Mathematics in the Modern World

1st year l 1st semester

LESSON 1: PATTERNS AND SEQUENCES IN

NATURE AND THE WORLD
MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD
❖ Is about mathematics as a system of knowing or
understanding our surroundings-deals with
nature of mathematics, appreciation of its
practical, intellectual, and aesthetic dimensions, 1.2. ROTATIONAL SYMMETRY
and application of mathematical tools in daily ● It is also called radial symmetry. In Biology, this
life. kind of symmetry is exhibited by objects when
their similar parts are regularly arranged around
A. MATHEMATICS a central axis and the pattern looks the same
❖ Is not all about numbers, it is more about after a certain amount of rotation. Note that if
reasoning, making logical inferences and you rotate the given images below by several
generalization, and seeing relationships in both degrees, you can still achieve the same
visible and invisible patterns. appearance as the original position.
❖ Theoretical is the study of patterns and
relationships
❖ It is an art of thinking, a special kind of art in
many of the mathematical constructs, and
mental flow of proofs.
❖ Math can act as a universal language.
❖ It is a way of thinking involving math to
solve-real world problems. 1.3. TRANSLATIONAL SYMMETRY
❖ Math is a set of problem-solving tools. ● This kind of symmetry is exhibited by objects
which do not change their size and shape even
LESSON 1.1.: TYPES OF PATTERN IN NATURE if they move to another location. Note that the
Patterns are repetitive, which can be found in nature as movement does not involve reflection or rotation.
color, shape, action, or some other sequences that are A shape exhibits translational symmetry if
almost everywhere. Mathematics expresses patterns. displacement in some direction-horizontal or
These sequences that repeat, follow a rule or rules. A vertical, returns the shape to its original
rule is a way to calculate or solve a problem. configuration

1. SYMMETRY
● According to the American Heritage Dictionary,
symmetry is an exact correspondence of form
and constituent configuration on opposite sides
of a dividing line or plane or about a center or an 2. FRACTALS
axis. It indicates that you can draw an imaginary ● These are never-ending patterns that are
line across an object and the resulting parts are self-similar across different scales.
mirror images of each other. ● The image just reappears over and over again
no matter how many times the object is
1.1. REFLECTION SYMMETRY magnified.
● It is also called mirror symmetry or line
symmetry. It is made with a line going through
an object which divides it into two pieces which
are mirror images of each other. This is often
termed as bilateral symmetry as it divides the
object into two ("bi" means two mirror images.

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3. SPIRALS space with no gaps and no overlaps) that

● These are curved patterns made by a series of repeats forever in all directions. They can be
circular shapes revolving around a central point. composed of one or more shapes... anything
goes as long as the pattern radiates in all
directions with no gaps or overlaps.

4. SPOTS & STRIPES

● Patterns exhibited in the external appearances
2. ARCHITECTURES
of animals such as the skin of the animals.

LESSON 2 : FIBONACCI SEQUENCE

5. FLOWER PETALS The Fibonacci numbers are a
● Flowers are easily considered as things of series of numbers that often
beauty. Their vibrant colors and fragrant odors occur in nature. This number
make them very appealing as gifts or sequence was developed in the
decorations. The flowers below have different Middle Ages, and it was named
numbers of petals. Flowers with 5 petals are after Leonardo Pisano Bigollo,
said to be the most common. Notice that these a famous Italian mathematician
numbers are all Fibonacci numbers. who also happened to discover
Fibonacci. He is the greatest
European mathematician of the
middle ages. He was born in
1170 and died in 1240. He introduced the Arabic number
system in Europe.
● Fibonacci is a short term for the latin "filius
6. NUMBER PATTERNS & SEQUENCES bonacci," which means "the son of Bonacci".
● In mathematics, number patterns are the
patterns in which a list number follows a certain
sequence. Generally, the patterns establish the ● A sequence is an ordered set of numbers,
relationship between two numbers. It is also shapes, or any other mathematical objects
known as the sequence of series in numbers. arranged into a rule.
● Consider the Fibonacci sequence above. If we
want to find the 8th term, we need to add the 6th
and 7th term. That is:

