SMPS AND UPS

UNIT 1-ANALYSIS OF NON-ISOLATED DC-DC CONVERTERS

Basic topologies: Buck, Boost and Buck-Boost - Principles of operation – Continuous

conduction mode– Concepts of volt-sec balance and charge balance – Analysis and design based
on steady state relationships – Introduction to discontinuous conduction mode.

Buck converter
Buck converter is also known as step down converter and produces a lower output voltage than
input voltage. The average output voltage is less than the input voltage. Fig.5.31 shows the
circuit diagram of a buck regulator using power BJT.

i. The switch is implemented by using BJT, MOSFET or IGBT. The duty cycle varies from 0 to
1.

ii. The output voltage has harmonics which requires DC filter for smoothing out ripples.

iii. Gating signal is obtained by comparing the gating signal with de signal and hard limiting the
difference signal to obtain a square wave pulse.

iv. The control circuit switches the transistor Q 1 between ON and OFF states. The indicator
current forward biases the diode D1 and D1 conducts for the remaining switching period. This
diode is known as Free Wheeling Diode.

Operation
The circuit operates in 2 modes.

Mode 1

At t = 0, Q1 is switched ON.

i. The input current flows through filter (L and C) inductor and capacitor and load resistor.
Fig.5.32 shows the equivalent circuit for Mode 1.

Mode 2

At t = t1, Q1 is Switched OFF.

i. The free wheeling diode D1 conducts due to energy stored in inductor.

ii. The inductor current flows through L, C, Load and diode D , until Q1 is switched ON in the
next cycle.

Fig.5.33 shows the equivalent circuits for Mode 2.

For continuous current flow in the inductor L, The voltage and current waveform are shown in
Fig.5.34. The inductor current may be discontinuous depending on the switching Frequency,
filter inductance and Capacitance.

The voltage across the inductor L is

Assume that inductor current rises linearly from I1 to I2 in time t1,

 In time t2, inductor current falls linearly from I2 to I1.

where ΔI - peak to peak ripple current of inductor L Equate (3) and (6)

Assume lossless transistor,

Average input current,

IS = K I a

Switching period T is given by

Using KCL,

Load current is written as

iL = iC + io ...(9)

Δio is very small and negligible

ΔiL = ΔiC

Average capacitor current is given by

IC = ΔI/4 ...(10)

Capacitor voltage is given by

Peak to Peak ripple voltage of the capacitor is

ΔVC = VC - VC (t=0)

Substitute (11)

Substitue (10)
Substitute (8) in (12)

The converter produces a dc output voltage which is controllable through the duty cycle D.

The conversion ratio is defined as the ratio of the dc output voltage V 0 to dc input voltage
Vin under steady-state conditions.

For bulk converter,

M(D) = K

Advantages

1. Requires only one transistor

2. Simple construction

3. High efficiency
4. Less expensive

Disadvantages

1. di/dt of the load current is limited by inductor

2. Smoothing input filter is required

3. Need protection circuit to avoid short circuits

4. Input current and charging current of output capacitor is discontinuous which require large
filter size.

Applications

1. Used to drive high current loads, used in PCs, mother boards

2. Battery chargers

3. Solar chargers

BOOST CONVERTER
A boost converter (step-up chopper) is a device that increases the input DC voltage to a higher
output DC voltage.
 Circuit Components: The boost converter circuit includes an inductor, switch, diode,
capacitor, and load, each playing a vital role in its operation.
 PWM Control: Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) controls the switching in the converter,
with time-based PWM preferred for its simplicity and constant frequency.
 Modes of Operation: The converter operates in two modes—Mode I (switch on, diode off)
and Mode II (switch off, diode on)—to store and release energy.
 Duty Cycle: The duty cycle impacts the voltage output, with values above 0.7 leading to
instability in practical applications.
DC-DC converters are also known as Choppers. Here we will have a look at the Step Up
Chopper or Boost converter which increases the input DC voltage to a specified DC output
voltage. A typical Boost converter is shown below.
The input voltage source connects to an inductor. A solid-state switch is connected across the
source. Another switch, a diode, connects to a capacitor and the load, with these components
arranged in parallel.
The inductor connected to input source leads to a constant input current, and thus the Boost
converter is seen as the constant current input source. And the load can be seen as a constant
voltage source. The controlled switch is turned on and off by using Pulse Width
Modulation(PWM). PWM can be time-based or frequency based. Frequency-based modulation
has disadvantages like a wide range of frequencies to achieve the desired control of the switch
which in turn will give the desired output voltage. Time-based Modulation is mostly used for
DC-DC converters. It is simple to construct and use. The frequency remains constant in this type
of PWM modulation. The Boost converter has two modes of operation. The first mode is when
the switch is on and conducting.
Mode I : Switch is ON, Diode is OFF

The Switch is ON and therefore represents a short circuit ideally offering zero resistance to the
flow of current so when the switch is ON all the current will flow through the switch and back to
the DC input source. Let us say the switch is on for a time TON and is off for a time TOFF. We

define the time period, T, as and the switching frequency,

Let us now define another term, the duty cycle,

Let us analyze the Boost converter in steady state operation for this mode using KVL.

