Brazilian Journal of Physics, vol. 38, no.

2, June, 2008 279

Bose-Einstein Condensation in
87
Rb: Characterization of the Brazilian Experiment
E. A. L. Henn,

J. A. Seman, G. B. Seco, E. P. Olimpio, P. Castilho,

G. Roati,

D. V. Magalh aes, K. M. F. Magalh aes, and V. S. Bagnato

Instituto de Fsica de S ao Carlos, Universidade de S ao Paulo, Caixa Postal 369, 13560-970, S ao Carlos-SP, Brazil
We describe the experimental apparatus and the methods to achieve Bose-Einstein condensation in
87
Rb
atoms. Atoms are rst laser cooled in a standard double magneto-optical trap setup and then transferred into a
QUIC trap. The system is brought to quantum degeneracy selectively removing the hottest atoms from the trap
by radio-frequency radiation. We also present the main theoretical aspects of the Bose-Einstein condensation
phenomena in atomic gases.
Keywords: Bose-Einstein condensation, quantum uids, quantum phase transition, laser cooling and trapping, evaporative
cooling.
I. INTRODUCTION
Bose-Einstein condensation (BEC) is a phase transition
which only can take place in bosonic systems. In last years,
the study of BEC in atomic gases has become one of the
most active research topics which links together different ar-
eas of physics. In quantum mechanics, BEC appears as a
monochromatic giant matter wave [1]. In thermodynamics,
it represents an important phase transition where a gas under-
goes a change of observables, allowing the determination of
a critical temperature [2]. In quantum eld theory, BEC is an
important demonstration of spontaneous symmetry break [3].
Condensed atoms are also an interesting window to the world
of three body and many body interactions [4]. In statistical
physics, BEC is a macroscopic occupation of a single quan-
tum state [2]. Many other elds have advanced a lot from
properties which are peculiar from BECs, and those include
modern quantum computation among others.
Bose-Einstein Condensation became possible due to the
great advances on laser cooling and magnetic trapping [5].
The ability to transfer light momenta to the atomic systems,
in a controlled way, made possible the construction of atomic
coolers, where atomic clouds at microkelvin of translational
temperature are relatively easy to be obtained. Those samples
are the starting point in the routes towards BEC.
A large number of atomic systems have been Bose con-
densed using a combination of techniques based on laser cool-
ing, conservative trapping and evaporative cooling. Rb
87
[6]
was the rst atomic species led to quantum degeneracy in
1995. Recently, Yb
170
[7] and K
39
[8] were also Bose con-
densed and now twelve different atomic species have already
been Bose condensed (for the complete list prior to 2008 see
Ref.[7]).
To obtain a sample Bose condensed it is necessary to build
up density as well as lower the temperature in a way that the
De Broglie wavelength becomes of the order of the mean dis-
tance between particles. In other words, n
3
dB
2.612, with

Electronic address: [email protected]

