CHAPTER

SIX
SÊNSORS IN ROBOTICS

In Chap. Three, we discussed various sensor devices used as components of

the robot control system. These devices included position sensors such a
resolvers and encoders, and velocity sensors such as tachometers. Sensors can
also be used as peripheral devices for the robot, just as end effectors discussed
in Chap. Five are used as peripheral devices. Most industrial applications
require that sensors be employed in this way in order for the robot to operate
with other pieces of equipment in the workcell.
In this chapter we consider the various types of sensors that are used as
peripheral devices in robotics and the reasons why they are needed. We begin
with a general discussion of transducers and sensors, then examine the sensors
that are most commonly employed in robot applications. The final section n
the chapter describes the four major categories of uses of sensor systems
robotics.

TRANSDUCERS AND SENSORS

A transducer is a device that converts one type of physical
variable (e.g.
another form. A
force, pressure, temperature, velocity, flow rate, etc.) into for makingthe
common conversion is to electrical voltage, and the reasonuse and evaluate.
conversion is that the converted signal is more Convenient to physical
measurement of a include
A sensor is a transducer that is used to make a transducers (tem-
variable of interest. Some of the common Sensors andthermocouples
Strain gauges used to measure force and pressure), (flow rates). as a
peratures), speedometers (velocity), and Pitot tubes order to be useful
Any sensor or transducer requires calibration in

144
 SENSORS IN ROBOTICs 145

measuring device. Calibration is the procedure by which the relationship

between the measured vaariable and the converted output signal is established.
Transducers and sensors can be classified into two basic types depending
onthe form
of the converted signal. The two types are:
1. Analog transducers
2. Digital transducers

transducers provide a continuous analog signal such

as electrical
Analog current. This signal can then be interpreted as the value of the
voltage or produce a digital
variable that is being measured. Digital transducers series of
physical
either in the form of a set of parallel status bits or a
output signal, represents the
form, the digital signal
e that can be counted. In either transducers are becoming more
measured variable. Digital
alue of the read as separate measuring
because of the ease with which they can be automation and process
popular the advantage in
instruments. In addition, they offer compatible with the digital computer than
control that they are generally more
analog-based sensors.
useful as measuring devices, in robotics and in other
In order to be
possess certain features. Some of the desirable
applications, sensors must 6-1.
of sensors and transducers are presented in Table
features must
engineering
sensors have all of these desirable features, and acompromise
Few if any
made among them to select the best sensor for a given application.
be

Table 6-1 Desirable features of sensors

should be as high as possible. Accuracy 1s
ACwacy. The accuracy of the measurement
variable can be sensed with no systemattc
merpreted to mean that the true value of the
Over manymeasurements of the varnable,
Puve Or negative errors in the measurement. sensed value will tend to be Zero.
ue average error between the actual value and the
Precision means
measurement should be as high as possible.
that tkhe precision of the measured variable. The dispersion in the
valuerS i e or no random variability in the
vaues of a series of measurements will be minim1zed.
3. Operating range. The sensor should possess a wide operating range and should be accurate
and precise over the
entire range.
4. Speed of response. The transducer should be capable of responding to changes in the
sensed variable in minimum time. Ideally, the response would be instantaneous.
5.
Calibration,theThecalibration
accomplish sensor should be easy to calibrate. The time and trouble required to
procedure should be minimum. Further, the sensor should not
Tequiinre accuracy
loss frequent recalibration. The term "drift" is commonly applied to denote the gradual
6. of the sensor with time and use, and which would necessitate recalibration.
faiRelulresiabiliduri
1. Cost
ty. ngTheoperation.
sensor should possess a high reliability. It should not be subject to frequent
as lowandas ease of operation. The
cost to purchase, install, and operate the sensor should be
operation possible.
of the Further, the ideal
circumstance
device would not require would be that the installation and
a specially trained, highly skilled operator.
 SENSORS ÍN ROBOTICS 14

ROBOTICS
K2 SENSORS IN
sensors used in robotics include a wide range of devices which can be
The general categories:
divided into the following
1. Tactilesensors
and range
sensors
2. Proximity sensorr-based systems
Miscellaneous sensors and
3. vision systems
4. Machine
the first three of these categories in the sections that follow.
discuss chapter. Table
We will
category, machine vision, is examined in the next
The fourth listing of some of the common sensOrs that are applicable in
6-2 provides a
robotic workcells.

