Republic of the Philippines

University of Eastern Philippines

Laoang Campus
Laoang, Northern Samar

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
Second Semester; SY 2023 – 2024

MODULES IN EL 102
(Structures of English)

ARLENE A. PADILLA,MALT
Subject Professor

Course Guide

Module 1 in Structures of English Arlene A. Padilla,MALT

About the Course
Welcome to EL 102 (Structures of English) class!
This is a course which provides pre-service English teachers with an in-depth
understanding of content knowledge on the grammatical concepts of the English language. It
focuses on developing their ability to use the phonological, lexical, syntactic, and semantic
structures of English in written and oral communication. It further equips them with skills in
explaining the form, meaning and use of various English language structure which are useful
in their role as future facilitators of language teaching and learning.

Our official time schedule is 1:00 – 2:30 PM TTh

Study Tips

How will you make the most of your learning in this subject? Here’s what you can do:

1. You are the captain of your own ship. It means that the success of your
accomplishment of all the activities/exercises in this subject will depend on how
you will manage to answer them.
2. Procrastination is a “no-no.” Manage your time well in reading the module as well
as in answering the exercises that follow. Take note, this is not the only module
that you need to attend to. You have other modules from your other subjects.
3. Be mindful of your study schedule. After having a study schedule per subject,
make a general study schedule for all of your subjects.
4. Take note of deadlines of submissions. However, it would be better if you can
submit ahead of time.
5. As you read the modules, you might encounter some words that are unfamiliar to
you, you may use a dictionary or open your Merriam-Webster App.
6. The modules contain concepts taken from different sources. Nevertheless, you
are still encouraged to utilize similar references to validate the ideas presented by
the authors in this module.
7. Keep your modules in good condition, the way we also keep our books and other
reading materials in a safe place.
8. In answering the exercises/activities, please bear in mind that you do not have to
copy what is directly stated in the module. Your answer should manifest more of
your understanding based on the higher order thinking skills, analysis, and
synthesis of the concepts. All parts of the module that need answers should be
submitted.
9. Be sure to submit your activities, outputs, and requirements through your
messenger or through this email add: [email protected]. After
submitting, send a private message telling me about what you have submitted
(what you submitted, date and time of submission).
10. While waiting for your journal or any requirement to be checked and returned,
work on the next module and make a draft for the meantime.
11. If there are clarifications related to the contents of the module, feel free to contact
me through our messenger group chat or text me to this number 09496453496.
However, please identify yourself on your first message.
12. It is a reality that you can always ask help from your parents, siblings, and friends
in answering your exercises/activities. However, the values of honesty, patience,
and perseverance should be exhibited by you my dear student. Remember, you
will be one of the English teachers in the future.

Module Organization

Module 1 in Structures of English Arlene A. Padilla,MALT

 The whole material for this course is comprised with four (4) modules. Each
module contains the following parts:

1. Module Number and Title

2. Topics
3. Let’s Do It (Learning Exercises)
4. Let’s Say Something (Reflections)
5. Let’s Take Note That… (Some Reminders)
6. References
***

“Don’t limit yourself. Many people limit themselves to what they can
do. You can go as far as your mind lets you. What you believe,
remember, you can achieve.”

*Mary Kay
Ash

Have a delightful experience as you journey on the

challenging world of the structures of English.

Module 1 in Structures of English Arlene A. Padilla,MALT

 MODULE 1
I. Word: The Definition and Criteria
Overview: This module focuses on the variety of ways on how words are formed
which includes some mechanisms and processes. This also tells us how meanings change
as word structure changes and how word meaning alters when used in different contexts.

Learning Outcomes: At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

a. discuss how words are formed; its mechanism and process; and
b. reflect on how word meaning changes when used in varied contexts.

Definition of Word

Word is a unit of language, consisting of one or more spoken sounds in their written
representation, that functions as a principal carrier of meaning. Words are composed of one
or more morphemes and are either the smallest units susceptible of independent use or
consist of two or three such units combined under certain linking conditions, as the loss of
primary accent that distinguishes the one-word blackbird (primary stress on “black”
and secondary on “bird”) from black bird (primary stress on both words). Words
are usually separated by spaces in writing, and are distinguished phonologically, as be
accent, in many languages.

I had a dream where an evil queen

forced me to eat a gigantic marshmallow.