LENS and Dipartimento di Fisica, Universit` a di Firenze, INFN and CNR-

INFM, 50019 Sesto Fiorentino, Italy

dB
=h/

2mk
B
T, being the thermal de Broglie wavelength.
A non homogeneous conning potential is a convenient way
to reach such condition. Once there is a localized minimum
for the potential, spatial compression is naturally achieved as
the sample temperature lowers. One normally starts with a
large number of atoms, held in a magneto-optical trap (MOT)
and transfer the atomic cloud to a conservative trap. Follow-
ing the conservative connement, runaway evaporation allows
to reach the necessary compromise between density and tem-
perature.
To reach BEC in an atomic sample, a sequence of condi-
tions has to be fullled. The preparation of the experimental
system to have the necessary conditions is what determines
the necessary time to bring a BEC experiment to function.
In a previous work [9] we have reported the observation of
BEC in a gas of
23
Na atoms. Our experimental apparatus had
instabilities mainly related to technical limitations on the laser
systems and mechanical layout, which prevent us to keep it
running continuously. Indeed, this lack of reproducibility was
not related to the atomic species itself. Experimental systems
that produce BEC in
23
Na atoms can be as well succeded as
any other system [10]. In our case, because of these technical
reasons, we decided to move to a simpler system to observe
and study BEC in a gas of
87
Rb atoms.
In this paper we present a detailed description of the exper-
imental setup that led us to observe BEC in a gas of
87
Rb
atoms. In fact, our system is very similar to the double-
chamber systems for producing BEC, which is a very com-
mon setup with several variants. Nevertheless this is not the
only way to design it: Zeeman slowed beams for loading the
trap is another very common setup and both these congura-
tions cover most of the experimental setups presently work-
ing. Special attention is given to provide basic concepts on
the parameters evaluated in our system.
II. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
The conditions to reach BEC in an atomic sample require,
usually, temperatures of the order of 100 nK and densities
larger than 10
13
cm
3
. The only technique known to be
able to produce samples at these conditions is forced evap-
orative cooling. For this to be applied efciently, it is needed
280 E. A. L. Henn et al.
Transference
tube
Second
cell
M
OT
First
cell
M
OT
To ion and
Ti-Sublimation pumps
To ion
pump
FIG. 1: Schematic view of the vacuum system showing the rst and
second chambers, the transference tube and the pumping ports.
a large number of trapped atoms in a conservative trap and
a very low background pressure of untrapped atoms. These
two conditions usually exclude each other unless one uses a
slowed beam of atoms ending in a single chamber or a double-
chamber conguration like ours.
The overall view of the vacuum system is shown in Fig. 1.
The rst chamber is made of Pyrex and contains ten windows
and a vacuum port. Atoms collected in this rst chamber are
pushed through a narrow tube (4 mm wide and 40 cm long)
to a second chamber. The connection of the rst to the sec-
ond chamber through this narrow tube allows a differential
pressure of the order of 10
2
, which means keeping the second
chamber at a very low pressure even when the rst one is lled
with Rb-vapor. The rst chamber pressure ( 10
9
Torr) is
kept by an ion pump, while the second chamber (with a pres-
sure smaller than 10
11
Torr) has a combination of ion and
Ti-sublimation pumps. This second chamber is a Hellma cell
also made of Pyrex, 6 cm long and with 33 cm square cross-
section.
We use Rb-metal dispensers [11] to coat the rst cell walls
with a Rb lm. With the dispensers turned off we turn on six
UV-LEDs [12] placed around the rst cell. Each LED pro-
vides around 350 mW of light at 395 nm and acts like desor-
ber for the Rb lm. This Rb gas is collected in a MOT and
up to 10
9
atoms are trapped in this way. As soon as the LEDs
are turned off, the vapor is readsorbed by the walls. This tech-
nique is known as LIAD and has been well described and char-
acterized elsewhere [13].
The rst MOT acts like a cold atom source for loading the
second MOT. A continuous, 1 mW power push beam [14]
transfers the atoms through the tube fromone cell to the other,
where they are captured. This second MOT loads up to 10
9
atoms in 35 s, that gives a mean ux of 310
7
atoms/s.
Three different laser systems (TOPTICA DLX-110L) and
several AOMs provide all necessary frequencies for the exper-