LESSON 1.2. : MAN-MADE PATTERNS

1. TESSELLATIONS ● The order goes as follows: 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13,
● A tessellation is a special type of tiling (a pattern 21, 34, 55, 89, 144 and on to infinity. Each
of geometric shapes that fill a two-dimensional number is some of the previous two.
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● Another interesting thing about Fibonacci LESSON 2: NATURE AND PHENOMENA

sequence is that it shows multiples of a number. WEATHER FORECAST
In the table given above, observe that, ● Weather forecasting is the application of science
○ Every 3rd term is a multiple of 2 (2, 8, and technology to predict the conditions of the
34, 144, ...) atmosphere for a given location and time.
○ Every 4th term is a multiple of 3 (3, 21, ● Human beings have attempted to predict the
144,..) weather informally for millennia and formally
○ Every 5th derm is a multiple of 5 (5, since the 19th century.
55,..) ● Mathematicians play an important role in this
● This series of numbers is known as the process, working with a set of equations that
Fibonacci numbers of the Fibonacci sequence. describe the atmosphere, taking into account
The ratio between the numbers (1.618034) is temperature, pressure and humidity. Global
frequently called the golden ratio or golden Circulation Models (GCMs) describe the
number. interactions between oceans and atmosphere to
look at what the average conditions could be in
FIBONACCI IN NATURE decades to come.
• In nature, many plants show the Fibonacci numbers in ● Meteorologists at NOAA's National Weather
the arrangement of leaves around the stem, the number Service have always monitored the conditions of
of spirals like in sunflowers. the atmosphere that impact the weather, but
over time the equipment they use has changed.
As technology advanced,, our scientists began
to use more efficient equipment to collect and
use additional data. These technological
advances enable our meteorologists to make
better predictions faster than ever before.
In nature, many plants show the Fibonacci numbers in
the arrangement of leaves around the stem, the number How mathematics helps predict nature and
of spirals like in sunflowers. phenomenon?
● Mathematics can be used to explain how
something recurs in nature. Mathematics is used
to explain why the Sun set, where it went, & why
it returned because it was easier to count these
events in numbers than to put them into words.
● Mathematics is helpful especially when seeking
to explain the limitless feeling one gets when
The Golden Mean ("phi") is a special number found by contemplating the natural world that exists
dividing a line into two parts that the longer part divided outside ourselves.
by the smaller part is also equal to the whole length di by ● Predicting the size, location, and timing of
the longer part. natural hazards is virtually impossible, but
because of the help of Mathematics we can
forecast calamities such as hurricanes, floods,
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, wildfires, and
landslides etc.
● Using mathematical tools, we create models
which correspond to what we can measure and
observe in the world of reality.

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LESSON 3: MATH APPLICATIONS

1. Making Routine Budgets
2. Construction Purpose
3. Exercising and training
4. Interior Designing
5. Fashion Designing
6. Shopping at Grocery Stores and Supermarkets
7. Cooking and Baking
8. Sports
9. Management of Time
10. Driving
11. Automobiles Industry
12. Computer Applications
13. Planning a Trip
14. Hospitals
15. Video Games
16. Weather Forecasting
17. Base of Other Subjects
18. Music and Dance
19. Manufacturing Industry
20. Planning of Cities
21. Problem-Solving Skills
22. Marketing

MODULE 2
LESSON 1: CHARACTERISTICS OF
MATHEMATICS AS A LANGUAGE

Mathematics English

2 Noun such as person,

3-2 place and things and
3х pronouns
3x +2 Example:
ax + by + c a) Ernesto
b) Batangas City
c) Book
d) He

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LESSON 1.2. : CONVENTIONS IN LANGUAGE

