FRCR Physics Lecture no 2

Eslam Kamal
Outlines

The physics of X-ray imaging

• Production of X-rays
• Interaction with matter
• Screen film radiography
• Digital radiography
1.1 - Production of X-rays
Overview
1. A current is passed through the tungsten filament and heats it up.
2. As it is heated up the increased energy enables electrons to be released
from the filament through thermionic emission.
3. The electrons are attracted towards the positively charged anode and hit
the tungsten target with a maximum energy determined by the tube
potential (voltage).
4. As the electrons bombard the target they interact via Bremsstrahlung
and character interactions which result in the conversion of energy
into heat (99%) and x-ray photons (1%).
5. The x-ray photons are released in a beam with a range of energies (x-ray
spectrum) out of the window of the tube and form the basis for x-ray
image formation.
 1. X-ray production at the anode
The electrons hit the anode with a maximum kinetic energy of the kVp and
interact with the anode by losing energy via:
• Elastic interaction: rare, only happens if kVp < 10 eV. Electrons
interact but conserve all their energy
• Ineleastic interaction: causes excitation/ionization in atoms and
releases energy via electromagnetic (EM) radiation and thermal energy
Interactions
At the anode, electrons can interact with the atoms of the anode in several
ways to produce x-ray photons.
1. Outer shell interaction: low energy EM released and quickly converted
into heat energy
2. Inner shell interaction: produces characteristic radiation
3. Nucleus field interaction: aka Bremsstahlung
Characteristic X Ray
is called "characteristic" as the energy of emitted electrons is
dependent upon
the anode material, not on the tube voltage. Energy is released in
characteristic values corresponding to the binding energies of
different shells.
For tungsten:
Ek - El (aka Kα) = 59.3 keV
Ek - Em (aka Kβ) = 67.6 keV
2. Bremsstrahlung
1. Bombarding electron approaches the nucleus.
2. Electron is diverted by the electric field of the nucleus.
3. The energy loss from this diversion is released as a photon
(Bremsstrahlung radiation).
Bremsstrahlung causes a spectrum of photon energies to be released. 80% of
x-rays are emitted via Bremsstrahlung. Rarely, the electron is stopped
completely and gives up all its energy as a photon. More commonly, a series
of interactions happen in which the electron loses energy through several
steps.

• Except
in mammography, 80% or more of the X-rays emitted
by a diagnostic X-ray tube are bremsstrahlung.
3.X-ray spectrum
The resulting spectrum of x-ray photon energies released is shown in the
graph. At specific photon energy, there are peaks where more x-rays are
released. These are at the characteristic radiation energies and are different
for different materials. The rest of the graph is mainly Bremsstrahlung, in
which photons with a range of energies are produced. Bremsstrahlung
accounts for the majority of x-ray photon production.
Beam quality: the ability of the beam to penetrate an object or the energy of
the beam.
Beam quantity: the number of x-ray photons in the beam
 Accelerating potential

The accelerating potential is the voltage applied

across the tube to create the negative to
positive gradient across the tube and accelerate
the electrons across the anode. It is normally
50-150 kV for radiography, 25-40 kV for
Mammography, and 40-110 kV for fluoroscopy.
UK mains supply is 230 V and 50 Hz of
alternating current. When the charge is
negative the accelerating potential is reversed
(the cathode becomes positive and the anode
becomes negative). This means that the
electrons are not accelerated towards the
anode
To produce an x-ray beam. Ideally, you want a
uniform output with a constant
charge. This is done by rectification.
Full-wave rectification: the use of a rectification circuit to convert negative
into positive voltage. However, there are still points at which the voltage is
Zero, and most of the time it is less than the maximum kV (kVp). This would
lead to a lot of lower energy photons.
Rectification is achieved via two mechanisms:
1. Three-phase supply: three electrical supplies are used, each applied at a
different time. The "ripple" (difference between maximum and
minimum current) is about 15% of the kVp.
2. High-frequency generator: this can supply an almost constant potential.
The supply is switched on and off rapidly (14kHz) which can then be
rectified. They are much more compact than three-phase supply and
more commonly used.
Effect of rectification on the spectrum
• Increased mean photon energy – fewer photons of lower energy
Increased x-ray output – stays closer to the maximum for a longer
Shorter exposure - as output higher, can run exposure for shorter
time to
get same output
• Lower patient dose - increased mean energy means fewer low
energy
photons that do not contribute to the final image
1.2 - Production of X-rays
GLASS ENCLOSURE
􀂃 Necessary to seal the two electrodes of the x-ray tube in a vacuum.
􀂃 The vacuum → allows number & speed electrons to be controlled
independently.
􀂃 The connecting wires must be sealed into the glass wall of the x-ray tube.
􀂃 Special alloys, having approximately the same coefficients of linear
expansion as Pyrex
glass, are generally used in x-ray tubes
Cathode
Filament
• Made of thin (0.2 mm) tungsten wire because tungsten:
• has a high atomic number (A 184, Z 74)
• is a good thermionic emitter (good at emitting electrons)
• can be manufactured into a thin wire has a very high melting temperature
(3422°c)
• The size of the filament relates to the size of the focal spot. Some
cathodes have two filaments for broad and fine focusing.
• As current passes through the filament, the atomic and electronic motion
in metal is sufficiently violent to enable a fraction of the free electrons to
leave the surface despite the net attractive pull of the lattice of positive
ions.
• The electrons are then repelled by the negative cathode and
attracted by the positive anode. Because of the vacuum, they
are not hindered in any way and bombard the target with a
velocity around half the speed of light.