Since the switch is closed for a time TON = DT we can say that Δt = DT.
While performing the analysis of the Boost converter, we have to keep in mind that

1. The inductor current is continuous and this is made possible by selecting an appropriate
value of L.
2. The inductor current in steady state rises from a value with a positive slope to a
maximum value during the ON state and then drops back down to the initial value with a
negative slope. Therefore the net change of the inductor current over anyone complete
cycle is zero.
Mode II : Switch is OFF, Diode is ON

In this mode, the polarity of the inductor is reversed. The energy stored in the inductor is
released and is ultimately dissipated in the load resistance, and this helps to maintain the flow of
current in the same direction through the load and also step-up the output voltage as the inductor
is now also acting as a source in conjunction with the input source. But for analysis, we keep the
original conventions to analyze the circuit using KVL.
Let us now analyse the Boost converter in steady state operation for Mode II using KVL.

Since the switch is open for a time

we can say that,

It is already established that the net change of the inductor current over any one complete cycle
is zero.
The duty cycle (D) varies between 0 and 1. If D = 1, the output voltage would theoretically be
infinite, which isn’t possible. In practice, a duty cycle above 0.7 can cause instability in the
Boost converter. Below is a circuit diagram of a Boost converter with an inductance (L) of
20mH, capacitance (C) of 100µF, a 20Ω resistive load, a 1 kHz switching frequency, a 100V DC
input, and a duty cycle of 0.5.
The voltage waveforms are as shown above and the current waveforms are as shown in the figure
below.
Boost Converter Applications

 Automotive applications
 Power amplifier applications
 Adaptive control applications
 Battery power systems
 Consumer Electronics
 Communication Applications

Boost Converter Advantages

  Gives the high output voltage
 Low operating duty cycles
 Lower voltage on MOSFET

BUCK - BOOST CONVERTER

A Buck-Boost Regulator produces an output voltage which may be less than or greater
than the input voltage.
The polarity of output voltage is opposite to that of input voltage. So, this regulator is
also known as inverting or flyback regulator.

Construction

Transistor Q1 acts as switch. Diode is connected in series with the load. The inductor L is
connected in parallel after the switch and before the diode. A capacitor C is connected in
parallel with load. Fig. shows the circuit diagram of Buck-Boost converter.

Operation

The circuit operation is divided into 2 modes.

Mode 1

Q1 is turned on and D1 is reverse biased. The input current increases and flows through inductor
L and transistor Q1.

Mode 2

Q1 is switched OFF.

i. Current flowing through inductor L will flow through L, C, D1 and load.

ii. The energy stored in inductor L will be transferred to the load and the inductor current will
fall until Q1 is switched ON again in the next cycle.

The equivalent circuits for mode 1 and mode 2 are shown in Fig.5.40

For continuous load current, the steady state voltages and currents waveform of the buck-boost
regulator is shown in Fig.5.41.

Assume inductor current rises linearly from I1 to I2 in time t1.

The inductor current falls linearly from I2 to I1 in time t2.
ΔI - Peak to peak ripple current of inductor L

Equate ΔI in equation (3) and (5)

Substitute t1 = KT and t2 = (1 - K) T

The average output voltage is

Assume lossless circuit,

The average input current is given by

where Ia → average output current

Switching period is given by

Substitute

When transistor Q1 is ON, the capacitor supplies the load current for t = t1.

The average discharging current of the capacitor is IC = Ia.

Peak-to-peak ripple voltage of capacitor is

Substitute
Advantages

1. A buck-boost regulator doesnot use a transformer and provides output voltage polarity
reversal.

2. High efficiency.

3. Easy to implement short-circuit protection

4. Less expensive.

Disadvantages

1. Input current is discontinuous and high peak current flows through transistor Q1.

2. Slow response to fast load steps.

3. As sensed voltage is negative, inverting op-amp is required for feedback and closed loop
control.

4. No isolation between input and output.

UNIT II ANALYSIS OF ISOLATED DC-DC CONVERTERS

Fly back converter

Flyback converters are defined as power converters, which convert AC to DC with galvanic
isolation between the inputs and outputs. It stores the energy when the current flowing through
the circuit and releases the energy when the power is removed. It used a mutually coupled
inductor and acts as an isolated switching converter for step down or step-up voltage
transformers.

