MATH 162: Analytic Geometry

Moderator: Kwame Piesie

[email protected]
July 25, 2023
Introduction to Analytic Geometry

Geometry is the branch of Mathematics that studies sizes,

shapes, positions angles and dimensions of objects.
It is concerned with the properties and relations of points,
lines, surfaces, solids and higher dimensional analogues.

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The branches of geometry include the following:

1. Analytic/Coordinate/Cartesian geometry.
2. Euclidean geometry.
3. Projective geometry.
4. Differential geometry.
5. Non Euclidean geometry.
6. Topology.

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Analytic Geometry

The study of certain functions geometrically, particularly

functions of first and second degree, by means of their graphs
is called analytic geometry.
It is also known as Coordinate geometry or cartesian geometry.
In analytic geometry, coordinate systems are used to study
geometry.
It is applied in physics, engineering, aviation, rocketry, space
science and spaceflight. Analytic geometry is the foundation of
most modern fields of geometry.

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A number line is a line on which positive and negative
numbers are represented.
It typically starts at 0 as the midpoint of the line and goes up
to positive infinity (∞) on the right of 0 and down to negative
infinity (−∞) on the left of 0 when the line is horizontal. A
vertical representation of a number line also exists.

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Coordinate Systems

A number of coordinate systems exist in geometry but the

three most commonly used ones are the following.

1. Cartesian/Rectangular coordinate system.

2. Polar coordinate system.
3. Spherical coordinate system.

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The Cartesian/Rectangular Coordinate System

This coordinate system is a 2-dimensional coordinate system

that uses cartesian coordinates to represent the position of
points on a plane. It uses two perpendicular lines, called axes
to uniquely identify every point in the plane. It is commonly
referred to as the x − y plane or the Euclidean 2-dimensional
plane.
The x-axis is the horizontal line that goes through the origin
and the y-axis is the vertical line that goes through the origin.
The origin is the point where the two axes intersect. It has
coordinates (0, 0).
Any point P in the right x − y plane can be described by an
ordered pair of numbers (x, y), where x is the x-coordinate
andKwame
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The Polar Coordinate System

The polar coordinate system is one that uses a coordinate

plane with a single radial axis, r and a single angular axis, θ.
A point P (r, θ) in this coordinate system is located by the
radius r, the distance measured from the origin to the point
P (r, θ) and the angle, θ measured in radian between the
positive x-axis and the line segment connecting the origin to
the point P (r, θ).

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Remark

A transformation between the cartesian coordinate system and

the polar coordinate system uses the following formulas.

1. x = rcos θ
2. y = rsin θ
p
3. r = x2 + y 2
y
4. θ = tan−1
x

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The Spherical Coordinate System

The spherical coordinates system determines the position of a

point in 3-dimensional space based on its distance, r from the
origin and two angles, θ and ϕ.
A point in this coordinate system is denoted by P (r, θ, ϕ),
where r is the radial distance, θ is the polar angle and ϕ is the
azimuthal angle.

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Remark

While the cartesian and the polar coordinate systems are

2-dimensional systems, and are called planes, the spherical
coordinate system is 3−dimensional and is called a space.

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Remark

A conversion between the spherical coordinate system and the

cartesian coordinate system is given by the following
transformations.

1. x = r sinθ cosϕ
2. y = r sinθ sinϕ
3. z = r cosθ
p
4. r = x2 + y 2 + z 2
y
5. ϕ = tan−1
x
z
6. θ = cos−1
r

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The Distance Formula

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The distance between any two points A(x1 , y1 ) and B(x2 , y2 )
is given by
p
|AB| = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 .

Proof
From Figure 1,
|AB|2 = (△x)2 + (△y)2
= (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2
p
∴ |AB| = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2

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Examples

1. Find the length of the line joining the following pairs of

points.

(a) A(1, 3) B(4, 7) (c) A(4, 2) B(2, 5)

(b) P (−1, −3) Q(4, 9) (d) A(0, 0) B(4, 7)

2. A(4, 6) and B(12, 6) are points in the x-y-plane. A point

P (x, y) moves in the plane such that |P A| = |P B|. Find
the equation of the locus of P .