Twice the square of a 2x²

number

The square of the sum of (x + y)²

two numbers

The sum of the squares x²+y²

of two numbers

The cube of a number (x - 5)³

less than five

The area of a rectangle A = (x + 7)(x)

whose length is seven
more than its width

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LESSON 2 : CHARACTERISTICS OF MATHEMATICS AS A Terminologies of Sets

LANGUAGE B. Two ways of Describing a Set
SETS, FUNCTIONS and BINARY OPERATIONS 1. Roster or Tabular Method - It is done by listing or
tabulating the elements of the set.
A. The Language of Sets 2. Rule or Set-builder Method - It is done by stating or
Use of the word "set" as a formal mathematical term was describing the common characteristics of the elements
introduced in 1879 by Georg Cantor. For most of the set. We use the notation A= { x/ x ... }
mathematical purposes we can think of a set intuitively,
as Cantor did, simply as a collection of elements. Operations of Sets
So, by definition: A set is a collection of well-defined C. Subsets
objects. ● A subset, A ⊆ B, means that every element of A
is also an element of B. If x ∈ A, then x ∈ B. In
Examples:
particular, every set is a subset of itself, A ⊆ A.
1) A set of counting numbers from 1 to 10.
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} ● A subset is called a proper subset, A is a proper
2) A set of English alphabet from a to d. subset of B, if A c B and there is at least one
B = (a, b, c, d} element of B that is not in A: If x c A, then x ⊂ B
3) A set of all even positive integers. and there is an element b such that b ∈ B and b
С = { 2,4, 6, 8,...} ∈ A.
4) A set of integers. ● NOTE: The empty set or { } has no elements
D = (..., - 3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ...} and is a subset of every set for every set A, A ⊂
A. The number of subsets of a given set is given
LESSON 2.1. : SET by 2", where n is the number of elements of the
Kinds of Sets given set.
1. Equal set - Two sets, say A and B, are said to be
equal if and only if they have equal number of cardinality Example. Consider the sets:
and the element/s are identical. There is a 1 -1 A = (red, green, blue}
correspondence. B = (red, yellow, orange)
Ex: A = {1, 2, 3,4,5} C = (red, orange, yellow, green, blue, purple)
B = { 3, 5, 2, 4,1}
Find the following:
2. Equivalent set - Two sets, say A and B, are said to be 1. A U B = {red, green, yellow, blue, and orange)
equivalent if and only if they have the exact number of 2. A ∩ B = {red}
element. There is a 1-1 correspondence. 3. A’ ∩ C = A'= Y,P,O {yellow, purple, and orange)
Ex: A = {1, 2, 3, 4,5}
B = {a, b, c, d,e}

3. Universal set - The universal set U is the set of all Symbol Meaning Example
elements under discussion. Union of Sets U a set containing Let A = { l,o,v,e },
Ex: A set of an English alphabet all elements that B = { o,v,e,r }
are in A or in B or Find A U B.
U = {a, b, c, d, ..., z} in both A and B. AUB= {l, o, v, e, r}

Intersection of ∩ the set that Let A = {1,2,3,4,5},

4. Joint Sets - Two sets, say A and B, are said to be joint Sets includes all those B = {4,5,6}.
sets if and only if they have common element/s. elements that are Find A ∩ B.
common to both AnB= {4,5}
A = {1, 2, 3} A and B
B = {2,4, 6}
Difference of - the set of all Let A = {f,a,t,e}
Here, sets A and B are joint set since they have common Two Sets elements of A and
A-B that are not B = {f,a,t}.
element such as 2. A minus B elements of B. Find A - B.
A - B = {e}

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Cartesian x two sets A and B Let A={1,2,3} and

product is the set B={c,d}.
AXB containing Find AxB.
A cross B ordered pairs AxB =
from A and B. {(1,c),(1,d),(2,c),
(2,d),(3,c),(3,d)}