Tungsten is chosen for use in x-ray tubes, because:

1. It can be drawn into a thin wire that is quite strong.
2. Has a high melting point (3370° C).
3. Has little tendency to vaporize.
∴ Tungsten filament has a reasonably long life expectancy
When current flows through tungsten wire → heated → its atoms absorb thermal
energy→ some of the electrons acquire energy → move a small distance from the metal
surface → form a small cloud in the vicinity of the filament “the space charge”.
􀂃 The electron cloud, produced by thermionic emission, is also termed "Edison effect".
tube potentials enable larger x-ray tube current for
the same filament current; for instance, for the same
filament current of 5 A at 80 kV, a tube current of 800
mA is produced, whereas at 120 kV a tube current of
about 1,100 mA results.
SATURATION VOLTAGE
• If the potential applied across the tube is insufficient to cause almost all electrons to be
pulled away from the filament when they are emitted → Space Charge Effect: a cloud of
negative charges tend to prevent other electrons from being emitted from the filament
until they have acquired sufficient thermal energy to overcome the force caused by the
space charge → limits the number of electrons → limits X-ray tube current.

• Below the saturation point,

􀂃 The tube current is limited by the space charge effect (space-charge-limited).
􀂃 ↑↑ kV → significant ↑↑ in x-ray tube current although filament heating is the same.
• Above the saturation voltage,
􀂃 The space charge effect has no influence on the x-ray tube current.
􀂃 The tube current is determined by the number of electrons made available by the
heated filament (emission-limited or temperature-limited).
􀂃 ↑↑ kV → very little change in tube current
Focusing cup
• Made of molybdenum as high melting point
• poor thermionic emitter so electrons aren't released to interfere with
an electron beam from the filament
• Negatively charged to focus the electrons towards the anode and
stop spatial spreading
Cathode focusing cup:
􀂃 Surrounds the filament & maintained at the same
negative potential as the filament.
So, its electrical forces cause the electron stream
to converge onto the target anode in the required
size and shape → prevent bombardment of a large
area on the anode caused by mutual repulsion of
the electrons (Figs. 2-2 and 2-4).
􀂃 The focusing cup is made of nickel.
􀂃 Modern x-ray tubes may be supplied with a single
or, more commonly, a double filament (Fig. 2-2).
GRID-CONTROLLED X-RAY TUBES
• Conventional x-ray tubes contain two electrodes (cathode and anode).
• The grid-controlled tube has a 3rd electrode → control the flow of electrons from the
filament to the target.
The third electrode is the focusing cup that surrounds the filament.
• In conventional x-ray tubes a focusing cup is electrically connected to the filament.
• In the grid-controlled tube, the focusing cup is electrically negative relative to the
filament .
􀂃 The voltage across the filament grid produces an electric field along the path of the
electron beam → pushes the electrons even closer together.
􀂃 If the voltage is large enough → the tube current may be completely pinched off "act
like a on & off switch for the tube current → used in cinefluorography".
Anode
• Target made of tungsten for the same reasons as for filament
Rhenium added to tungsten to prevent cracking of anode at high
temperatures and usage
• Set into an anode disk of molybdenum with stem
Positively charged to attract electrons
• Set at an angle to direct x-ray photon beam down towards patient. Usual
angle is 5º - 15º or 7 to 20º
Stationary anode: used in mobile fluoroscopy, dental radiology, and ward
radiography. Consists of an anode fixed in position with the electron beam
constantly streaming onto one small area.
Rotating anode: used in most radiography. Consists of a disc with a thin
bevelled rim of tungsten around the circumference that rotates at 50 Hz.
Because it rotates it overcomes heating by having different areas exposed
to the electron stream over time. It consists of:
• Molybdenum disk with thin tungsten target around the circumference
• Molybdenum stem, which is a poor conductor of heat to prevent heat
transmission to the metal bearings
• Silver lubricated bearings between the stem and rotor that have no
effect on heat transfer but allow very fast rotation at low resistances
Blackened rotor to ease heat transfer (it is also used in angiography and
positively cooled)
Stationary Anode:
􀂃 Consists of a small plate of tungsten "target" embedded in a large mass of copper.
􀂃 Target is 2-3 mm thick, square or rectangular in shape, >1 cm in dimensions.
􀂃 The anode angle is usually 15 to 20°.
􀂃 Tungsten is chosen as the target material for several reasons.
1. It has a high atomic number (74) → more efficient for the production of x rays.
2. Withstand the high temperature produced "high melting point = 3370° C".
3. Reasonably good for the absorption & rapid dissipation of heat.
However, it cannot withstand the heat of repeated exposures → the massive copper
anode acts to ↑↑ the total thermal capacity of anode and to speed its rate of cooling.
􀂃 The actual size of the tungsten target > the area bombarded by the electron stream (Fig.
2-4) because copper has a relatively low melting point (1070° C) → the heat produced
could melt the copper in the immediate vicinity of the target.
􀂃 Tungsten and copper have different expansion coefficients on heating → needs
satisfactory bonding otherwise the tungsten target would peel away from copper anode.
 ROTATING ANODE TUBE
􀂃 Rotating anode is used to produce x-ray tubes capable of withstanding the heat generated
by large exposures.
􀂃 The anode assembly, seen in cross-section, consists of:
􀂃 An anode disk, 7-10 cm or more in diameter.
􀂃 A thin molybdenum stem.
􀂃 A blackened copper rotor is "part of the induction motor which rotates the target stem".
􀂃 Bearings, lubricated with a soft metal such as silver.
􀂃 An axle, sealed into the glass envelope, supports the target assembly.