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3 A(0, 2), B(1, 5) and C(−1, 4) are the vertices of a
triangle. Find the perimeter of △ABC leaving your
answer in surd form.
4. Find the perimeter of △ABC leaving your answer in surd
form if A(6, 4), B(−3, 1) and C(9, −5) are three vertices
of a triangle.

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The Midpoint of a Line Segment

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Let M be the midpoint of the straight line joining the two
points A(x1 , y1 ) and B(x2 , y2 ).
From Figure 2, the x-coordinate of M is OM1 and the the
y-coordinate of M is OM2 .
OM1 = x1 + 12 (x2 − x1 ) = 21 (x2 + x1 )
OM2 = y1 + 12 (y2 − y1 ) = 12 (y2 + y1 )
∴ M has coordinates
 
1 1
(x2 + x1 ), (y2 + y1 ) .
2 2

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Examples

1. Find the coordinates of the midpoint of the line segment

joining the following pairs of points.

(a) A(1, 3) B(5, 7) (c) P (−1, −4) Q(2, 6)

(b) A(−3, 1) B(7, 3) (d) A(0, 0) B(−1, −2)

2. M is the midpoint of the line AB. If the coordinates of A

and M are respectively (−5, 4) and (−2, 1), find the
coordinates of B.

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3. If M (0, 2) is the midpoint of AB and A is (5, 7), find the
coordinate of B.
4. A(7, 3), B(−4, 1) and C(−3, −2) are the vertices of a
triangle,
(a) show that △ABC is isosceles.
(b) find the midpoint of BC.

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Division of a Line Segment in a Given Ratio
1. Internal Division

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Suppose P (x, y) divides the line AB internally in the ratio
α : β i.e.
AP α
= .
PB β

From Figure 3,
△AP M1 and △P BM2 are similar.
AP AM1 α x−x1
Therefore, PB
= P M2
=⇒ β
= x2 −x

=⇒ α(x2 − x) = β(x − x1 )
=⇒ αx2 − αx = βx − βx1
(α + β)x = βx1 + αx2

βx1 + αx2
x=
α+β

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Similarly,
AP P M1 α y−y1
PB
= BM 2
=⇒ β
= y2 −y

=⇒ α(y2 − y) = β(y − y1 )
=⇒ αy2 − αy = βy − βy1
(α + β)y = βy1 + αy2

βy1 + αy2
y=
α+β
 
βx1 + αx2 βy1 + αy2
Hence the coordinate of P is ,
α+β α+β

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External Division

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From figure 4,

−βx1 + αx2 −βy1 + αy2

x= and y= .
α−β α−β

Remark
The same formula applies for both internal and external
division. However, for external division, min (α, β) is negated.

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Examples

1. P divides the line AB internally in the ratio 3 : 2. If

A(−1, 2) and B(3, 4)are the ends of AB find the
coordinate of P .
2. Q divides the line AB externally in the ratio 3 : 2. If
A(−1, 2) and B(3, 4) are given, find the coordinate of Q.
3. If A(4, 7) and B(7, 3) are given, find a point P which
divides AB in the ratio 1 : 2.

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The Gradient of a Line Joining 2 Points

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From figure 5,

y2 − y1 △y
m= = .......(1).
x2 − x1 △x

Also from △ABC,

y2 − y1 △y
tan θ = = .......(2).
x2 − x1 △x

Comparing (1) and (2), m = tan θ, where θ is the angle the

line AB makes with the positive x-axis.

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Examples

1. Find the gradient of the line which passes through the

following pairs of points.

(a) P (1, 1) Q(7, 2) (c) A(3, −2) B(−3, 4)

(b) A(2, 1) B(5, 5) (d) A(−1, −1) B(1, −7)

2. A line passing through two points A and B makes an

angle of 1350 with the positive x-axis. Find the slope of
the line.