When I woke up, my pillow was gone.

 React on what’s inside the sphere. How does it relate to the so-called
meaning of
“words”? Write your answer on a yellow paper. (10 pts.)

Seven Ways to Express New Meanings with Old Forms

1. Derivation. This is the creation of new words by the use of derivational

affixes.

1.1. Derivational vs. Inflectional Affixes

Module 1 in Structures of English Arlene A. Padilla,MALT

 Derivational and inflectional affixes are different in a number of ways. Inflectional
affixes have very customary or even obligatory use, and the word-types they form are
therefore very frequent and accustomed. There are relatively few such affixes and their
meanings are well predicted from the combination of the meaning of the affix and the word
or stem to which this is added. English noun plurals are an example. When a new noun is
pluralized in English by affixing the inflectional suffix /z/ (or its allomorphs), the result is a
meaning completely predictable from that of the nouns and the suffix. For this reason, except
for exceptional forms like children or geese, there is no need to include inflectional forms in
the dictionaries.

The use of derivational affixes, by contrast, is not obligatory, and occasions of their
use much less frequent. They tend to form words the meaning of which is narrower than that
of their parts. Result in nouns in English are an example. They tend to be formed with -ment,
for example government, the result of governing but settlement tends to mean the
result not just of settling but of settling a certain community. -Able forms adjectives
from verbs, in the meaning ‘able to be verbed as in readable, however, means not just
‘able to read’ but ‘able to read easily’. Unbalanced tends to mean not just ‘not
balanced’ but ‘mentally unbalanced insane.’ Thus derivational forms ordinarily must
be listed in dictionaries, with their particular meanings.

1.2. Heads and Modifiers in Derivational Affixing

One understanding that can be given to the fact that some derivational affixes seem
to bring about changes of part of speech is that they are actually, despite of being just
affixes, the heads of their words. Recall that in a noun phrase the head is a noun, and in a
verb phrase the head is the verb --- the head is the essential element of a phrase, toward
which other elements are modifiers. In this understanding, excitement would have the
structure at the left, the energize would have the structure at the right, below.

N V

excite -ment energy -ize

(V) (N) (N) (V)

That is, -ment is a sort of N, which obligatorily combines with verbs, and as the head
of its phrase naturally yields a noun. If -ize is a verb, as head of its construction with a noun
the result is a verb. Three English examples of recently noticed words newly formed by
derivation are: geosynchronous, cabledom, and energizer. Derivation is perhaps the
most common way to express new meanings in English, especially in technical fields
including computer science, medicine, and the physical and natural sciences, in which new
discoveries, new technology, and new ways of thinking are regular occurrences which
necessitate a ready means of communication.
2. Zero-derivation. This is also known as ‘ functional shift ‘ or ‘ conversion. ‘ Zero -
derivation is using a word as another part of speech, without any affix or change of form at
all. For example, a noun may be used as a verb or a verb may be used as a noun. This is

Module 1 in Structures of English Arlene A. Padilla,MALT

quite common in English, especially to get new verbs based on nouns and new nouns based
on verbs. Examples are trail, swim, fun, book, fish, and others. These words can be used as
verbs to nouns and vice versa.

3. Compounding. This is combining words a word. The meaning of the resulting

word is not predictable as the simple combination of the meanings of the two combined
words. Examples are greenhouse, soccer-mom, dry-clean, and others. Notice that word
structure here can be as one or hyphenated.

4. Extension. This is the widening or extending of the meaning of a word. Examples

are:

a. red – a person with socialist political/economic beliefs, as in “a red was elected

mayor.” The word red came to be associated with socialists because of the use of the color
red in flags and banners of the International Socialist movement.
b. silverware – are table utensils: knives, forks, etc. whether made of silver or not.
Manufacturers must use the word “tableware,” so as not to be seem to lie about their
product, which are usually stainless steel, but in ordinary usage many of us just say
“silverware,” sometimes even for the plastic versions.
c. holiday – customary day of no work, or in British English ‘ vacation ‘ or (days of no
work). The first part of holiday comes from ‘holy.’ On many ‘holy days’ there is or was
traditionally no work, and the term was extended to mean both religious and non-religious
work-less days.