6-3 TACTILE SENSORS

and
which indicate contact between themselves
two
Tactile sensors are devicesTactile sensing devices can be divided into
binary
some other solid object. force sensors. Touch sensors provide a
the
classes: touch sensors and whether or not contact has been made with
indicates only
output signal which sometÉmes called stress sensors) indicate not the
object. Force sensors (also with the object but also the magnitude of
made
that contact has been objects.
contact force between the two

Touch Sensors
between two
used to indicate that contact has been made
1Ouch sensors are contacting force. Included
magnitude of the
00jects without regard to the devices such as limit switches, microswitches,
wn this category are simple frequently used in the design of interlock
ld the like. The simpler devices are used to indicate the presence Or
sin robotics. For example, they can be
in a fixture or at the pickup point along a conveyor. Anotheris
Meef o parts which
use for a part of an inspection probe
touch-sensing
manipulated by the
device would
measure
be as
dimensions on a workpart. A
robot with
robot to
6degrees of freedom would be capable of accessing surfaces on the part that
would be machine, the in-
difficult for a three-axis coofdinate measuring
task. Un-
spection system normally considered for such an inspection
lortunately, the in contact in-
a limiting factor
spection work. robot's accuracy would be
Force Sensors
The
lasks.capacity to measure
These include the forces permits the robot to perform a
number of
material
capability to grasp parts of different sizes in
148 INDUSTRIAL ROBOTICS

handling. machine loading, and assembly work, applying the appropriate level
of force for the given part. In assembly applications, force sensing could be
become cross-threaded or ir
used to determine if serews have parts are
jammed.
accomplished in several ways. A COm
Force sensing in robotics can be
"force-sensing wrist." This consists of a
monly used technique is a
load-cell mounted between the gripper and the wrist. Another techniquespeciisatol
joint. This is usually
measure the torque being exerted by each accomplished
by sensing motor current for each of the joint motors. Finally, a third
technique is to form an array of force-sensing elements so that the shape and
other information about the contact surface can be determined. We discuss
these three possibilities in the paragraphs that follow.
Force-sensing wrist The purpose of a force-sensing wrist is to provide in.
formation about the three components of force (Fx, Fy, and F) and the three
moments (M,, M,, and M,) being applied at the end-of-the-arm. One possible
construction of a force-sensing wrist is illustrated in Fig. 6-1. The device
consists of a metal bracket fastened to a rigid frame. The frame is mounted lo
the wrist of the robot and the tool is mounted to the center of the bracket. The
figure shows how the sensors might react to a moment applied to the bracket
due to forces and moments on the tool.
Since the forces are usually applied to the wrist in combinations it is
necessary to first resolve the forces and moments into their six components.
This kind of computation can be carried out by the robot controller (if it has
the required computational capability) or by a specialized amplifier designed
for this purpose. Based on these calculations, the robot controller can obtain
the required information of the forces and moments being applied at the wrS.
This information could be used for a number of applications. As an example.
an insertion operation (e.g., inserting a peg into a hole in an assembily
application) requires that there are no side forces being applied to the peg.
Another example is where the robot's end effector is required to follow along
an edge or contour of an irregular surface. This is called force a
modation. With this technique, certain forces are set equal to zero while others
could
are set equal to specific values. One
Using force accommodation,