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3. A(2, 3), B(4, 7) and C(7, 3) are points in the x-y plane.
Find,
(a) the midpoint of AC.
(b) the slope of BC.
(c) the coordinates of the points of trisection of BC.
(d) the coordinate of the point which bisect AB.

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The Equation of a Line

The equation of a line is satisfied by all points on the line. A

linear equation can be written in many of the following forms.

1. The standard form of the equation of a line is

ax + by + c = 0, where a, b and c are constants and a
and b are both not zero. Example, 2x + 3y + 4 = 0.
2. The slope-intercept form is y = mx + c, where m is the
slope and c is the intercept on y-axis. Example,
y = 6x + 1
3. The point-slope form is y − y1 = m(x − x1 ), where m is
the slope and (x1 , y1 ) is a point on the line. Example,
y − 3 = 21 (x − 5).

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Examples

1. Find the angle the line 3x + 2y − 1 = 0 makes with the

positive x-axis.
2. State the gradient and hence find the angles the following
lines make with the positive x-axis.
√
(a) x + y = 2 (b) y = x − 1 (c) y + 3x = 3

3. Find the equation of the line with the given gradient and
also passing through the given points.
(a) m = 3, (4, 9)
(b) m = −5, (4, 9)
(c) m = 14 , (4, 0)

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4. Find the equation of the line passing through the
following points.
(a) A(−5, 2) B(3, 4)
(b) A(−2, 7) B(2, −3)
(c) P (−3, 0) Q(0, −2)
5. The equation of the line through (4, 2) and (−8, −2) is
3y = px + q, where p and q are constants. Find the
values of p and q.

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Parallel Lines

If L1 and L2 are parallel, then they are equally inclined to the

positive direction of the x-axis at an angle θ. Hence two lines
L1 and L2 are said to be parallel if they have equal slopes.
Example

1. Find the equation of a line which passes through (1, 3)

and parallel to 2x − 3y + 1 = 0.
2. Write down the equation of a straight line obtained
below.
(a) Parallel to y = 3x − 5, passes through (0, 6).
(b) Parallel to 2x − 7y = 3, passes through (8, 0).
(c) Parallel to 2x + 3y − 5 = 0, passes through (2, 4).

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Intersecting Lines

If two lines intersect, the coordinates of their point of

intersection must satisfy both equation. Hence the coordinates
of the point of intersection can be obtained by solving the two
equations simultaneously.
Examples
Find the coordinate of the point on intersection of each pair of
line.

1. 2x − 3y = 8; 3x + 4y = −5.
2. x + y − 2 = 0; 2x − y + 5 = 0.
3. y = 3x − 5; y = 4 − 5x.
4. 2x + y = −11; x − 3y + 4 = 0.

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Perpendicular Lines

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From Figure 6,
α2 = α1 + 90o .
=⇒ tan α2 = tan (α1 + 90o )
=⇒ tan α2 = − cot α1
tan α2
=⇒ = −1
cot α1
=⇒ tan α1 tan α2 = −1
∴ m1 m2 = −1, where m1 is the gradient of L1 and m2 is the
gradient of L2

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Examples

1. Find the equation of a line which passes through the point

(1, 3) and is perpendicular to the line 2y − 3x + 1 = 0.
2. Find the equation of a straight line that passes through
the midpoint of the line joining A(1, 2) and B(2, −3) and
is perpendicular to the line 3x + 2y − 5 = 0.
3. The lines x + 2y − 3 = 0 and 4x + 5y − 9 = 0 intersect
at P . Find,
(a) the coordinate of P .
(b) the equation of the line through P and parallel to the
line 3x − 4y + 7 = 0.

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The Acute Angle Between Two Lines

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From figure 7, α2 = α1 + θ.
=⇒ θ = α2 − α1
=⇒ tan θ = tan (α2 − α1 )
tan (α2 − α1 )
tan θ =
1 + tan α2 tan α1
m2 − m1
tan θ = , m2 > m1 .
1 + m2 m1

If m1 > m2 then
m1 − m2
tan θ = .
1 + m1 m2

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Example
Find the angle between the following pairs of lines.