5. Narrowing. This is the opposite of extension: the narrowing of the meaning of a

word. Examples are:

a. band ‘a group of persons, especially one which performs-music.’ The narrowed

meaning of band is the latter sense. The earlier broader meaning is found in phrases such
as ‘Robin (Hood) and his merry band’ and ‘band of outlaws,’ both of which now have
archaic ring, whereas the narrower meaning, in phrases like ‘a band concert’ and ‘the Bob
Seagal band’ seems completely ordinary. The meaning ‘group of persons’ has diminished
(replaced by group, party, in phrases like ‘a party of five’ and in colloquial language, bunch,
‘a bunch of kids’), except in the narrowing sense of ‘group of musicians. Naturally people
have begun to think band as concerning particularly this narrowed meaning.
b. building ‘something built to enclose and cover a large space.’ The verb build
clearly suggests the earlier broader meaning of building. The meaning result (or product) of
an act of building was narrowed to concern only a particular sort of product excluding cases
like fences and dams.
c. doctor ‘ one holding a doctorate degree in medicine or other field.’ The tendency of
ordinary language is for this word to mean specifically one holding a doctorate in medicine
(MD). Thus if a person faints at a college faculty meeting and the cry, “Get a doctor!” is
heard, all the doctors of chemistry, education, law, etc. don’t rush to offer assistance. The
narrowed sense has not become widespread enough, however, to replace the word
“physician.”

Euphemism. This is the extension of ordinary words and phrases to express

unpleasant or embarrassing ideas. The indirectness of form is felt to diminish the
unpleasantness of the meaning. The words so extended are called euphemisms, and some
examples are bathroom (often used in American English even for rooms without bathing
facilities), intercourse, undertaker, and dentures. Acronyms, clippings, derivations, and
compounds are also sources of euphemisms, as in VD, bra, pre-owned, and pass away,
respectively. Notice, in examples like intercourse and undertaker, the tendency for
euphemistic expressions to become narrowed and lose their broader sense, so that, in an
economic lecture, mentioning ‘intercourse between nations’ tends to distract the audience.

Module 1 in Structures of English Arlene A. Padilla,MALT

 6. Bifurcation. In bifurcation, a word or morpheme develops two forms and its
meaning eventually divided between the two forms. Bifurcations are cases of narrowing into
which often the original, broader, meaning survives in one of the forms. The two forms of
words which may lead to bifurcation are of three types: morphological, phonological, and
orthographic (spelled). Examples are:
a. Hanged and Hung are variant morphological forms of the past tense of hang. By
bifurcation, hanged tends to be favored (by some dictionaries and style manuals) in the
meaning ‘executed by hanging’ and hung is favored for other past tense senses of hang.
The regular form becomes the results from the analogical change, on the model of the
majority of regular verbs which form their past tense with –(e) d.
b. Some has two pronunciations each with a different meaning. Without stress, some
has become a plural indefinite article, the plural equivalent of some as in ‘I bought some
potatoes’ (notice that the meaning of the sentence is not significantly changed if
some is omitted). With stress, some has the meaning ‘certain (not all)’ as in, “I like some
potatoes (but not all), here the meaning is changed if some is omitted.
Homonyms and Synonyms. Homonyms and synonyms appear to be exceptions to
the one form/one meaning principle. Homonyms are cases of one form having two meanings
such as flower/flour, right/write however, they are usually distinguished by their spelling.
(There are also homographs, words with the same spelling but with different pronunciation
just like wind (n) and wind (v). On the other hand, synonyms are cases of one meaning
having two forms, like twelve and dozen, and sick and ill. But the two forms of so-called
synonyms rarely have just the same meaning: twelve and dozen, for example, ‘may seem
completely synonymous, but only one of these continues the series nine, ten, eleven, and
only one can be a baker’s dozen.

7. Backformation. It was noted that ‘wrong cutting’ can result in a slightly new
form for an old meaning, as in apron from napron and nuncle for uncle. But ‘wrong cutting’
can also result in a new meaning. This is called backformation. Examples are:
a. televise results from falsely analyzing television as televise plus the suffix -ion. In
fact, television comes from tele plus the noun vision. The false part televis, was taken to
be stem of a verb televise, a useful verb, which, as a result of this novel analysis, now
actually exists. Notice the logic of the word backformation to describe such a case instead of
the word television being formed forward from preexistent tele + vision, previously
nonexistent televise is formed back from television.
b. burger results falsely analyzing hamburger as ham + burger instead of historical
hamburg + -er. The original word hamburger was first applied to a sandwich at the 1891 St.
Louis World’s Fair, where it meant, ‘of the type of the city of Hamburg (Germany).’ People
sensibly understood the first part, Ham, to be the meat of the sandwich (even though it was
actually beef), which left -burger to refer to the type of sandwich, being a useful morpheme, it
survived and spread, and now we have fishburgers, cheeseburgers, etc.
***

Let’s Do It
(Note: Do the following activities on a yellow pad paper.)