Gauge in
lension

Robot
wrist
Gauge in
COmpression
configuralion
Figure 6-1 Possibleforaforce(exag-
sensing device usseeddeiection one
showingmoment.about
Bracket (for ing wrist,
lool mounting)
Frame
gerated) due to a
Moment of the axes.
 SENSORS IN ROBOTICS 149

command
the robot to follow the edge or contour by maintaining a fxed
velocityin one direction and fixed forces in other directions.
The robot equipped with a force-sensing wrist plus the proper computing
programmed to accomplish these kinds of applications. The
capacity could be
procedure would begin by deciding on the desired force to be applied in each
The controller would perform the following sequence of opera-
axis direction. resulting offset force calculated as illustrated in Fig. 6-2:
tions, with the
in each axis dircction.
1 Measure the forces at the wrist
force ofÉsets requircd. The force offset in each direction is
2. Calculate the subtracting the desired force from the measured force.
determined by
axis to generate the desired
2 Calculate the torques to be applied by each calculations which take into
force offsets at the wrist. These are moment
effects of the various joints and links of the robot.
account the combined
torques calculated in step 3so that the
AThen the robot must provide the direction.
desired forces are applied in each
that they will not
Force-sensing wrists are usually very rigid devices soforce-sensing wrist
defect undesirably while under load. When designing a end-of-the-arm is
encountered. The
there are several problems that may be
means that the device must be
often in a relatively hostile environment. This example, it must be
suficiently rugged to withstand the environment. For time
robot arm. At the same
capable of tolerating an occasional crash of the

-Tool

Part
I desired

uctual

Figure 6-2 Force offse t

difierence betweenaccommodation,
actual force andshowing how the required offset force would
desired force.
compensate for the
150 INDUSTRIAL ROBOTICS
design
device must be sensitive enough to detect small forces. Thislimit is
the overtravel limits. An overtravel
Problem is usually solved by using force sensor from defiecting so far that it
the
Physical stop designed to prevent
would be damaged. force-sensing wrist are complex and
The calculations required to utilize arm traveling at
computation time. Also, for an
require considerable
level of control over the arm just as it makes
moderate-to-high speeds, the performance of the arm, The
limited by the dynamic
contact with an object is motion quickl.
difficult to stop its forward
momentum of the armn makes it
enough to prevent a crash.
exerted
uses dc servomotors then the torque being
Joint sensing If the robot the
armature. A
current floWing through thedrop acrossa
proportional to
by the motors is current is to measure the
voltage
measure this power amplifier. This
simple way to
precision resistor in series with the motor and measuring the joint
small attractive; however,
simplicity makes this technique First, measurements are made in joint space
disadvantages. be more useful if
torque has several applied by the tool and would
are
while the forces of interestmeasurements forces
The therefore not only reflect the
made in tool space. toaccelerate
applied at the tool, but also the forces and torques required losses of the
being transmission
overcome the friction and
the links of the arm and to relatively high (and it usually is), it will
fact, if the joint friction is
joints. In
forces being applied at the tool tip. One area where joint
mask out the small robots.
working well is with direct-drive motors
torque sensing shows promise of
innovation in which the drive
Direct-drive robots are a relatively new sensing, this configura
manipulator. In torque
are located at the joints of thetransmission losses, and the problems of torque
tion reduces the friction and
which accompany these losses are thereby reduced. We will
measurement
discuss direct-drive robots in more detail in Chap. Nineteen.
is a special type of force sensor
Tactile array sensors A tactile array sensor
The force data provided by
composed of a matrix of force-sensing elements. techniques
recognition
this type of device may be combined with pattern
impression contacting
the array
describe a number of characteristics about the presence of an object.
sensor surface. Among these characteristics are (1) the
the pressue
and orientation, (3) Tactile
(2) the object's contact area, shape, location, and location.
array
and pressure distribution, and (4) force magnitude attached to a
gripper or
sensors can be mounted in the fingers of the robot illustrate these two
work table as a flat touch surface. Figures 6-3 and 6-4
possible mountings for the sensor device. elastomer
The device is typically composed of an array of conductiveresponseto
pads. AS each pad is squeezed its electrical resistance changes inapplied force.
the amount of deflection in the pad, which is proportional to the ofthe
about the shape
operation
By measuring the resistance of each pad, information determined. The pads)is
object against the array of sensing elements can be pressure-sensitive
of atactile array sensor (with an 8x8 matrix of
150 INDUSTRIAL ROBOTICS
forces.
the device sensitive eough to detect small
must besolved This design
problem is usually by using overtravel limits. An overtravel limit is a
physical stop designed to prevent the force sensor from deflecting so far that it