1. 2x − y = 4, x − y = 3.
2. 2x + y = 4, y − 3x = 0.
3. y = x + 2, 3y − x − 2 = 0.

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Remark
m1 − m2
In order to avoid a situation where the fraction will
1 + m1 m2
be negative, we use the formula

m1 − m2
tan θ = .
1 + m1 m2

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The Distance from a Point P1 (x1 , y1 ) to a line
ax + by + c = 0

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 h
Let |P1 P2 | = a. From △P P1 P2 , sin α = a
=⇒ h = a sin α
and cos α = dr =⇒ r = d cos α.
Now,
x2 = x1 + r = x1 + d cos α

and

y2 = y1 + h = y1 + d sin α

Therefore P2 has coordinates (x1 + d cos α, y1 + d sin α).

But P2 lies on the line ax + by + c = 0.
Therefore

a(x1 + d cos α) + b(y1 + d sin α) + c = 0.

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=⇒ ax1 + ad cos α + by1 + bd sin α + c = 0.
=⇒ (a cos α + b sin α) d = −(ax1 + by1 + c).

ax1 + by1 + c
∴d=− ..........(1).
a cos α + b sin α
Now if the line P1 P2 is perpendicular to ax + by + c = 0 then
the slope of the line P1 P2 is ab .
Therefore
b
tan α =
a
and
b2 a2 + b 2
sec2 α = 1 + tan2 α = 1 + 2 =
a a2
.

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Hence
1 a2
cos2 α = =
sec2 α a2 + b 2
and
a
cos α = ± √ .
a2 + b2
Also,
sin α
= tan α
cos α
b a b
=⇒ sin α = tan α cos α = ± · √ = ±√
a a2 + b 2 a2 + b 2

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 a2 b2
 
∴ a cos α + b sin α = ± √ + √
a2 + b 2 a2 + b 2
√
= a2 + b 2
ax1 + by1 + c
∴d=± √ ..........(2).
a2 + b 2

Equation (2) is the perpendicular/shortest distance from a

point P (x1 , y1 ) to the line ax + by + c = 0.

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Remark

1. If the point P (x1 , y1 ) lies above the line ax + by + c = 0

then d is positive.
2. If the point P (x1 , y1 ) lies below the line ax + by + c = 0
then d is negative.

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Examples

1. Find the distance of the points (a)(1,3) (b) (-3,4) and

(c) (4,-2) from the line 2x + 3y − 6 = 0.
2. Find the perpendicular distance from the point P (2, 3) to
the line 3x + 4y = 5.
3. Show that the points P1 (−1, 2) and P2 (3, 4) are on
opposite sides of the line x + 2y = 6.

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Example
Find the distance from the given point to the following lines

1. P (3, 2); L : 3x − 4y + 4 = 0
2. A(2, −1); L : 5x + 12y = 0
3. B(2, 1); L : y = 32 x + 1
3
4. D(2, 5); L : x + y − 1 = 0

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The Circle

A circle is the locus of all points in the plane which are

equidistant from a fixed point called the center.
The fixed distance is called the radius of the circle.

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The Equation of a Circle Centered at the Origin

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From figure 9, x2 + y 2 = r2 . This is the standard form of the
equation of a circle. If the center is at a point (a, b) then the
equation becomes (x − a)2 + (y − b)2 = r2 which on
expanding gives

x2 − 2ax + a2 + y 2 − 2by + b2 = r2

or

x2 + y 2 − 2ax − 2by + a2 + b2 − r2 ..........(∗).

Equation (∗) can be written as x2 + y 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0.

This is the general form of the equation of a circle, where
D = −2a, E = −2b and F = a2 + b2 − r2 .

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Remark

1. The coefficient of x2 and y 2 are equal.

2. No term in xy exists in the equation.

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Example
State with a reason whether or not the following are the
equation of a circle.