Complement ’ a set A is the set Let U =

of the Set of all elements in {1,2,3,4,5,6} and
A' or A° the universal set A = {1,2,3}.
U, but not in A. Find A'.
the A = 14,5,6
complement
LESSON 4 : MATHEMATICAL LOGIC
of A ● Logic is the study of the principles of correct
reasoning. It helps us to differentiate correct
LESSON 3 : FUNCTIONS & RELATIONS reasoning from poor reasoning. Logic allows us
● A relation is a set of ordered pairs. The set of to determine the validity of arguments in and out
the first components of each ordered pair is of mathematics. It illustrates the importance of
called the domain and the set of the second precision and conciseness of the language of
components of each ordered pair is called the mathematics.
range. ● Mathematical Logic is a branch of mathematics
● Consider the following set of ordered pairs. The with close connections to computers. It includes
first numbers in each pair are the first five both the mathematical study of logic and the
natural numbers. The second number in each applications of formal logic to other areas of
pair is twice that of the first {(1,2), mathematics.
(2,4),(3,6),(4,8),(5,10)}
● The domain is {1,2,3,4,5} Symbolic Logic
● The range is {2,4,6,8,10} ● It is a powerful tool for analysis and
communication in mathematics.
● A function is a relation in which each possible ● It represents the natural language and
input value leads to exactly one output value. mathematical language with symbols and
We say, "the output is a function of the input." variables.
● The input values make up the domain, and the ● Logic is the basis of all mathematical reasoning,
output values make up the range. and of all automated reasoning.
● The rules of logic specify the meaning of
Relation is a function mathematical statements that help us
understand and reason with statements.

Statement or Propositional
● A statement or propositional is a declarative
sentence that is true or false but not both.
Propositional variables such as p,q,r,s, t, etc. are
used to represent propositions.

Relation is NOT a function Logical Connectives

● Mathematical statements may be joined by
logical connectives which are used to combine
simple propositions to form compound
statements.

These connectives are CONJUNCTION, DISJUNCTION,

IMPLICATION, BICONDITIONAL, and NEGATION.

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● The truth value of propositions is presented in a

truth table. A truth table displays the
relationships between the truth values of
propositions. Truth tables are especially valuable
in the determination of the truth values of
propositions constructed from simpler
propositions.

DEFINITIONS:
Let p and q be propositions. 5. BICONDITIONAL - The bi-conditional of the
propositions p and q is the compound statement “if p
1. CONJUNCTION - The conjunction of the propositions and only if q" denoted as p → q which is true only when
p and q is the compound statement "p and q" denoted both p and q have the same truth values.
as p^ q which is true only when both p and q are true,
otherwise, it is false.

LESSON 5 : CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS

Statement p→ q
2. DISJUNCTION - The disjunction of the propositions p If p, then q
and q is the compound statement "p or a" denoted as p
v q which is false only when both p and q are false, Converse q→ p
otherwise, it is true. If q, then p

Inverse ~p → ~ q
If not p, then not q

Contrapositive ~q → ~p
If not q, then not p

3. NEGATION - The negation of the statement p is If you will review your lessons, then you will pass the
denoted by -p where - is the symbol for "not". The truth exam
value of the negation is always the reverse of the truth P: You will review your lessans
value of the original statement. Q: You will pass the exam.
Converse : If Q then P
Inverse : If not P then not Q
Contrapositive : If not Q then not P

4. IMPLICATION - The implication of the propositions p

and q is the compound statement "If p, then q" denoted
as p → q which is false when p is true, and q is false.

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MODULE 3 : PROBLEM SOLVING AND REASONING ● uses patterns to arrive at a conclusion

What is mathematical reasoning? (conjecture)
● Mathematical reasoning is the critical skill that ● moves from specific to general
enables a student to make use of all other Deductive Reasoning is the process of reaching a
mathematical skills. With the development of conclusion by applying general assumptions,
mathematical reasoning, students recognize that procedures, or principles.
mathematics makes sense and can be ● Example 1. A is equal to B. B is also equal to C
understood. Therefore, A is equal to C.