would be damaged. compley

The caleulations required to utilize aforce-sensing wrist are
require considerable computation time. Also, for an arm traveling at
just as it m
moderate-to-high speeds, the level of control over the arm
contact with an object is limited by the dynamic performance of the arm. The
momentum of the arm makes it dificult to stop its forward motion au:
enough to prevent acrash.
the torque being exertoa
Joint sensing If the robot uses dc servomotors then through the armature
current flowing
by the motors is proportional to the is to measure the voltage dron acroes
simple way to measure this current
motor and power amplifier. Thie
small precision resistor in series with the measuring the ioint
simplicity makes this technique attractive; however, made in jointsrpace
mneasurements are
torque has several disadvantages. First, be more useful if
while the forces of interest are applied by the tool and would reflect the forces
only
made in tool space. The measurements therefore not
accelerate
being applied at the tool, but also the forces and torques required to
transmission losses of the
the links of the arm and to overcome the friction and
it usually is), it will
joints. In fact, if the joint friction is relatively high (andOne
mask out the small forces being applied at the tool tip. area where joint
direct-drive robots.
torque sensing shows promise of working well is with
Direct-drive robots are a relatively new innovation in which the drive motors
are located at the joints of the manipulator. In torque sensing, this configura
tion reduces the friction and transmission losses, and the problems of torque
measurement which accompany these losses are thereby reduced. We will
discuss direct-drive robots in more detail in Chap. Nineteen.
Tactile array sensors A tactile array sensor is a special type of force sensor
composed of amatrix of force-sensing elements. The force data provided by
this type of device may be combined with pattern recognition techniques t
describe a number of characteristics about the impression contacting the anay
sensor surface. Among these characteristics are (1) the presence of an obje
(2) the object's contact area, shape, location, and orientation, (3) the preSSule
and pressure distribution,and (4) force magnitude and location. Tactile ane
sensors can be mounted in the fingers of the robot gripper or attached
work table as a flat touch surface. Figures 6-3 and 6-4 illustrate these t
possible mountings for the sensor device. elastomcr
The device is typically composed of an array of conductiveresponseto
pads. As each pad is squeezed its electrical resistance changes inappliedforce.
the amount of deflection in the pad, which is proportional to the ofthe
By measuring the resistance of each pad, information about the shape
operation
object against the array of sensing elements can be determined. The pads)is
of a tactile array sensor (with an 8x8 matrix of pressure-sensitive
 SENSORS IN ROROTI(S 153

Fingers

MSensing pads

Part Pattern
on B
Pattern
on 4

Hole

insertion task of Example 6-1 showing pattern of forces of

Figure 6-6 Possible binding action in an
surfaces.
the tactile array sensor

80 pattern of sensor elements, making a total of 6400 sensitive sites.

an 80 by
force magnitude to be measured
Each sensor has gray scale capability to allowprincipal application foreseen for
at each sensor location on the surface. The components in robotic assembly
this product is for location and orientation of
operations.
sensors has lead to the
Kesearch into potential materials for tactile
evelopment of a force-sensing skin of Polyvinylidene di-Fluoride. This is a
pezoelectric material which means that it generates an output voltage when t
include its availability
gueezed. Advantages of Polyvinvlidene di-Fluoride the fact that it is
in sheets only a few ten-thousandths of an inch and
impervious to most chemicals. Another feature of this material is
interestinga voltage
that it is Pyroelectric, meaning that it generates when heated. This
provides
feature Suggests the possibility for designing a tactile sensor that
simultaneous force and temperature sensing.
6-4
PROXIMITY AND RANGE SENSORS
(Prdependent
oximiy sensors are devices that indicate when one object is close to
object. How close the object must be in order to activate the sensor is
on the particular device.
another