1. x2 − y 2 + 2x − 4y − 4 = 0.
2. 2x2 + y 2 + 3x − 4y − 4 = 0.
3. x2 + y 2 + 2x − 4y − 4 = 0.
4. x2 + y 2 + 2xy − 4y − 4 = 0.
5. 2x2 + 2y 2 − 8x + 5y + 10 = 0.

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The Equation of a Circle

The equation of a circle can appear in several forms;

1. Radius and coordinate of center.

Example
Find the equation of a circle with center C and radius r.

(a) C(1, 2), r = 3.

(b) C(0, 4), r = 1.
(c) C(−3, 7), r = 2.
(d) C(4, 5), r = 1.
(e) C(2, −3), r = 2.
√
(a) C(−2, −3/2), r= 5.

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 2. Three points on the circle: We write the equation in the
general form x2 + y 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0 and then
substitute the three points into the equation to find all
constants D, E and F .

Example
Find the equation of a circle if it passes through the following
points.

(a) A(2, 1), B(0, −3), C(4, 3).

(b) A(−2, −3), B(−2, 3), C(1, 2).
(c) A(1, 1), B(2, 2), C(3, −2).
(d) A(0, 2), B(3, 0), C(3, −2).

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3. The equation of a circle given the ends of the diameter.

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Since P A and P B are perpendicular, the product of their
gradients is −1. i.e. m1 m2 = −1.
  
y−y1 y−y2
∴ x−X 1 x−X2
= −1.
=⇒ (y − y1 )(y − y2 ) = −(x − x1 )(x − x2 ).
=⇒ y 2 − yy2 − yy1 + y1 y2 = −(x2 − xx2 − xx1 + x1 x2 ).
=⇒ y 2 − yy2 − yy1 + y1 y2 = −x2 + xx2 + xx1 − x1 x2 .
=⇒ x2 + y 2 − (x1 + x2 )x − (y1 + y2 )y + x1 x2 + y1 y2 = 0.

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Examples
1. Find the equation of the circle in each of the following
with AB as the diameter.

(a) A(1, −1) B(4, 1). (e) A(−5, 2) B(2, −6).

(b) A(−1, 3) B(3, 2). (f) A(4, −8) B(2, 4).
(c) A(2, 1) B(4, 7). (g) A(4, 5) B(9, 6).
(d) A(−3, −1) B(−5, −7).

2. Find the midpoint of AB as the center of the circle. Use

this center and any of A and B to find the radius. Use
the center and the radius to write down the equation of
the circle.

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Finding the Center C and Radius r of a Circle Given
its Equation.

1. By comparing the equation of the circle to the general

form of the equation of a circle i.e.

x2 + y 2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0

where D = −2a, E = −2b and F = a2 + b2 − r2 .

2. By comparing the squares of x and y i.e. when the
equation of the circle is expressed in the form

(x − a)2 + (y − b)2 = r2 .

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Examples
Find the radius and the coordinates of the center of each of
the following circles.

1. 2x2 + 2y 2 − 8x + 5y + 10 = 0
2. 3x2 + 3y 2 − 24x + 12y + 11 = 0
3. x2 + y 2 − 2x − 6y = 15
4. 3x2 + 3y 2 + 6x + 12y + 9 = 0
5. x2 + y 2 + 8x − 2y − 8 = 0
6. x2 + y 2 + 6x − 5 = 0
7. 2x2 + 2y 2 − 3x + 2y + 1 = 0
8. 36x2 + 36y 2 − 24x − 36y − 23 = 0

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Tangents and Normals to a Circle
1. Tangent to a circle

Any straight line that touches the circumference of a circle but

does not cut the circle at the point of contact is called a
tangent to the circle. The radius of a circle is perpendicular to
the tangent at the point of contact.

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Kwame Piesie 64 / 151
Let m1 = slope of P T and let m2 = slope of P C.
∴ m1 m2 = −1
=⇒ m2 = − m12
Therefore equation of tangent is

1
y − y1 = − (x − x1 ).
m1

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Example
Find the equation of a tangent to the following circles at the
point of contact P .