iment. A layout of the laser system and the employed optics is
presented in Fig. 2 and all the laser frequencies for this exper-
iment are represented in Fig. 3. All the lasers are locked ex-
ternally using saturated absorption technique, and all of them
have linewidths better than 1 MHz. Optical isolators with sup-
pression on the level of 60 dB prevent feedback from backre-
ection or backscattered light.
One laser system is fully dedicated to generate the cool-
ing light for the rst MOT. Only just before the beam ex-
pansion stage it is superimposed to the repumper light. The
repumper frequency is generated by other laser system and
after being produced, its light is divided and a small por-
tion passes through an AOM, in order to generate one of
the frequencies for the optical pumping process (5S
1/2
(F =
1) 5P
3/2
(F = 2)). The major portion goes through an
AOM in double-pass conguration, so the frequency of the
laser can be tuned with minimal misalignment. This light is
then almost equally divided, so part goes through a switching
AOM, and then to be superimposed to the rst MOT cool-
ing light, and part is superimposed to the second MOT cool-
ing light. The cooling light for the second MOT is generated
by the third laser system. Like the repumper, a small por-
tion is taken to generate the other optical pumping frequency
(5S
1/2
(F = 2) 5P
3/2
(F = 2)), then light goes through a
double-pass AOM to allow frequency sweep with minimal
misalignment for the optical molasses and imaging processes.
Afterwards, another small portion is taken and goes through a
switching AOM, then is divided and each of these is inserted
into a PM optical ber. These beams correspond to the push
and imaging frequencies. The largest portion is then super-
imposed to the repumper light and both go through a switch
AOM and a 50m pinhole, so we obtain 100mW of cooling
light and 20mW of repumper light with a good gaussian spa-
tial prole. This beamis then expanded and goes to the second
MOT chamber. Both optical pumping frequencies are also su-
perimposed and inserted into a PM optical ber.
After the second MOT load is completed, the atoms are
transferred into a full magnetic trap. Connecting these two
stages, three different processes take place: MOT compres-
sion, optical molasses and spin-polarization. The rst con-
sists of changing the cooling laser frequency from its original
=20 MHz detuning to =50 MHz for 6 ms. The rate of
photon scattering is tremendously lowered and the atoms are
compressed to the center of the trap. Following this, the mag-
netic eld is turned off for 4 ms and sub-doppler cooling takes
place. Finally, both cooling and repumper light are turned
off, a homogeneous bias eld is applied and a two-frequency
light pulse pump all the atoms to the state |2, 2. This spin-
polarization is needed because the pure magnetic trap holds
only low-eld-seeker states.
Once the cloud is spin-polarized, the magnetic eld is
turned on and the atoms are held in a spherical quadrupole
with an axial gradient of 180 Gauss/cm which is raised to
600 Gauss/cm in 500 ms. The atoms are then transferred into
a QUIC trap [15] in 800 ms.
The QUIC trap, shown in Fig.4(A), is composed of a
quadrupole eld generated by two coils operating in anti-
Helmholtz conguration and an Ioffe coil. A current I
q
through the quadrupole coils produces a spherical quadru-
pole trap. This trap can be converted into a QUIC by turn-
ing on the current I
Iof f e
, which circulates through the Ioffe
coil. On the sequence of proles in Fig.4(B) one can ob-
serve the evolution of the magnetic potential as I
Iof f e
in-
creases. Increasing the current in the Ioffe coil, the mag-
Brazilian Journal of Physics, vol. 38, no. 2, June, 2008 281
L
a
s
e
r
C
o
o
l
i
n
g
2
A
O
M
AOM
To Saturated
Absorption
Spectroscopy
To Optical
Pump
To Image
To Push
To MOT 2
A
O
M
A
O
M
A
O
M
To MOT 1
L
a
s
e
r
C
o
o
l
i
n
g
1
To Saturated
Absorption
Spectroscopy
AOM
L
a
s
e
r
R
e
p
u
m
p
i
n
g
To Saturated
Absorption
Spectroscopy
A
O
M
FIG. 2: Layout of the laser system, showing the three laser systems and main optical components. Waveplates and lenses are not shown for
simplicity.
netic zero existent on the quadrupole center is progressively
shifted towards the coil. At some current level, a second
zero appears closer to the coil. At the nal level of current
(24 A) the two minima merge together, generating the quic
trap with a bias eld at the center. At the end stage, the
overall trapping potential felt by weak-eld-seeker atoms is
given by U (x, y, z) = U
0
+
1
2
m
_

