1a) What do you understand by data communication and networking?

(5 marks)
a. Data communication and networking refer to the transmission of data between two or more devices or systems,
often over a distance. The goal is to enable effective communication and sharing of resources, including files,
messages, and applications, among interconnected devices or users.
b) Briefly explain the three different forces that have consistently driven the architecture and evolution of data
communications and networking. (12 marks)
1. Traffic Growth: Increasing volumes of data, voice, video, and web traffic require constant enhancements in
communication capacity.
2. Development of New Services: The demand for new and improved services, such as high-quality mobile
broadband and multimedia streaming, drives investment in advanced networking technologies.
3. Advances in Technology: Technological progress, including faster and cheaper computing, intelligent networks
with various QoS levels, and the prevalence of Internet and mobile devices, enables increased capacity and new
services.
c) Explain the 4 trends in technology that have improved the growing network devices and services in the 21st
century. (8 marks)
Q2a) Explain the 5 key elements of data communication model (10) marks)
 Message: This is the information or data that needs to be communicated from one point to another. It could be
text, images, audio, video, or any other form of digital data.
 Sender: The sender is the device or entity that initiates the communication by creating and transmitting the
message. It could be a computer, smartphone, sensor, or any other device capable of generating and sending data.
 Receiver: The receiver is the device or entity that receives the message sent by the sender. It could be another
computer, server, smartphone, or any device capable of receiving and processing data.
 Medium: The medium, also known as the channel or transmission medium, is the physical or virtual pathway
through which the message travels from the sender to the receiver. It could be a wired medium such as cables or
fiber optics, or a wireless medium such as radio waves or infrared signals.
 Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules and conventions that govern the format, timing, error checking, and other
aspects of communication between the sender and receiver. Protocols ensure that data is transmitted reliably and
efficiently across the network. Examples include TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) for
internet communication and HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) for web browsing.
b) List any 5 differences between IPv4 and IPv6 (10 marks)
1. Address Length:
 IPv4 uses 32-bit addresses.
 IPv6 uses 128-bit addresses, significantly expanding the address space.
2. Header Complexity:
 IPv4 headers are variable in length, ranging from 20 to 60 bytes.
 IPv6 headers have a fixed length of 40 bytes, simplifying processing.
3. Address Configuration:
 IPv4 typically requires manual or DHCP configuration.
 IPv6 supports auto-configuration, allowing devices to automatically obtain IP addresses.
4. Options and Extensions:
 IPv4 options are included in the header and can be processed by routers, adding complexity.
 IPv6 options are placed in separate extension headers, which are not usually processed by routers,
streamlining packet handling.
5. Security Features:
 IPv4 does not natively support packet encryption and authentication, requiring additional protocols like
IPsec.
 IPv6 has built-in support for IPsec, providing enhanced security for packet integrity and confidentiality.

c) Define network topology? (5 marks)

a. A network topology refers to the physical or logical layout of interconnected devices and links within a network.
It defines how nodes, such as computers, servers, switches, and routers, are arranged and connected to each other.
Q3a) What do you understand by transmission impairment? (5 marks)
Transmission impairment refers to the various factors that degrade the quality of a signal during its transmission over a
communication medium. These impairments can introduce errors and reduce the reliability of data transmission.
b) List and explain the 3 types of transmission impairment? (6 marks)
1. Attenuation: Loss of signal strength over distance.
2. Delay Distortion: Different parts of the signal arriving at different times.
3. Noise: Unwanted external signals interfering with the transmitted signal.

c) Briefly explain noise with its different categories (14 marks)

Noise in data transmission refers to unwanted signals that interfere with the communication signal.
Categories
1. Thermal Noise: Random noise caused by the movement of electrons in a conductor, related to temperature. It is
constant across all frequencies and unavoidable.
2. Intermodulation Noise: Occurs when different frequency signals mix together, creating additional unwanted
frequencies. This happens due to nonlinearities in the system.
3. Crosstalk: When a signal from one communication channel interferes with another. It's like hearing another
conversation on a phone line and can happen in various transmission media.
4. Impulse Noise: Sudden, high-amplitude spikes caused by external disturbances like lightning or equipment
malfunctions. This type of noise is particularly harmful to digital signals, causing errors.