It can control and regulate the multiple output voltages with a wide range of input voltages.
The components required to design a flyback converter is a few when compared to other
switching mode power supply circuits. The word flyback is referred to as the on/off action of the
switch used in the design.
Flyback Converter Design

The flyback converter design is very simple and contains electrical components like a flyback
transformer, switch, rectifier, filter, and a control device to drive the switch and achieve
regulation.
The switch is used to ON and OFF the primary circuit, which can magnetize or demagnetize the
transformer. The PWM signal from the controller controls the operation of the switch. In most of
the flyback transformer designs, FET or MOSFET or a basic transistor is used as the switch.
Rectifier rectifies the voltage of the secondary winding to get pulsating DC output and
disconnects the load from the secondary winding of the transformer. The capacitor filters the
rectifier output voltage and increases the DC output level as per the desired application.
The flyback transformer is used as an inductor to store the magnetic energy. It is designed as a
two coupled inductor, which acts as the primary and secondary winding. It operates at high
frequencies of nearly 50KHz.
Design Calculations

It is necessary to consider the flyback converter design calculations of the turns ratio, duty
cycle, and the currents of primary and secondary windings. Because the turns ratio might affect
the current flowing through the primary and secondary winding and also the duty cycle. When
the turn ratio is high, then the duty cycle also becomes high, and the current passing through the
primary and secondary winding decreases.
As the transformer used in the circuit is a custom type, it’s not possible to get a perfect
transformer with a turns ratio these days. Hence by choosing the transformer with the desired
ratings and closer to the required ratings might compensate for the difference in the voltage and
output.

The other parameters like core material, the effect of the air gap, and polarization should be
considered by the engineers.

The flyback converter design calculations by considering the switch position are discussed
below.

When the Switch is ON

Vin – VL – Vs = 0
At ideal condition, Vs = 0 ( voltage drop)

Then Vin – VL = 0
VL = Lp di/dt
di = (VL / Lp) x dt
Since VL = Vin
di = (Vin / Lp) x dt
By applying integration on both sides we get,
Current at the primary winding is

Ipri =( Vin. /Lp )Ton

The total energy stored in the primary winding is,

Epri = ½ Ipri2 X Lp
Where Vin = input voltage

Lp = inductance of the primary winding or primary inductance.

Ton = period when the switch is turned ON

When the Switch is OFF

VL (secondary) – VD – Vout = 0

The diode voltage drop will be zero at an ideal condition

VL ( secondary) – Vout = 0

VL (secondary) = Vout

VL = Ls di/dt

di = (VL secondary / Ls) / dt

Since VL secondary = Vout

Hence,

di = Vout / Ls ) X dt

By applying integration, we get

Isec = (Vsec/Ls) (T – Ton)

The total energy transferred is expressed as

Esec = ½[(Vsec/Ls) . (T – Ton) ]2. Ls

Where Vsec = voltage in the secondary winding = total output voltage at the load

Ls = inductance of the secondary winding

T = pwm signal period

Ton = switch ON time

Operation of Flyback Converter/Working Principle

The operation of the flyback converter can be understood from the above diagram. The working
principle is based on the switch mode power supply (SMPS) mode.

When the switch is in the ON position, there is no energy transfer between the input and the load.
The total energy will be stored in the primary winding of the circuit. Here drain voltage Vd = 0
and the current Ip passes through the primary winding. The energy is stored in the form of the
magnetic inductance of the transformer and the current increases with time linearly. Then the
diode becomes reverse biased and no current flows to the secondary winding of the transformer
and the total energy are stored in the capacitor used at the output.

When the switch is in the OFF position, the energy is transferred to the load by changing the
polarity of the transformer windings due to the magnetic field and the rectifier circuit starts
rectifying the voltage. The total energy in the core will be transferred to the load will be rectified
and the process would be continued till the energy in the core is depleted or until the switch is
turned ON.

Flyback Converter Topology

The flyback converter topology is adaptable, flexible, simple mostly used SMPS (switch mode
power supply) design with good performance characteristics that gives an advantage to many
applications.
The performance characteristics of the flyback converter topology are shown below.

Flyback Topology

The above waveforms show the sudden transitions and reversal currents of the primary and
secondary winding of the flyback transformer. The output voltage will be regulated by adjusting
the on/off actions of the duty cycle of the primary winding. We can isolate the input and output
by using the feedback, or by using an additional winding on the transformer

Flyback Topology SMPS

The flyback topology SMPS diagrams is shown below.