The anode of a rotating anode tube consists of a large disc of tungsten or an alloy
of tungsten "tungsten-rhenium alloy" → with better thermal characteristics than
pure tungsten and does not roughen with use as quickly.
 Typical disc diameters measure 75, 100, or 125 mm.
The diameter of the tungsten disc determines the total length of the target track→
affects the maximum permissible loading of the anode.
 The anode rotates at a speed of about 3600 revolutions per minute (rpm)
using singlephase mains supply.
Any area of the tungsten disc is found opposite the electron stream only once
every 1/60 sec & during the remainder of the time heat generated during the
exposure can be dissipated
Definitions
Target, focus, focal point, focal spot: where electrons hit the anode
Actual focal spot: physical area of the focal track that is impacted
Focal track: portion of the anode where the electrons bombard. On a rotating anode this is
a circular path
Effective focal spot: the area of the focal spot that is projected out of a
tube
Anode angles
Field coverage and effective focal spot length vary with the anode
angle. A. A large anode angle provides good field coverage at a given
distance; however, to achieve a small effective focal spot, a small
actual focal area limits power loading. B. A large anode angle provides
good field coverage, and achievement of high-power loading requires a
large focal area; however, geometric blurring and image degradation
occur. C. A small anode angle limits field coverage at a given distance;
however, a small effective focal spot is achieved with a large focal area
for high power loading.
How the anode cools
􀂃 The heat produced on the focal track → conducted quickly and stored temporarily
in the anode disk → transferred by radiation to the insulating oil → stored
temporarily then transferred by convection to the housing → lost by radiation and
by fan-assisted convection through the surrounding air.
􀂃 The molybdenum stem is sufficiently long and narrow to control the amount of heat
that is conducted to the rotor → so that it is not in danger of overheating.
• Heat radiation is promoted by blackening the anode assembly.
• High-powered tubes used in CT & angiography pump the oil through an external heat
exchanger
 This is the major limitation of x-ray production.
Heat (J) = kVe x mAs
or
Heat (J) = w x kVp x mAs
Key:
kVe = effective kV
w = waveform of the voltage through the x-ray tube. The more uniform the
waveform the lower the heat production
kVp = peak kV
mAs = current - exposure time product
Heat is normally removed from the anode through radiation through the
vacuum and into the conducting oil outside the glass envelope. The
molybdenum stem conducts very little heat to prevent damage to the metal
bearings.
Heat capacity
A higher heat capacity means the temperature of the material rises only a
small amount with a large increase in heat input.
Temperature rise = energy applied / heat capacity
Tube rating
Each machine has a different capacity for dissipating heat before damage is
caused. The capacity for each focal spot on a machine is given in tube rating
graphs provided by the manufacturer. These display the maximum power (kV
and mA) that can be used for a given exposure time before the system
overloads.
The maximum allowable power decreases with:
• Lengthening exposure time
• Decreasing effective focal spot size (heat spread over a smaller
area)
Larger target angles for a given effective focal spot size (for a given
effective focal spot size the actual focal spot track is smaller with
larger anode angles.
This means the heat is spread over a smaller area and the
rate of heat dissipation is reduced)
• Decreasing disk diameter (heat spread over smaller
circumference and area)
• Decreasing speed of disk rotation
Other factors to take into consideration are:
By using a higher mA the maximum kV is reduced and vice
versa.
A very short examination may require a higher power to
produce an adequate image. This must be taken into
consideration as the tube may not be able to cope with that
amount of heat production over such a short period of time.
Anode cooling chart
As well as withstanding high temperatures an anode must be able to
release the heat quickly too. This ability is represented in the anode
cooling chart. It shows how long it takes for the anode to cool down
from its maximum level of heat and is used to prevent damage to
the anode by giving sufficient time to cool between exposures.
Anode heel effect
An x-ray beam gets attenuated on the way out by the target material itself causing a
decrease in intensity gradually from the cathode to anode direction as there is more of
the target material to travel through.
Therefore, the cathode side should be placed over the area of greatest density as this
is the side with the most penetrating beam. Decreasing the anode angle gives a
smaller effective focal spot size, which is useful in imaging, but a largest
anode heel effect.
This results in a less uniform and more attenuated beam.
Smaller angle = smaller focal spot size but larger anode heel
effect
Others
Window: made of beryllium with aluminum or copper to filter out the soft x-rays. Softer (lower energy) x-
ray photons contribute to patient dose but not to the image production as they do not have enough
energy to pass through the patient to the detector. Therefore, to reduce this redundant radiation dose
To the patient, these x-ray photons are removed.
Glass envelope: contains vacuum so that electrons do not collide with anything other than target.
Insulating oil: carries heat produced by the anode away via conduction.
Filter: Total filtration must be >2.5 mm aluminum equivalent (meaning that
the material provides the same amount of filtration as a >2.5 mm thickness of
aluminum) for a >110 kV generator
Total filtration = inherent filtration + additional filtration
(removable filter)
Producing an x-ray beam