anywhere between
The distances can be
154 INDUSTRIAL ROBOTICS
sensors can also be . . .
millimeters and several feet. Some of these
measure the distance between the object and the sensor, and these devices are
several
called range sensors. Proximity and range sensors would typically be located
0
effector since these are the moving parts of the robot
on
practical useorofend
the wrist a proximity sensor in robotics would be to detect the presence

of a workpart or other object. Another important applicationis f

absence
or workcell. Range sensors would be useful t
sensing human beings in the robot the workpart) in relation to
determining the location of an object (e.g.,
robot.
technologies are available for designing proximity and ranos
A variety of devices, acoustics, electrical field
sensors. These technologies include optical
magnetic fields), and others, We wt
techniques (e.g., eddy currents and following paragraphs.
survey only a few of the possibilities in the either visible or invisible
Optical proximity sensors can be designedbeusing
active or passive. The active
(infrared) light sources. Infrared sensors may beam
respond to the reflection of the
sensors send out an infrared beam and
using an incandescent light
against a target. The infrared-reflectance sensoravailable.(The active infrared
source is a common device that is commercially
not a part is present, but
sensor can be used to indicate not only whether or
when the signal is sent
also the position of the part. By timing the interval from between the object
and the echo is received, a measurement of the distance
useful for locomotion
and the sensor can be made. This feature is especially
devices which detect
and guidance systems. Passive infrared sensors are simply often utilized
the presence of infrared radiation in the environment. They are
off heat within the
in security systems to detect the presence of bodies giving areas
range of the sensor. These sensor systems are effective at covering large
in building interiors.
Another optical approach for proximity sensing involves the use of a
collimated light beam and a linear array of light sensors. By reflecting the lignt
beam off the surface of the object, the location of the object can be deter"
mined from the position of its reflected beam on the sensor array. This sche
is illustrated in Fig. 6-7. The formula for the distance between the object ae

Recejver
(sensing
array)

Light source

Lense

proximity
Figure 6-7 Scheme for a light
reflected
Object sensor using
against a sensor array.
 SENSORS IN ROBOTICS 155

as follows:
thesensOr is given
x= 0.5y tan(A)
the distance of the object from the sensor
where X=
the lateral distance between the light source and the reflected light
beam against the lincar array. This distance corresponds to the
number of elenents contained within the reflected beam in the
sensor array
A=the angle between the object and the sensor array as illustrated in
Fig. 6-7
in the configuration shown relies on the fact that the surface
Use ofthis device be parallelto the sensing array.
must
of the object devices can be used as proximity sensors. Ultrasonic frequen-
Acoustical
20,000) Hz) are often used in these devices because the sound is
cies (above acoustical proximity sensor
beyond the range of human hearing. One type of
chamber with an acoustic emitter at the closed
uses a cylindrical open-ended up a pattern of standing waves in the
end of the chamber. The emitter sets object near the open end. A
of an
cavity which is altered by the presence chamber is used to sense the change in
microphone located in the wall of the
device can also be used as a range
sensor.
the sound pattern. This kind of the use of electrical fields are
range sensors based on
Proximity and category and eddy-current
commercially available. Two of the types in this
magnetic field sensors. (Eddy-current devices create a primary
sensors and
region near the probe. This field induces
alternating magneticfield in the small long as the object is made of
object placed in the region so
eddy currents in an currents produce their own magnetic field
a conductive material. These eddy
change its flux density. The probe
which interacts with the primary field to this indicates the presence of the
detects the change in the flux density and
object. relatively simple and can be made
Magnetic field proximity sensors are
The magnet can be made a part
Using a reed switch and a permanent magnet.
object being detected or it can be part of the sensor device. In either
O tne the presence of the object in the
Case, the device can be designated so that circuit and activates the reed
glon of the sensor completes the magnetic because of its relative
MCn. This type of proximity sensor design is attractive
required for its operation.
pety and because no external power supply is