The flyback topology SMPS design requires less no. Of components for a given power range
when compared to other SMPS topologies. It can operate for a given AC or DC source. If the
input is taken from the AC source, then the output voltage would be fully rectified. Here
MOSFET is used as an SMPS.

The operation of SMPS flyback topology is completely based on the position of the switch ie,
MOSFET.

It can operate in a continuous or discontinued mode based on the position of the switch or FET.
In the discontinued model, the current in the secondary winding becomes zero before the switch
is turned ON. In the continuous mode, the current in the secondary doesn’t become zero.

When the switch is turned OFF, the energy stored in the leakage inductance of the transformer
flows through the primary winding and is absorbed by the input clamp circuit or snubber circuit.
The role of the snubber circuit is to protect the switch from high inductive voltages. There will
be power dissipation during the ON and OFF transitions of the switch.

SMPS Flyback Transformer Design

SMPS flyback transformer design is more popular than normal power supply designs because of
its low cost, efficiency, and simple design. It isolates the primary and secondary winding of the
transformer for given multiple inputs and provide multiple output voltages, which may be
positive or negative.

The basic SMPS flyback transformer design when the switch is turned ON and OFF is shown
below. It is also used as an isolated power converter. The flyback transformer used in the design
contains primary and secondary winding, separated electrically to avoid transient coupling,
ground loops, and provides flexibility.
 The use of SMPS flyback transformer design has an advantage over conventional transformer
design. Here the current doesn’t flow through the primary and secondary winding at the same
time because the phase of the winding gets reversed as shown in the above figure.

It stores the energy in the form of the magnetic field in the primary winding for a certain amount
of time and transfers to the primary winding. The maximum output load voltage, operating
ranges, input and output voltage ranges, power delivery capability, and the characteristics of
flyback cycles are the important parameters in the SMPS flyback transformer design.

Applications

The flyback converter applications are,

 Used in television sets, and pcs with low power of up to 250W
 Used in Stand by power supplies in electronic pcs (low power switch mode)
 Used in mobile phones and mobile chargers
 Used in high voltage supplies like television, CRTs, Lasers, flashlights, and copy devices, etc.
 Used in multiple input-output power supplies
 Used in isolated gate drive circuits.

Half bridge converter

The half-bridge converter is the most used topology in power electronics for applications that
require voltage or current regulation such as motor drives, switch-mode power supplies, solar
inverters, and UPS systems. As the name suggests, a half-bridge converter we uses a minimum
of two switches arranged in a half-bridge configuration to convert power efficiently from one DC
voltage level to another DC Voltage level.
Half controlled bridge converters have gained popularity due to their simple design, high
efficiency, ability to handle large input voltage variations, and capability for electrical isolation
between input and output stages. In this article, we will discuss the working, types, advantages,
limitations, and applications of half bridge converters in detail.

We will also cover the various design considerations and parameter optimizations involved in
building a half bridge converter circuit.

What is a Half Bridge Converter?

A half bridge converter is a DC-DC converter circuit that uses two electronic switches arranged
back-to-back in a half bridge configuration to step down or step up DC voltages. The basic half
bridge converter consists of only two switches (typically MOSFETs or IGBTs), an inductor, and
a capacitor output filter.

The inductor acts as a current regulator and the capacitor smoothens the output voltage. By
controlling the ON and OFF time cycles of the two switches using pulse width modulation
(PWM), the converter can regulate the output voltage at a fixed level independent of input
voltage variations or load conditions.

Half Bridge Converter Operation

The operation of a basic half bridge dc dc converter can be understood with the help of a
simplified circuit diagram as shown below:

From the above circuit, we will discuss how the half bridge converter works, Q1 and Q2 are the
two switches, L is the inductor and C is the output filter capacitor. The working is as follows:

o When Q1 is switched ON and Q2 is switched OFF, the input voltage (VIN) is applied
across the inductor L. Inductor current starts increasing.
o When Q1 is switched OFF and Q2 is switched ON, the current through inductor L
continues to flow in the same direction by connecting the inductor to the capacitor C. The
inductor releases the stored energy to the load through diode D.
 o By alternately turning the switches Q1 and Q2 ON and OFF using PWM control and
adjusting their duty cycles, the output voltage (VOUT) can be regulated at the required
level.
o The output voltage is given by VOUT = n*(D/(1-D))*VIN, where n is the duty cycle
ratio and D is the switch ON time ratio.

Half Bridge Isolated DC DC Converter

For applications requiring electrical isolation between input and output stages, an isolated half
bridge converter topology is used. In this configuration, a high frequency transformer is added to
provide galvanic isolation.