What is mathematical reasoning in mathematics in the ● Example 2. All dolphins are mammals. All
modern world? mammals have kidneys.
● Inductive and deductive reasoning are two ● Therefore, all dolphins have kidneys.
fundamental forms of reasoning in mathematics.
● The formal theorems and proofs that we rely on Example 3. Elephants have cells in their bodies, and all
today all began with these two types of cells have
reasoning. Even today, mathematicians are DNA. Therefore, elephants have DNA.
actively using these two types of reasoning to
discover new mathematical theorems and
proofs.

Inductive reasoning is the process of reaching a general

conclusion by examining specific examples.

● Example 1. Use inductive reasoning to predict a

number:
a.) 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, ?
b.) 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, ? POLYA'S FOUR STEPS OF PROBLEM SOLVING
● Example 2. The chair in the living room is red. Polya's Four-Step Problem-Solving Strategy
The chair in the dining room is red. The chair in
the bedroom is red. All the chairs in the house 1. Understand the problem.
are red. 2. Devise a plan.
● Example 3. Every time you eat peanuts, you 3. Carry out the plan or Solve the
start to cough. You are allergic to peanuts. problem.
● Example 4. All brown dogs in the park today are 4. Check/Review the solution.
small dogs. Therefore, all small dogs must be
brown.
● Example 5. Consider the following procedure: Problem 1.
○ Pick a number. A car rental company charges P300 a day and P25 per
○ Multiply the number by 9 kilometer for renting a car. Helen rents a car for two
○ Add 15 to the product days, and her bill comes to P1260. How many kilometers
○ Divide the sum by 3 did she drive?
○ Subtract 5
Step 1. Understand the problem.
INDUCTIVE REASONING Given : P300/day - car rental
● The term inductive reasoning refers to reasoning P25/km - amount per km drove
that takes specific information and makes a P1260 - total bill she paid
broader generalization that is considered
probable while remaining open to the fact that Ask : How many kilometers did she drive?
the conclusion may not be 100% guaranteed.
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Step 2. Devise a Plan MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

Apply all possible strategies to solve the problem Mean
● Backward approach ● The mean of a quantitative data set is equal to
● Using Equation the sum of the values divided by the number of
● Guess and Check values in the data set.
● Trial and Error ● The arithmetic mean or simply the mean is the
average of the numerical data collected.
Step 3. Carry out the Plan ● It is often used in education, economics,
Solve the problem using a backward approach. meteorology, and inferential statistics.
● subtract the car rental fee from total bill divide
₱660 by ₱25 Median
₱1260 - ₱300(2) = ₱660 ● The middle value of an ordered data set, where
₱660 ÷ ₱25/km = 26. 4 km the data is arranged in ascending or descending
● Therefore, she drove 26.4 km. order.
● The median is of most value in describing large
Step 4. Check your solution data sets.
Check if the answer is correct. ● The median is useful when distributions are not
● add the car rental and the total amount she close to being symmetric or when extreme
drove values tend to pull the mean significantly up or
₱25(26.4) + ₱300(2) = ₱1260 down.
● find the sum check
₱660 + ₱600 = ₱1260 Mode
₱1260= ₱1260 ● The mode is the value or values that occur most
frequently in the data set.
Solve the problem using equation. ● The mode is particularly useful for describing
Let x - number of kilometers she drove qualitative data.
● write the equation
● use distributive property COMMON MEASURES OF DISPERSION
● use Addition Property of Equality (A.P.E.) Range
₱300(2) + ₱25(x) = ₱1260 ● Defined as the difference between the largest
₱600 + ₱25x = ₱1260 score in the data set and the smallest score in
₱25x = ₱1260 - ₱600 the data set.

Simplify and solve for x Variance

₱25x = ₱660 ● Defined as the average of the square deviations,
x = ₱660 ÷ ₱25/km that is, the sum of the squares of the differences
x = 26.4 km between the raw scores and the mean divided
by the sample size or the number of raw scores.

Standard Deviation
● The square root of the variance and absolute
measure of dispersion.

Coefficient of Variation
● The relative measure is known as the coefficient
of variation. It is obtained by dividing the
standard deviation by the mean and expressed
in percentage.