2
x
x
2
+
2
y
y
2
+
2
z
z
2
_
, where

x

y
= 9
0
and
z

0
, with
0
23Hz. Such a large
anisotropy produces a cigar-shaped atomic cloud.
Once atoms are transferred to the QUIC, evaporation is
used to obtain lower temperatures. Evaporation is done using
an antenna irradiating Radio-Frequency (RF), that produces
a spin-ip transition, transforming trappable into untrappable
atoms. For a given value of RF only atoms at specic mag-
netic eld amplitude are affected and ejected from the trap.
Sweeping from a high to a low value of frequency we can
force evaporation while colder atoms accumulate at the trap
center. If this sweeping of RF is performed in an optimized
rate, a great increase of phase-space density is achieved. The
RF was scanned from 16 MHz down to the point where BEC
takes place ( 1.6 MHz). To optimize the RF sweeping, one
must investigate the best time-dependence for the frequency.
Fig. 5(A) shows the optimized ramp for our experiment and
Fig. 5(B) exhibits a sequence of Time-of-Flight absorption
measurements showing a considerably degree of cooling and
phase-space increasing.
The cooling process on the atomic cloud is observed
through absorption of a probe laser beam resonant with
the F = 2 F

= 3 transition. The propagation of the

probe beam on the y-direction, produces a two-dimensional
intensity prole I (x, z) = I
0
exp[(x, z)], where (x, z) =

_
n(x, y, z)dy is the optical density of the sample and
282 E. A. L. Henn et al.
5 S
2
1/2
5 P
2
3/2
F=3
F=2
F=1
F=0
F=2
F=1
780nm
T
r
a
p
p
i
n
g
R
e
p
u
m
p
e
r
P
u
s
h
P
r
o
b
e
O
p
.
P
u
m
p
.
F
=
2
F
=
2
O
p
.
P
u
m
p
.
F
=
1
F
=
2
D~2G
FIG. 3:
87
Rb D
2
transition hyperne structure, with frequency split-
tings between the hyperne energy levels. The frequencies used in
the experiment are shown.
0
15
30
45
60
75
90
105
120
F
ie
ld
(
G
a
u
s
s
)
0
15
30
45
60
75
90
105
120
F
ie
ld
(
G
a
u
s
s
)
0
15
30
45
60
75
90
105
120
F
ie
ld
(
G
a
u
s
s
)
0 3 6 9 12
0
15
30
45
60
75
90
105
120
Distance (mm)
F
ie
ld
(
G
a
u
s
s
)
(B) (A)
FIG. 4: (A) Schematic conguration of coils of the QUIC trap and
(B) a sequence of magnetic eld proles as the Ioffe current is in-
creased.
n(x, y, z) its density. An integration of (x, z) along the xz
plane provides the total number of atoms in the sample:
N =
1

_
(x, z) dxdz (1)
where is the absorption cross section for a near resonant
light. For the transition 5S
1/2
5P
3/2
,
0
/
_
1+4
_