The primary side of the transformer is connected across the two switches of the half-bridge
circuit. The secondary winding of the transformer then supplies power to the output rectification
and filtering components.

This isolates the low voltage output from the high voltage input by creating an air gap in the
magnetic flux path of the transformer. Additional safety and flexibility benefits stem from using
an isolated half-bridge topology.
Introduction to Half-Bridge Converters

The half-bridge converter is a widely used topology in power electronics for applications that
require voltage or current regulation, such as switch-mode power supplies, inverters, and motor
drives. This article will discuss the basic principles, advantages, and limitations of half-bridge
converters, as well as some common applications.

Principles of Operation

A half-bridge converter is a type of DC-DC converter that uses two switches to alternately
connect a load to a voltage source and a reference (typically ground). The switches are typically
transistors, such as metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs) or insulated-
gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs), and they are controlled by a pulse-width modulation (PWM)
signal to regulate the output voltage or current.

When one switch is closed (on), the other is open (off), creating a path for current to flow
through the load. By controlling the duty cycle of the PWM signal, which determines the ratio of
the on-time to the total switching period, the average voltage across the load can be regulated.

In its simplest form, a half-bridge converter consists of two switches, an inductor, and a
capacitor. The inductor and capacitor form an LC filter that smooths the output voltage, while
the switches are used to alternately connect the load to the voltage source and reference. The
output voltage is determined by the duty cycle of the PWM signal and the input voltage.

Full bridge converter

A Bridge Converter is a DC to DC converter configuration employing four active switching
components in a bridge configuration across a power transformer. This has lower losses than a
bridge rectifier.

A full bridge converter is one of the commonly used configurations that offer isolation in
addition to stepping up or down the input voltage. Other functions may include reversing the
polarity and providing multiple output voltages simultaneously.

The full bridge converter finds extensive applications across a wide range of fields, from electric
vehicle power systems to renewable energy installations. Its ability to maintain stable
performance under varying load conditions further underscores its importance, making it a staple
in advanced power conversion and management solutions.

Full Bridge Converter Operation

the full bridge converter can provide a wide range of output voltages, catering to the demands of
various high-power applications with remarkable precision and efficiency.

Bridge converter has three main stages:

1. The Square wave generator

2. Energy transfer network
3. Rectifier network

The basic circuit consists of four active switching devices such as MOSFETs, IGBTs, Bipolar
transistors or thyristors, and their associated drive circuits. In the isolated bridge converter, a
transformer is used to provide isolation in addition to stepping up or down of the voltage.
MOSFETs are widely used for the high power bridge converters due to their simple and low
power gate drive circuits as compared to the bipolar transistors.

The basic operation includes switching one pair of transistors at a time for one half cycle of the
control waveform and the other pair during the other part of the waveform. The two control
strategies use the pulse width modulation signal to either switch the transistors on each leg
simultaneously as a pair or switch them independently in series.

The switching waveform is either square or sinusoidal and while square wave is simpler to
implement, it has more harmonic content. However, it is still used at high frequencies above 20
kHz and usually used for loads such as RF heating and SMPSs which can be tuned to minimize
the effects of the harmonics. Sinusoidal switching waveforms are used for low frequencies such
as in ac motor drives where high harmonics would require expensive and bulky filter
components in addition to causing higher losses.
Full Bridge Converter Formula

The full bridge converter operates on fundamental principles of power electronics, allowing for
the derivation of key formulas that predict its performance under various conditions
Understanding these formulas provides a foundation for predicting converter behavior, essential
for effective design and application.

Where, d is the duty cycle of the transistors and 0 < d < 0.5.

N2/N1 is the secondary to primary turns ratio of the transformer

Full Bridge Converter Advantages And Disadvantages

Full bridge converter advantages: that make them useful for a wide range of power conversion
applications. One of their primary benefits is the

o ability to provide a high output power ratio due to the utilization of both sides of the input
power supply, thus maximizing efficiency.
o generation of a higher output voltage range
o affording greater versatility in its application across different voltage requirements.
o the presence of four switches in a full bridge setup allows for better control over the
output waveform
o contributing to improved output quality and reduced harmonic distortion.

However, this converter type is not without its drawbacks.

Full bridge converter disadvantages:

o The complexity of using four switches increases the circuit's overall cost and complexity
o necessitating more sophisticated control strategies to manage switch timing and prevent
shoot-through.
o Moreover, the higher component count can lead to increased power loss and reduced
efficiency under partial load conditions.
o Despite these disadvantages, the versatility and performance benefits often make full
bridge converters a preferred choice in demanding power conversion scenarios.