Activity 1. Explain five of the following seven examples of new-word formation in

English.

Module 1 in Structures of English Arlene A. Padilla,MALT

 Follow the presentation of the given example. (3 pts. each)

Example: Compounding: Getalado’s talk-show is on at 4PM.

Explanation: talk and show are combined as one word with the specific
meaning “show based on talk”

1. Narrowing: Unfaithfulness is grounds for divorce.

2. Backformation: Don’t just sit there emoting.
3. Bifurcation: You can use this studio for dubbing the words.
4. Extension: Lansing is in Ingham County in Michigan.
5. Zero-Derivation: These trees are trying to root on the hillside.
6. Derivation: We need to anthemize our campaign.
7. Compounding: Carelessness in typing addresses results in a lot of oops-mail.

Activity 2. Give two sentences or phrases which illustrate the tendency in the following
words towards narrowing one sentence which illustrates the narrowed meaning, and one
which illustrates the older, broader meaning. Follow the presentation of the given
example. (5 pts. each)

Example: The word ‘demonstration’ tends to be narrowed to mean ‘public display

protest’ as in, “I’m going to a demonstration at the state capitol.” But the broader meaning ‘ a
performance’ of the verb demonstrate is also still effective, as in, “A chem lab demonstration
resulted in a small explosion.”

1. Operation 4. Criticism
2. Prescription 5. Readable
3. Conductor

Activity 3. For five of the following words, tell what type/s of new-word formation
they appear to illustrate, and explain your answers as in the example below: (3
pts. each)

Example: Korengate – backformation: -gate, from Watergate, is used as a

suffix meaning
‘scandal’

1. amorific - ‘extremely amorous’

2. Arkahoma - ‘general area of Arkansas and Oklahoma’
3. Carterphobia - ‘dislike of Jimmy Carter’
4. eco-activists - ‘activists for natural ecology’
5. gymnophillac - ‘extreme admirer of exercise’
6. kitchencamation -‘revival of an old recipe’
7. librarified - ‘filled with books’
8. petroglitter - ‘ostentatious oil wealth’
9. roadies - ‘those who follow rock bands on their road-tours’
10.space-bopper - ‘young admirer of space exploration’

Activity 4. Show the members of each pair slightly differ in meaning or usage by giving a
sentence in which they can be used but not the other. Also try to explain any slight difference
of meaning you find. Refer to the given example below:

Example: find, locate: Locate means ‘find’ but also ‘find a place to live,’ as in “We
want to relocate to the West Coast.” One can’t say, “We want to refind the west

Module 1 in Structures of English Arlene A. Padilla,MALT

coast.” One can say, “Hey, I found a dollar!” but not, “Hey, I located a dollar.” Locate means
‘find upon searching.’

1. ache, pain 6. little, small

2. aid, help 7. place, location
3. attractive, handsome 8. sad, unhappy
4. dinner, supper 9. teach, educate
5. big, large 10. too, also

References

Dichoso, M.C.S., et. al. (1999). English plus: Enhancing our basic grammar. Philippines:
Academic
Publishing Corporation.

Francis, W. Nelson. (1989). The structure of American English. New York: The Ronald
Press Company.

Fromkin, V. (1998). An introduction to language. USA: Harcourt Brace College Publishers.

Hudson, G. (2000). Introductory linguistics. Massachussets, USA: Blackwell Publishers,

Inc.

Serrano, J. B. and E. A. Bello. (1998). Better English for College. Quezon City: Phoenix
Publishing House, Inc.

Tayao, M. L., et. al. (1997). Applied linguistics for communication arts. Quezon City:
Office of Academic Support and Instructional Services.

Tejero, E.G. (2008). Doorways to English language proficiency. Navotas: Navotas Press.

Module 1 in Structures of English Arlene A. Padilla,MALT