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MODULE 6: DATA MANAGEMENT LESSON 6.3.: TYPES OF ERRORS

LESSON 6.2.: INFERENTIAL STATISTICS

Inferential statistics involves drawing conclusions about

populations by examining samples. It allows us to make
inferences about the entire set, including specific
examples within it, based on information obtained from a
subset of examples. These inferences rely on the
principles of evidence and utilize sample statistics as a
basis for drawing broader conclusions.
In performing hypothesis testing, errors can be
Lesson 6.2.1. Hypothesis Testing committed. There are two types of errors that can be
● Hypothesis testing is the process of committed. The Type I error is committed when you
determining whether a hypothesis is true or not. reject the null hypothesis, Ho when in fact it is true. The
Hypothesis testing is simply trying to find out Type Il error is committed when you fail to reject the null
whether a given statement (the hypothesis), hypothesis, Ho when in fact it is false.
which expresses an idea or concept, is to be ● I - Reject null true
rejected or whether we fail to reject it. ● II - Accept null false
● A hypothesis is a statement that expresses an
idea or concept which needs to be proven true Level of Significance
or false. There are two types of hypotheses, the ● The probability of committing a Type I error is
null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis. referred to as the level of significance.
● The level of significance for a Type I error is
Lesson 6.2.2. Types of Hypothesis denoted by alpha, a and the probability of
NULL HYPOTHESIS committing a Type Il error is denoted by beta, B.
● The null hypothesis is denoted by Ho. It
expresses the idea of a non-significant Types of Test
difference. It is expressed as an equality. It 1. Two-tailed Test
states that a given distribution equals the norm ● The two-tailed test also known as the two-sided
or generally accepted standard. It states that two or non-directional type of test is used when the
distributions are equal when compared with researcher is only interested in knowing whether
each other. there is a difference between the groups being
● Ex. There is no significant difference between compared. It is indicated using the relational
the self-efficacy of male and female. operator, #, in the alternative hypothesis, Ha.
The two-tailed test has two critical values, a
ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS negative and a positive critical value. It has two
● The alternative hypothesis is denoted by Ha. It rejection regions.
expresses the idea of a significant difference. It
is expressed as an inequality using the f, >, or <.
i states that a given distribution is not equal to,
greater than or less than the norm or generally
accepted standard. It states that a distribution is
not equal to, greater than or less than another ●
distribution when compared with each other.
● Ex. There is a significant difference between the
self-efficacy of male and female.

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Lesson 6.3. Types of Statistical Test ● Accept Null Hypothesis if the computed value is
less than the tabular value.
● Reject Null Hypothesis if the computed value is
Test for Comparison Z-test
T-test greater than the tabular value.
ANOVA
LESSON 6.5.: STATISTICAL TEST
Determining the Degree of Correlation TEAST FOR COMPARISON AND
Relationship
T-TEST
For Prediction Linear Regression ● A t-test is a statistical test that is used to
Multiple Regression compare the means of two groups. It is often
used in hypothesis testing to determine whether
Test for Comparison & Chi-Square a process or treatment influences the population
Determining Relationship of interest, or whether two groups are different
from one another.
LESSON 6.4.: STEPS IN HYPOTHESIS TESTING
Types of t-Test
1. One-sample t-test - is used if there is one group
1. Formulate the null hypothesis (Ho) and the alternative
being compared against a standard value (e.g.,
hypothesis (Ha) .
comparing the acidity of a liquid to a neutral pH
of 7).
2. Set the level of significance.
2. Two-sample t-test - is used if the groups come
● Choose between 1% to 10% depending on the
from two different populations (e.g., two different
risk of error the researcher is willing to take. A
species, or people from two separate cities).
1% level of significance means the researcher is
3. Paired t-test - is used if the groups come from a
giving 1% error on his decision and that he is
single population (e.g., measuring before and
99% confident of his decision to be right.
after an experimental treatment).
3. Identify the statistical test.
Types of Testing
● either one-tailed or 2-tailed.
1. Two-tailed t-test - if you only care whether the
two populations are different from one another.
4. Determine the tabular value
2. One-tailed t-test - if you want to know whether
one population mean is greater than or less than
the other.