Q4a) Describe the need for a protocol architecture. (5 marks)

1. The source system must either activate the direct data communication path or inform the communication network of
the identity of the desired destination
system.
2. The source system must ascertain that the destination system is prepared to receive data.
3. The file transfer application on the source system must ascertain that the file management program on the destination
system is prepared to accept and store the file for this particular user.
4. If the file formats used on the two systems are different, one or the other system
must perform a format translation function.
Q5a) Describe the Socket programming. (5 marks)
Socket programming allows for network communication between applications through endpoints called sockets. It
involves creating, binding, listening, connecting, and communicating using sockets
b) Describe how a socket works on a Client and Server Request (10 marks)
1. Creation: Both client and server create sockets.
2. Binding: The server binds its socket to a port number.
3. Listening: The server listens for incoming connections.
4. Connecting: The client connects to the server's socket.
5. Accepting: The server accepts the connection, creating a new socket for communication.
c) What are the benefits of fibre optics cables over other guided transmission mediums? (10 marks)
1. Higher Bandwidth: Faster data transmission rates.
2. Longer Distances: Less signal loss over long distances.
3. Immunity to Electromagnetic Interference: Stable and secure data transmission.
4. Better Security: Harder to tap into without detection.
5. Durability and Reliability: Resistant to environmental conditions and wear.
Q6. Differentiate between guided and unguided transmission medium with relevant examples.
 Physical Pathway: Guided media use physical pathways like cables, while unguided media propagate signals
through free space.
 Interference: Guided media are less susceptible to interference from external sources compared to unguided
media, which can be affected by environmental factors like weather and obstacles.
 Range: Guided media typically have a limited range based on the length of the cables, while unguided media can
transmit signals over longer distances, especially in the case of satellite communication and microwave links.
 Examples: Guided media include twisted pair, coaxial cable, and fiber optic cable, while unguided media include
radio waves, microwaves, and infrared waves.
List and explain 4 different types of network topologies with a diagram.
 2b. Bus Topology: In a bus topology, all devices are connected to a single communication line, known as a bus. Data
is transmitted along the bus, and each device receives the data simultaneously.

Star Topology: In a star topology, each device is connected directly to a central hub or switch. All data traffic passes
through the central hub, which manages communication between devices.

Ring Topology: In a ring topology, each device is connected to exactly two other devices, forming a closed loop or
ring. Data travels in one direction around the ring, with each device receiving and forwarding data to the next device
until it reaches its destination.

Mesh Topology: In a mesh topology, every device is connected to every other device in the network, forming a fully
interconnected web.

3b. Explain the layer of the TCP/IP Model.

1. Application Layer: Handles communication between user applications, like web browsers and email clients.
2. Transport Layer: Ensures reliable communication between devices, either through connection-oriented (TCP) or
connectionless (UDP) protocols.
 3. Internet Layer: Manages addressing and routing of data packets across interconnected networks, primarily using
the Internet Protocol (IP).
4. Link Layer: Establishes physical and logical connections between devices on the same local network, managing
data transmission over the physical medium.
4a. Explain 4 key factors affecting channel capacity.
 Bandwidth: This refers to the range of frequencies or data rates that a channel can support. The higher the
bandwidth, the greater the channel capacity, allowing for faster data transmission.
 Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR): SNR is the ratio of the strength of the signal to the strength of background noise
or interference. A higher SNR means clearer communication and higher channel capacity, as more data can be
reliably transmitted without errors.
 Channel Impairments: Various impairments such as attenuation, distortion, and dispersion can degrade signal
quality and reduce channel capacity. These impairments are often caused by factors like distance, physical
obstacles, and signal interference.
 Transmission Media: The type of transmission medium used, whether it's wired (e.g., copper cables, fiber
optics) or wireless (e.g., radio waves, microwaves), affects channel capacity.
4b. Define the fundamental frequency.
The fundamental frequency is the lowest frequency at which a system or object vibrates or oscillates. It represents the
primary harmonic component of a complex waveform and determines the perceived pitch of a sound or the fundamental
tone of a musical note.
4c. Define channel capacity.
Channel capacity refers to the maximum amount of data that can be reliably transmitted over a communication channel
within a given period.
5a. List and explain 3 different network types with regards to size.
 Local Area Network (LAN): LANs are designed to serve a specific geographic area, providing high-speed
connectivity and resource sharing among devices within that area.
 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): MANs cover a larger geographical area than LANs but are smaller than
wide area networks (WANs), typically spanning a city or metropolitan area.
 Wide Area Network (WAN): WANs cover the largest geographical area among the three types of networks,
spanning across cities, countries, or even continents.
b) Briefly explain the three different forces that have consistently driven the architecture and evolution of data
communications and networking
1. Traffic Growth: Increasing volume and variety of data traffic, including voice, data, images, and video.
2. Development of New Services: Continuous demand for new and enhanced services, such as mobile broadband
and high-quality video streaming.
3. Advances in Technology: Ongoing improvements in computing and communication technologies.
Differentiate between circuit switching and packet switching.
Feature Circuit Switching Packet Switching
Dedicated communication path established No dedicated path; data is sent in independent
Path before transmission packets
Data Continuous transmission without Data divided into packets; each packet sent
Transmission intermediate storage independently
Yes, requires setup phase to establish the
Setup Delay circuit No setup delay, packets are sent as they are ready
Transmission Variable delays due to network congestion and
Delay Negligible after setup store-and-forward nature
Bandwidth allocated dynamically based on
Bandwidth Fixed bandwidth reserved for entire session demand
Resource Less efficient, as the reserved path may be More efficient, as bandwidth is shared and utilized
Efficiency underutilized dynamically