C MISCELLANEOUS SENSORS AND SENSOR-BASED

SYSTEMS
The miscellaneous category COvers the remaining types of sensors and trans-
ducers that might be used for interlocks and robotic
other purpoSes invariatbles
workcells. This categoryincludes devices withthe capability to sense
such as temperature, pressure, fluid flow, and electrical properties. Many ot
156 INDUSTRIAL ROBOTICS

the common transducers and sensors used for these variables are listed
Table 6-2. in
in this
An area of robotics research that might be included chapter is
sensing or voice programming. Voice-programming systems can be useVOICe
robot.
robotics for oral communication of instructions to the Voice utter
sensing
relies on the techniques of speech recognition to analyze spoken words
by a human and compare those words with a set of stored word patterns. When
indicates that the
the spoken word matches the stored word pattern, this
should perform some particular actions which correspond to the word
series of words. We will explore this technology in more detail in Ch
Nineteen.

6-6 USES OF SENSORS IN ROBOTICS

automated
The major uses of sensors in industrial robotics and other
manufacturing systems can be divided into four basic categories:

1. Safety monitoring
2. Interlocks in workcellcontrol
3. Part inspection for quality control
robot
4. Determining positions and related information about objects in the
cell

One of the important applications of sensor technology in automated

manufacturing operations is safety or hazard monitoring which concerns the
other
protection of human workers who work in the vicinity of the robot or
ensuring
equipment. This subject of safety monitoring and other methods of
worker safety in robotics is explored in Chap. Seventeen.
The second major use of sensor technology in robotics is to implement
interlocks in workcell control. As mentioned in Chap. Two, interlocks are
used to coordinate the sequence of activities of the different pieces
equipment in the workcell. In the execution of the robot programn, there a
verified before
certain elements of the work cycle whose completion must be simple
proceeding with the next element in the cycle. Sensors, often very discuss
wil
devices, are utilized to provide this kind of verification. We
interlocks and their uses in Chap. Eleven on workcell control. determine a
The third category is quality control. Sensors can be used to has been
control
variety of part quality characteristics. Traditionally, quality sampling
basis.
performed using manual inspection techniques on a statistical automa-
The use of sensors permits the inspection operation to be performed
The
limitation
tically on a100 percent basis, in which every part is inspected.can onlyinspect
sensor
on the use of automatic inspection is that the sensor system asurtae
for a limited range of part characteristics and defects. For example,
part Use

probe designed to measure part length cannot detect flaws in the

without the
Many applications of automaled inspection are acconmplished
 SENSORS IN ROBOTIC 157

robotics, The reason for including this category in our discussion of robotic
of robots are, in fact, often used to implement automatic in-
sensors is that
spection systems by means of sensors. We will discuss robot inspection
Fifteen,
applications in Chap. use of sensors in robotics is to determine the positions
The fourth major
and other
information about various objects in the workcell (e.g., workparts,
data about a
fixtures, people, equipment, etc.). In addition to positional
particular object, other information required to properly execute the work
include the object's oricntation, color, size, and other charac-
cycle might
teristics. Reasons why this kind of data would need to be determined during
execution include:
the program
Workpart identification.
parts in the workcell.
Random position and orientation of exceed the inherent capabilities
Accuracy requiremnents in a given application accuracy of
ofthe robot. Feedback information is required to improve the
the robot's positioning.
be in a workcell in which the
Anexample of workpart identification would
robot processes several types of workparts, each requiring a different sequence
presented to the robot would have to be
of actions by the robot. Each part could be called for execution.
properly identified so that the correct subroutine
body spot-welding
This type of identification problem arises in automobile body styles (e.g.,
lineswhere the line is designed to weld several different
the line must execute the
coupes, sedans, wagons). Each welding robot along
station. Simple optical
welding cycle for the particular body style at that absence
sensors are typically used to indicate the presence or of specific body
style features in order to make the proper identification.
where a robot
An example of the part position and orientation problem is
WOuld be required to pick up parts moving along a conveyor in random
Orientation and position, and place them into a fixture. To accomplish the task,
tne exact location of each part would have to be sensed as it came dOwn the
line. In addition, for the robot to use a mechanical gripper to grasp the
Parucular workpart, the orientation of the part on the conveyor would have to
De determined. All of this information would have to be proceSsed by the
WoTkcellcontroller (or other computer)in real timne in order toguide the robot
ne execution of its programmed work cycle. Vision systems represent an
important category of sensSor system that might be employed to determine such
characteristics
be a as part location and orientation. We consider machine vision to
topic robotics which is significant enough to merit its own chapter.
in
T'hat chapter follows this
In one.
some
more Stringentapplications, the accuracy requirements in the application are
than the inherent repeatability of the robot.
Certain assembly operations represent examples
accuracy and of this case, The robot is
required
than to assemble tw0 parts whose alignment must be very close, closer
the accuracy of the
robot. One possible solution that might be used is a
158 INDUSTRIAL ROBOTICS

