Chapter 3

Photosynthesis is the process by which plants use sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide to create oxygen
and energy in the form of sugar.

The main function of photosynthesis is to allow plants to make their food by converting light energy from
the sun into chemical energy. The manufactured food is utilized for survival by plants and other living
things, including humans and animals.

6CO2 + 6H2O + sunlight → C6H12O6 + 6O2

Importance of Photosynthesis

There is a certain significance of photosynthesis, such as:

1. Photosynthesis helps plants to store light energy as chemical energy.

2. These chemical energies are used by animals and human beings when they consume plants, and
thus, indirectly, plants become the source of food and energy for them.
3. Enables the plants and different organisms to form the base of the food chain.
4. Due to the process of photosynthesis, plants consume carbon dioxide and leave out oxygen in
the atmosphere, because of which we survive the atmosphere.

the process of photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplasts, which absorbs light, in plants. Chloroplasts are
specially adapted to perform such a reaction and produce ATP energy, continuing the next stage of
photosynthesis.

Some adaptations of chloroplasts are:

• Grana – these are stacks of thylakoid membranes which contain photosynthetic

pigments, for example, chlorophyll. They are arranged as photosystems.
• Stroma – this is the fluid surrounding the grana which contains the
necessary enzymes required for the light-independent stage of photosynthesis.

Phases/ steps in Photosynthesis

1. Absorption of light
The very first step of the process of photosynthesis is the absorption of light by chlorophylls. These
chlorophylls are connected with proteins in the thylakoids sack of chloroplasts. Moreover, the absorbed
light converts itself into energy, and then it is used for eliminating the electrons from the water, which is
an electron donor to form oxygen. Then, these eliminated electrons pass to a major electron acceptor
known as Quinine.

2. Transfer of electron
After the transfer of electrons to the electron acceptors, they get transferred to the final electron acceptor,
an NADP positive. They are transferred by the process known as the chain of electron transfer, in which
the molecules exist in the thylakoid membrane.

3. Production of ATP
When electrons are transferred to the final acceptor, it moves out to the stroma of the plant from the
thylakoid lumen by the complex process of F0F1. This results in the production of ATP, which is the most
important source of energy in a plant's biological process. This ATP production is solely utilized during
synthesis and is dependent on light.
4. Carbon fixation
The formed NADP and ATP produce the energy. The process of reducing carbon occurs by the electrons
into the six-carbon molecules. All the above three steps are known as light reactions, while this carbon
fixation is light-independent, and thus, they are called dark reactions. This process is also known as the
Calvin Cycle.

Stomata are the tiny openings present on the epidermis of leaves. Stomata can be observed under the
light microscope. In some of the plants, stomata are present on stems and other parts of plants. Stomata
play an important role in gaseous exchange and photosynthesis. The pore is bordered by a pair of
specialized parenchyma cells known as guard cells that regulate the size of the stomatal opening.
Calvin Cycle

In plants, carbon dioxide enters the interior of a leaf via pores called stomata and diffuses into the
stroma of the chloroplast—the site of the Calvin cycle reactions, where sugar is synthesized. These
reactions are also called the light-independent reactions because they are not directly driven by light.
In the Calvin cycle, carbon atoms from CO2 are fixed (incorporated into organic molecules) and used to
build three-carbon sugars. This process is fueled by, and dependent on, ATP and NADPH from the light
reactions. Unlike the light reactions, which take place in the thylakoid membrane, the reactions of the
Calvin cycle take place in the stroma (the inner space of chloroplasts).
Phases of Calvin Cycle

1. Carbon fixation. A CO2 molecule combines with a five-carbon acceptor molecule, ribulose-1,5-
bisphosphate (RuBP). This step makes a six-carbon compound that splits into two molecules of a
three-carbon compound, 3-phosphoglyceric acid (3-PGA). This reaction is catalyzed by the
enzyme RuBP carboxylase/oxygenase, or rubisco.

2. Reduction. In the second stage, ATP and NADPH are used to convert the 3-PGA molecules into
molecules of a three-carbon sugar, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P). This stage gets its name
because NADPH donates electrons to, or reduces, a three-carbon intermediate to make G3P.

3. Regeneration. Some G3P molecules go to make glucose, while others must be recycled to
regenerate the RuBP acceptor. Regeneration requires ATP and involves a complex network of
reactions, which my college bio professor liked to call the "carbohydrate scramble."

In order for one G3P to exit the cycle (and go towards glucose synthesis), the CO2 molecules
must enter the cycle, providing three new atoms of fixed carbon. When three CO2 molecules
enter the cycle, six G3P molecules are made. One exits the cycle and is used to make glucose,
while the other five must be recycled to regenerate three molecules of the RuBP acceptor.