1. Electrons produced: thermionic emission

A current is applied through the cathode filament, which heats up and
releases electrons via thermionic emission. The electrons are accelerated
towards the positive anode by a tube voltage applied across the tube. At the
anode, 99% of energy from the electrons is converted into heat and only 1%
is converted into x-ray photons.
Filament current
The current (usually 10 A) heats up the filament to impart enough energy to
the electrons to be released i.e. it affects the number of electrons released.
Tube current
This is the flow of electrons to the anode and is usually 0.5 - 1000 mA.
Summary
• Filament current is applied across the tungsten cathode filament
(10 A) and affects the number of electrons released.
• Tube current is applied across the x-ray tube from cathode to anode
and affects the energy and number of electrons released.
 LINE FOCUS PRINCIPLE
􀂃 The actual focal spot is the area of the tungsten target bombarded by electrons from the
cathode→ the area over which heat is produced and which determines the tube rating (see
Section 2.7.3).
􀂃 The size and shape of the focal spot are determined by the size and shape of the electron
stream when it hits the anode.
The size and shape of the electron stream are determined by 1) the dimensions of the
filament tungsten wire coil, 2) the construction of the focusing cup "also called electron
lens", and 3) the position of the filament in the focusing cup.
The problems posed by
1) The need for a large focal spot to allow greater
heat loading.
2) The conflicting need for a small focal area to
produce good radiographic detail, as larger focal
area will lead to blurring of the image "geometrical
blurring".
􀂃 The line focus principle (Figure 2-3) → the
surface of target is inclined so that it forms an
angle with the plane ⊥ to incident beam.
􀂃 The target anode angle = 6 - 20°.
If it is 17° and the effective focal spot is 1x 1 mm, the actual focal spot must be 4x1mm.
Thank you