The use of the RCC

remote center compliance (RCC) device.
assembly will be described in Chap. Fiftcen.
monitoring.
device in
All four categories of sensor applications (safetythe sensor
inspection, and positional data) are instances
component of a control system used in the robot
where
work cell to
interlockS,
constitutes
accomplish Some
specific control function. That control system, in turn, is a Component of
system. A d
larger control system which we are calling the workcell controlcoordinated
the control functions which takes place in the workcell are control
regulated by this larger system. Our discussion of robot workcell
resume in Chap. Eleven, after we have examined robot programming, an
obvious prerequisite for workcell control.

REFERENCES

1. J.F.Engelberger, Robotics in Practice, AMACOM (American Management Association), Neg

York, 1980, chap. 4.
2. M.P.Groover, Automation, Production Systems, and Computer-Aided Manufacuring, Pren
tice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1980, chap. 11.
3. E. Kafrissen and M. Stephans, Industrial Robots and Robotics, Reston, Reston, VA, 1984
chap. 5.
4. Lord Corporation, Lord Tactile Sensors, Marketing/Technical Brochure, Cary, NC.
5. R. N. Stauffer, Progress in Tactile Sensor Development," Robotics Today, June 1983, pp.
43-49.
6. L. L. Toepperwein, M. T. Blackman, et al., "ICAM Robotics Application Guide," Technical
Report AFWAL-TR-80-4042, vol. II, Materials Laboratory, Air Force Wright Aeronautical
Laboratories, Ohio, April 1980.

PROBLEMS

6-1 It is desired to design a safety monitoring system for a robot cell in which a robot loads an
automatic production machine with parts arriving on a conveyor. The robot is large and
considered dangerous for workers to wander into the work volume of the robot. Aside trom u
other safety precautions that might be taken to ensure the safety of the workers, the Sa
monitoring system will use one or more sensors to detect the presence of humans in the ce
(a) Write the detailed "functional specifications" for the sensor system. That is, make P
list of the things the sensor system must do, and the ways in which it will have to operale.
satisfy the
(b) From the list of sensors in Table 6-2, select several alternative sensors that will sensor,
functional specifications, and compare its features against the specifications. For each necessary to
explain how it will be configured in the safety monitoring system. Use sketches if
illustrate the configuration.
(c) Select the best sensor alternative, and justify your selection.
determiningthe
6-2 Using the list of sensors in Table 6-2 in the text, describe several methods for part are:
presence or absence of a metallic part in a fixture. Assume the dimensions of the fixture
in.), The
length = 127.0 mm (5 in.), width = 36.0 mm(1.4in.), and thickness =20.0 mm (0.8 sketch of how
a
is a mechanical vise with two jaws for holding the part. For each alternative, make
the sensor would be positioned relative to the part. determiningthe are
6-3 Using the list of sensors in Table 6-2 in the text, describe several methods for the part
presence or absence of a nonmetallic part in a fixture. Assume the dimensions of Thefixture
length = 127.0mm (5 in.), width = 36.0 mm (1.4 in.), and thickness 20.0 mm (0.8in.).