable). The desired fluid should have a boiling point
somewhat below the target temperature, a high heat of vaporization,
moderate liquid density, high gas density, and a high critical temperature.

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13.DOOR SWITCH & COMPACT FLUORESCENT LIGHT

Figure 1. Flourocent light

A compact fluorescent lamp (CFL), also called compact fluorescent

light, energy-saving light, and compact fluorescent tube, is a lamp designed to
replace an incandescent light bulb; some types fit into light fixtures designed
for incandescent bulbs. The lamps use a tube which is curved or folded to fit
into the space of an incandescent bulb, and a compact electronic ballast in the
base of the lamp.

Door switch wiring diagram

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