2
__
with
0
= 1.410
9
cm
2
[16].
Figure 6 summarizes the techniques used in this process
and all the related time scales.
III. OBSERVING BOSE-EINSTEIN CONDENSATION
To observe BEC in the sample, it is necessary an efcient
evaporative cooling. To achieve efcient evaporation the rst
requirement is that the rate of elastic collisions, = n
el
v,
which are responsible for the rethermalization of the sam-
ple, overcomes the rate of inelastic collisions, which remove
atoms from the trap, where n is the particle density,
el
is the
elastic collision cross-section, and v denotes the average ther-
mal velocity [17]. Then, to well succeed in evaporation it is
necessary to have overcoming the loss rate during the whole
process, even with the decreasing in the atomic number. The
important parameter to be observed is the phase-space-density
(D), or the number of atoms per cubic de Broglie wavelength.
One can calculate D as D = n
3
D
, which for
87
Rb can be ex-
pressed as
D =
6.67n
T
3/2
10
24
(2)
where n is expressed as particles/cm
3
and T in Kelvin. For a
harmonic trap, density varies with temperature as n N/T
3/2
,
such that D N/T
3
. An efcient evaporation demands that
T decreases faster than N, to increase D. One can show that
the evolution of N with T must obey a relation like N T
s
with s 1 to fulll the conditions for an efcient runaway
evaporation [18]. Smaller the value of s, greater evaporation
efciency is achieved. For a harmonic trap, it is shown that
the critical temperature T
c
is related to the number of particles
by k
B
T
c
= 0.941N
1/3
[19]. This relation sets, in some sense,
the critical line for the observation of BEC.
The graph shown in Fig. 7 represents the route followed
by the number of trapped particles as a function of tempera-
ture in our experiment. The rst fact to be observed is that
s 0.730.04, showing the occurrence of runaway evapora-
tion. For a temperature around 160 nK the quantum degen-
eracy border is crossed and condensation is observed, with a
number of about 710
5
particles. At the critical temperature,
the peak density of atoms corresponds to 410
13
cm
3
. Pure
condensates containing 210
5
atoms are observed.
Besides reaching D 2.6, there are a few signatures that
happen together with the occurrence of BEC. A dramatic
change in the shape of the spatial density prole, as observed
by absorption, is the most important signature of BEC. As
recorded by our CCD camera, the point just below BEC is
shown in Fig. 8(A), together with the cut of the density prole
(Fig. 8(B)). At condensation, the traditional Gaussian density
prole for the trapped cloud is suddenly changed by the ap-
pearance of a peak, with a great deviation. The observed peak
has a parabolic shape and it is due to the dominance of inter-
actions in this sample at the existent conditions of density and
temperature.
To explain this prole, we start considering the Gross-
Pitaevskii equation for one particle in the condensate
Brazilian Journal of Physics, vol. 38, no. 2, June, 2008 283
~1.9mm
Final Frequency
3,4Mhz
2,8MHz
2,2MHz
1,98MHz
1,75Mhz
1,70MHz
1,65MHz
10 ms free expansion
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
F
r
e
q

n
c
i
a
(
M
H
z
)
Tempo (s)
(A) (B)
~1.9mm
Final Frequency
3,4Mhz
2,8MHz
2,2MHz
1,98MHz
1,75Mhz
1,70MHz
1,65MHz
10 ms free expansion
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
F
r
e
q

n
c
i
a
(
M
H
z
)
Tempo (s)
(A) (B)
FIG. 5: (A) Evaporation frequency as a function of time, and (B) sequence of 10 ms time-of-ight absorption measurements showing the cloud
evolution as the evaporation frequency is decreased.
Magneto Optical Trapping
MOT compression, Sub-Doppler Cooling
and spin-polarization
Magnetic Trapping
Evaporative Cooling
TOF imaging
BEC observation
Loading ~ 35s
~10ms
~22s
~15ms
FIG. 6: Experimental and time sequence of the experiment.
_

2
2M

2
+U(r) +g||
2
_
= , (3)
which is basically the Schr odinger equation with an extra
term, proportional to ||
2
, from interactions. The coupling
constant is
g =
4
2
Na
M
, (4)
with a being the s-wave scattering length. The chemical po-
tential represents the energy of an individual atom in the
presence of all the others.
At ultra-low temperatures, the Gross-Pitaevskii equation
can be approximated by an algebraic equation when interac-
tion is the dominant term. This is the so-called Thomas-Fermi
FIG. 7: Evolution of the number of trapped particles as the tem-
perature of the sample decreases, showing an efcient evaporative
cooling and the crossing of the transition boundary.
regime, where the kinetic energy term can be neglected when
compared to the others. In this case
_
U (r) +g||
2
_
= , (5)
such that for the region where = 0,
||
2
=
U(r)
g
, (6)
since N||
2
= n(r), for U (r) =
1
2
m
_