1. x2 + y 2 − 2x + 4y − 15 = 0; P (−1, 2).
2. x2 + y 2 + 4x − 10y − 12 = 0; P (3, 1).
3. x2 + y 2 − 8x + 12y + 7 = 0; P (3, 2).

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Remark
Any tangent to a circle touches the circle at one and only one
point.

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2. Normal to a Circle

A normal to a circle is a line that is perpendicular to the

tangent to the circle at the point of contact.
The gradient of the normal to a circle is equal to the gradient
of a line joining the center to the point of contact.

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Let m = gradient of radius P C.
y1 −b
=⇒ x1 −a

Therefore the equation of normal is y − y1 = m(x − x1 )

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Find the equation of the normal to the following circles at the
point of contact P

1. x2 + y 2 − 2x + 4y − 15 = 0; P (−1, 2).
2. x2 + y 2 + 4x − 10y − 12 = 0; P (3, 1).

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Examples
Verify that the given points lie on the following circles and find
the equation of the tangents and normals to the circles at
these points.

1. x2 + y 2 + 6x − 2y − 15 = 0; (0, 0).
2. x2 + y 2 + 8x − 2y = 0; (3, 5).
3. x2 + y 2 + 2x + 4y − 12 = 0; P (3, −1).
4. x2 + y 2 + 2x − 2y − 8 = 0; (2, 2).
5. 2x2 + 2y 2 − 8x − 5y − 1 = 0; (1, 1).

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The Length of a Tangent from an External Point to
a Circle

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From figure 12, △P AC is a right-angled triangle.
∴ |AC|2 = |P A|2 + |P C|2
=⇒ |P A|2 = |AC|2 − |P C|2

p
∴ |P A| = |AC|2 − r2

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Examples
Find the length of the tangent from the point P to the
following circles.

1. x2 + y 2 − 4x − 6y + 3 = 0; P (−5, 8).
2. x2 + y 2 + 4x − 6y + 10 = 0; P (0, 0).
3. x2 + y 2 − 4x − 8y − 5 = 0; P (8, 2).
4. x2 + y 2 + 6x + 10y − 2 = 0; P (−2, 3).
5. x2 + y 2 − 10x + 8y + 5 = 0; P (5, 4).

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Conditions for a Line to be Tangential to a Circle

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A line is said to be a tangent to a circle if the distance
between the point of contact of the line and the center of the
circle is equal to the radius of the circle.
Let ax + by + c = 0 be the equation of the tangent L. Let
C(x1 , y1 ) be the center of the circle of radius r. Then L is the
tangent to the circle if and only if

ax1 + by1 + c
r= √ .
a2 + b 2

Kwame Piesie 77 / 151

Example
Verify whether or not the lines L1 : 5y = 2x − 33 and
L2 : 3x + 4y = 9 are tangents to the circle
x2 + y 2 + 2x − 8y = 8.
Example
Determine whether the given lines is a tangent to the given
circle in each of the following cases.

1. L : 3x − 4y + 4 = 0, C : x2 + y 2 + 4x + 6y − 3 = 0.
2. L : 5x + 12y = 4, C : x2 + y 2 − 2x − 2y + 1 = 0.
3. L : x + 2y + 6 = 0, C : x2 + y 2 − 6x − 4y + 8 = 0.

Kwame Piesie 78 / 151

Point(s) of Intersection of a Circle and a Line

The point(s) of intersection of a circle and a line are obtained

by solving their equations simultaneously.
If only one point is obtained, then the line touches the circle
and is therefore a tangent to the circle.

Kwame Piesie 79 / 151

Example
Find the points on intersection of the line 2y − x = 0 and the
circle x2 + y 2 − 2x − 6y − 15 = 0.

Example
The line 2y = x + 3 meets the circle
x2 + y 2 − 2x + 6y − 15 = 0 at the points M and N . Find the
coordinates of M and N .