5. Compute for the required statistical test.

● Choose from the following formula whichever is
applicable. (either z or 1-test) p-value and critical value
● the p-value or probability value is the probability
6. Decide whether to accept or to reject the null of obtaining test results at least as extreme
hypothesis.
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observed during the test, assuming that the null

hypothesis is correct.
● whereas the critical values are the boundaries of
the acceptance region in a statistical test.

p-value and critical value

t-stat < Critical value or p-value ≥ a Fail to reject the null

hypothesis of the statistical test.

t-stat ≥ Critical value or p-value < a Reject the null

hypothesis of the statistical test.

The level of significance that most statisticians choose is

a = 0.05. This 0.05 means that, if you run the experiment
100 times, 4% of the times you will be able to reject the
null hypothesis and 95% you will not.

Z-TEST
● A z-test is a statistical test used to determine
whether two population means are different
when the variances are known, and the sample
size is large (n>30).

Also, z-test can be used if:

● Data points are independent from each other: In
other words, one data point isn't related or
doesn't affect another data point. ANOVA TEST
● Data are normally distributed. However; for large ● An ANOVA test is a statistical method that
sample sizes (over 30) this doesn't always analyzes variances to determine if the means
matter: from more than two populations are the same.
For example, you want to test several groups:
(1) A group of psychiatric patients are trying
three different therapies: counseling, medication,
and biofeedback. You want to see if one therapy
is more effective than the others.
(2) Students from different colleges take the
same exam. You want to see if one college is
inferior to the others.

Ray Punla | 13
Mathematics in the Modern World
1st year l 1st semester

Types of ANOVA Test

One-Way ANOVA
● The One-way ANOVA is used to determine
whether there are any statistically significant
differences between the means of three or more
independent (unrelated) groups. It will tell you
that at least two groups were different from each
other: But it won't tell you which groups were
different. In this case, you may need to run an
ad hoc test to tell you exactly which groups had
TEST FOR PREDICTION
a difference in means.
LINEAR REGRESSION
● Linear regression is used to look at the linear
Two-Way ANOVA (Without Replication)
relationship between one normally distributed
● Two groups, and the members of those groups
interval predictor (or more) and one normally
are doing more than one thing.
distributed interval outcome variable.
● For example, two groups of patients from
● Linear regression compares two variables x and
different hospitals undergoing two different
y to answer the question, "how does y charge
therapies.
with x?" The variables x and y are usually
plotted on the scatterplot and the function that
TEST OF DEGREE RELATIONSHIP
best explains the points on the scatterplot is
CORRELATION
obtained. This function is represented by a
● A correlation is used to see the relationship
straight line.
between two (or more) normally distributed
● The points might not fit the function exactly, the
interval variables.
points may not be on the line, but the aim is to
● The Pearson product-moment correlation
get as close as possible. Since the function is
coefficient is a measure of the strength of the
represented by a straightline, the function f will
linear relationship between two variables. It is
be of the form f(x) = mx + c for constants m and
referred to as Pearson's correlation or Pearson's
c.
r or simply as the correlation coefficient.
● In general, the equation of the regression line
● Pearson's r can range from -1 to 1. An r of -1
has the form predicted y = a + 6
indicates a perfect negative linear relationship
● **where a and b are constants. The constant a
between variables, an r of 0 indicates no linear
represents the y-intercept or the value when x =
relationship between variables, and an r of 1
0. The constant b represents the slope.
indicates a perfect positive linear relationship
between variables.
TEST FOR COMPARISON AND
DETERMINING RELATIONSHIP

CHI-SQUARE
A chi-square statistic is a test that measures how
expected
values compare to actual observed data. It is also
commonly
used for testing relationships between categorical
variables.

Ray Punla | 14