Summary of Calvin cycle reactants and products

Three turns of the Calvin cycle are needed to make one G3P molecule that can exit the cycle and go
towards making glucose. Let’s summarize the quantities of key molecules that enter and exit the Calvin
cycle as one net G3P is made. In three turns of the Calvin cycle:

• Carbon. 3 CO2 combine with 3 RuBP acceptors, making 6 molecules of glyceraldehyde-3-

phosphate (G3P).

• 1 G3P molecule exits the cycle and goes towards making glucose.
 • 5 G3P molecules are recycled, regenerating 333 RuBP acceptor molecules.

• ATP. 9 ATP are converted to 9 ADP (6 during the fixation step, 3 during the regeneration step).

• NADPH. 6 NADPH are converted to 6 NADP+ (during the reduction step).

A G3P molecule contains three fixed carbon atoms, so it takes two G3Ps to build a six-carbon glucose
molecule. It would take six turns of the cycle, or 6 CO2, 18 ATP, and 12 NADPH, to produce one molecule
of glucose.

Glycolysis, means "splitting sugars", is the process of releasing energy within sugars. In the process of
glycolysis, a six-carbon sugar known as glucose will split into two molecules of a three-carbon sugar
called pyruvate. This multistep process yields two ATP molecules containing free energy, two pyruvate
molecules, two high energy, electron-carrying molecules of NADH, and two molecules of water.

Glycolysis

• Glycolysis is the process of breaking down glucose.

• Glycolysis can take place with or without oxygen.
• Glycolysis produces two molecules of pyruvate, two molecules of ATP, two molecules of NADH,
and two molecules of water.
• Glycolysis takes place in the cytoplasm.
• There are 10 enzymes involved in breaking down sugar. The 10 steps of glycolysis are organized
by the order in which specific enzymes act upon the system.

Glycolysis can occur with or without oxygen. In the presence of oxygen, glycolysis is the first stage
of cellular respiration. In the absence of oxygen, glycolysis allows cells to make small amounts of ATP
through a process of fermentation.

Glycolysis takes place in the cytosol of the cell's cytoplasm. A net of two ATP molecules are produced
through glycolysis (two are used during the process and four are produced.) Learn more about the 10
steps of glycolysis below.
Step 1
The enzyme hexokinase phosphorylates or adds a phosphate group to glucose in a cell's cytoplasm. In
the process, a phosphate group from ATP is transferred to glucose producing glucose 6-phosphate or
G6P. One molecule of ATP is consumed during this phase.

Step 2
The enzyme phosphoglucomutase isomerizes G6P into its isomer fructose 6-phosphate or F6P.
Isomers have the same molecular formula as each other but different atomic arrangements.

Step 3
The kinase phosphofructokinase uses another ATP molecule to transfer a phosphate group to F6P in
order to form fructose 1,6-bisphosphate or FBP. Two ATP molecules have been used so far.

Step 4
The enzyme aldolase splits fructose 1,6-bisphosphate into a ketone and an aldehyde molecule. These
sugars, dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (GAP), are isomers of
each other.

Step 5
The enzyme triose-phosphate isomerase rapidly converts DHAP into GAP (these isomers can inter-
convert). GAP is the substrate needed for the next step of glycolysis.

Step 6
The enzyme glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) serves two functions in this
reaction. First, it dehydrogenates GAP by transferring one of its hydrogen (H⁺) molecules to the oxidizing
agent nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD⁺) to form NADH + H⁺.
Next, GAPDH adds a phosphate from the cytosol to the oxidized GAP to form 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate
(BPG). Both molecules of GAP produced in the previous step undergo this process of dehydrogenation
and phosphorylation.

Step 7
The enzyme phosphoglycerokinase transfers a phosphate from BPG to a molecule of ADP to form
ATP. This happens to each molecule of BPG. This reaction yields two 3-phosphoglycerate (3 PGA)
molecules and two ATP molecules.

Step 8
The enzyme phosphoglyceromutase relocates the P of the two 3 PGA molecules from the third to the
second carbon to form two 2-phosphoglycerate (2 PGA) molecules.

Step 9
The enzyme enolase removes a molecule of water from 2-phosphoglycerate to form
phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP). This happens for each molecule of 2 PGA from Step 8.

Step 10
The enzyme pyruvate kinase transfers a P from PEP to ADP to form pyruvate and ATP. This happens
for each molecule of PEP. This reaction yields two molecules of pyruvate and two ATP molecules.

Laboratory Activity. Stomata Structure

Materials

Sample of leaf
Clear tape
Clear nail polish
Microscope slide

Methodology

1. Get two leaf samples from the same plant. One leaf will be use for the upper and the other for the
lower part.
2. Place a small piece of tape in the leaf. Make an excess tape outside the leaf.
3. Put clear nail polish within the part with tape and extend it to the part without tape.
4. Do this in both lower and upper parts of the leaf samples.
5. Let the polish applied dry.
6. Gently pull the excess tape.
7. View under microscope.
8. Observe the appearance of the stomata in both lower and upper leaf samples.