Kwame Piesie 80 / 151

The Locus of a Point

When a set of points satisfy certain geometric constraints, we

say that these points represent a locus.

1. The set of all points in a plane which are equidistant from

a fixed point lie on the circumference of a circle whose
center is the fixed point.
2. The locus of point equidistant from two points A and B
is the perpendicular bisector of the line joining A and B.
3. The locus of all points which are equidistant from two
lines L1 and L2 is the bisector of the angle between the
two lines.

Kwame Piesie 81 / 151

Examples

1. A point moves in the xy-plane such that its distances

from A(−1, 2) and B(3, 4) are always equal. Find the
equation of its locus.
2. A point P moves in the xy-plane so that its distances
from A(−1, −3) is twice its distance from B(2, 4). Find
the locus of P .
3. A point P moves in the xy-plane so that its distances
from A(1, −1) and B(2, 5) are always equal. Find the
equation of its locus.

Kwame Piesie 82 / 151

4. M (4, 3) and N (−1, −3) are two fixed points in the
xy-plane. If P (x, y) is a variable point in the plane such
that |P M |2 = |P N |2 , find the equation of the locus of P
and describe it completely.
5. A(−1, 4) and B(2, −3) are two fixed points. A variable
point P (x, y) moves such that 2|AP | = |BP |.
(a) Find the equation of the locus of P . Express it in its
simplest form and state its constant properties.
(b) Find the points where this locus meets the y-axis.

Kwame Piesie 83 / 151

Miscellaneous Examples

1. A circle is defined by x2 + y 2 + 2ax + 2by − 15 = 0. The

gradient of a tangent to the circle at P (3, 2) is − 12 . Find
the values of a and b.
2. Find the cartesian equation of the set of points in each of
the following.
(a) P is equidistant from A(4, 1) and x = −2.
(b) P is equidistant from 3x + 4y + 5 = 0 and
12x − 15y + 13 = 0.
3. Find the equation of the locus of a point P (x, y) in the
xy-plane such that |P A|2 − |P B|2 = 7 where A(−4, 6)
and B(−7, 9).

Kwame Piesie 84 / 151

Conic Sections

In this section we shall be dealing with three curves.

1. Parabola. 2. Ellipse. 3. Hyperbola.

A conic is the locus of a point which moves so that its

distance from a fixed point bears a constant ratio to its
distance from a fixed line. The fixed point F is called the
focus and the fixed line L is called the directrix. The constant
ratio is called the eccentricity and is denoted by e.

1. If e = 1, the conic is a parabola.

2. If e < 1, the conic is an ellipse.
3. If e > 1, the conic is a hyperbola.

Kwame Piesie 85 / 151

The Parabola

If a point is always equidistant from a fixed point called the

focus and a fixed line called the directrix, then the locus of the
point is called a parabola. All parabolas have similar
properties.
Every parabola is symmetric about a line through the focus
and perpendicular to the directrix. This line is called the axis
of the parabola.
The point where a parabola crosses its axis of symmetry is
called the vertex. The distance between the focus and the
vertex is called the focal length.

Kwame Piesie 86 / 151

Kwame Piesie 87 / 151
 |P F |
From figure 15, |P N|
= 1 or |P F | = |P N |
p p
But |P F | = (x − a)2 + (y − 0)2 = (x − a)2 + y 2
Also,
p p
|P N | = (x − (−a)) = (x + a)2 + (y − y)2 = (x + a)2
p p
∴ (x − a)2 + y 2 = (x + a)2
=⇒ (x − a)2 + y 2 = (x − a)2
=⇒ x2 − 2ax + a2 + y 2 = x2 + 2ax + a2
y 2 = 4ax ........ Standard Equation of the Parabola.

Kwame Piesie 88 / 151

Example
Find the focus and the directrix of a parabola with respect to
the following equations

1. y 2 = 12x 3. 3y 2 + 20x = 0
2. y 2 = −4x 4. x2 = 5y

Example
Find the equation of a parabola in the standard form whose
focus is ( 27 , 0) and directrix is 2x + 7 = 0.