2
x
x
2
+
2
y
y
2
+
2
z
z
2
_
,
we have
284 E. A. L. Henn et al.
(A)
0 50 100 150 200 250
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
A
b
s
o
r
p
t
i
o
n
Pixel
(B)
FIG. 8: Onset of condensation just below critical temperature, showing (A) the absorption CCD camera picture and (B) absorption prole
showing the double spatial distribution, which is well tted by a combination of a gaussian prole for the thermal cloud and an inverted
parabola prole for the condensed cloud.
n(r) = n
0
_
1
_
_
x
R
x
_
2
+
_
y
R
y
_
2
+
_
x
R
x
_
2
__
, (7)
where n
0
is the atomic density at the center of the condensate
and R
i
is determined as
1
2
m
2
i
R
2
i
= , for i = x, y, z.
FIG. 9: Sequence of images showing the apperance of BEC as the
evaporation Radio-Frequency is lowered. The rst image is well t-
ted by a gaussian prole as it is above the transition. The last image
is tted by an inverted parabola characteristic of the Thomas-Fermi
prole.
In Fig. 9, we observe a sequence of images going from a
pure thermal cloud until an almost pure sample of condensate
atoms. Observe that while the thermal cloud (non-condensate
fraction) is well tted by a Gaussian function, the condensate
is well tted by the inverted parabola.
The combination of tting within the density prole, allows
separating the condensate fraction. On Fig. 10, the condensate
fraction as a function of temperature is presented. For a repul-
sive harmonic trapped gas, a rst order approximation pre-
dicts that the expected fraction of condensate atoms is given
by
N
0
N
=1
_
T
T
c
_
3
4
a

dB
_
T
T
c
_
7/2
[19], applying this relation
FIG. 10: Condensed particles fraction as a function of the temper-
ature of the sample and theoretical tting from which we obtain
142nK for the critical temperature.
FIG. 11: Expansion of a thermal cloud as a funtion of time showing
its evolution to isotropy.
Brazilian Journal of Physics, vol. 38, no. 2, June, 2008 285
FIG. 12: Expansion of a BECas a funtion of time showing the typical
inversion of aspect ratio of the quantum cloud.
FIG. 13: Aspect ratio for a classical (circles) and a quantum (squares)
cloud as a function of the expansion time.
to our data, we observed a good adjustment with
a

dB
0.01.
For
87
Rb, a 5 nmand at T 160 nK,
dB
0.5 m, showing
good agreement in rst order correction.
The asymmetric velocity distribution of the expanded cloud
is another clear indication of BEC. Before reaching BEC
(above T
c
), the cloud expands spherically, as expected from
thermal atoms. An example of such expansion is shown on
Fig. 11. We start having the aspect ratio between the two di-
mensions of the cloud as the ratio of the trap frequencies. As
the cloud expands it turns into a spherical expanding cloud.
On the other hand, for a condensate cloud of atoms, during
the expansion, the cloud suffers an inversion of the aspect ra-
tio, as presented in Fig. 12. For the condensate, as the ex-
pansion takes place, the conversion of interaction energy into
motion does not follow the thermal equilibriumarguments for
the thermal clouds. A better comparison can be made observ-
ing Fig. 13, where the numerical aspect ratio for a thermal
cloud and for a condensate are plotted as a function of the
expansion time. At the beginning, the aspect ratio for both
clouds evolves in a similar way. Sooner the quantum gas and
the thermal gas start to deviate from each other. After a time
in which the thermal cloud starts to expand isotropically (as-
pect ratio equal to 1) the condensate shows the inversion ratio
and the aspect ratio becomes larger than unity.
The observation of the aspect ratio inversion is an undoubt-
edly signature for BEC, which could not take place otherwise.
IV. CONCLUSIONS
In this paper we have described step by step the experimen-
tal realization of Bose-Einstein Condensation for a sample of
87
Rb atoms held in a QUIC-type trap. The typical number of
atoms in the BEC is 210
5
and the critical temperature T
c
is
about 100 nK.
We have started to use the condensate sample to pursue
studies involving different aspects of the condensate, like non-
zero temperature corrections and topological-like excitations.
The experimental observation of these excitations will be pub-
lished in future works [20].
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