Kwame Piesie 89 / 151

Equations of Tangent and Normal to a Parabola

1. Equation of tangent to y 2 = 4ax at P (x1 , y1 ).

dy dy
y 2 = 4ax =⇒ 2y dx = 4a =⇒ dx = 4a2y
= 2a
y
.
dy 2a
∴ dx (x1 ,y1 ) = y1 .
Thus slope of tangent to the parabola y 2 = 4ax at
P (x1 , y1 ) is 2a
y1
.
Hence equation of tangent at P (x1 , y1 ) is

2a
y − y1 = (x − x1 ).
y1

=⇒ yy1 − y12 = 2ax − 2ax1 =⇒ yy1 = y12 + 2ax − 2ax1

Now since y 2 = 4ax, y12 = 4ax1
∴ yy1 = 4ax1 + 2ax − 2ax1
=⇒ yy1 = 2ax + 2ax1 ∴ yy1 = 2a(x1 + 2x)
Kwame Piesie 90 / 151
2. Equation of normal to y 2 = 4ax at P (x1 , y1 ).
Let m1 and m2 be the gradients of the tangent and
normal to y 2 = 4ax at P (x1 , y1 ) respectively. Then
m1 m2 = −1.
=⇒ m2 = − m11
y1
=⇒ m2 = − 2a
Hence equation of normal at P (x1 , y1 ) is
y1
y − y1 = − 2a (x − x1 ).

Kwame Piesie 91 / 151

Examples

1. Find the equation of a tangent to the parabola 3y 2 = 16x

at P (3, 4)
2. Find the equation of the tangent and normal to the
parabola y 2 = 8x at P (2, 4)
3. Find the equation of the tangent and normal to the
parabola at each given point in each case.
(a) y 2 = 4ax at P (1, −2)
(b) y 2 + 4x = 0 at P (−4, −4)

Kwame Piesie 92 / 151

Condition of a Line to the Tangent to the Parabola
y 2 = 4ax

Let the equation of the tangent be y = mx + c. If y 2 = 4ax is

the equation of the parabola, then;
(mx + c)2 = 4ax
=⇒ m2 x2 + 2mcx + c2 = 4ax.
=⇒ m2 x2 + (2mcx − 4a)x + c2 = 0 ..........(1)
Since the line is said to be tangent to the parabola y 2 = 4ac,
Equation (1) must have equal roots.

Kwame Piesie 93 / 151

Thus b2 − 4ac = 0 =⇒ (2mc − 4a)2 − 4m2 c2 = 0
4m2 c2 − 16acm + 16a2 − 4m2 c2 = 0
=⇒ −16mca + 16a2 = 0
=⇒ mc = a

a
∴c= ............ Condition for tangency.
m

Kwame Piesie 94 / 151

1. Find the focus, F and the directrix L of the following
parabola.

(a) y 2 = 15x (c) y 2 + 12x = 0

(b) y 2 = −8x (d) y 2 − 6x = 0

2. Find the equation of the parabola with focus F (3, −2)

and directrix 3x + 2y = 0.
3. Find the equation of the tangent and normal to the given
parabola at the given point.
(a) y 2 = 15x at P (1, 3).
(b) y 2 = −8x at P (−4, −4).
(c) y 2 = −12x at P (1, 2).
(d) y 2 − 6x = 0 at P (2, −6).

Kwame Piesie 95 / 151

4. If the line y = mx + c is a tangent to the parabola
y 2 = −4x, show that mc = −1.
5. If the tangent to the parabola y 2 = 4x is parallel to the
line 3x + 2y = 7, find the equation of the tangent.
6. Find the equation of the tangent to y 2 = 8x
perpendicular to x + 2y + 7 = 0.

Kwame Piesie 96 / 151

Point on Intersection of the Parabola y 2 = 4ax and
the Tangent y = mx + c

We have proved if the line y = mx + c is tangent to the

a
parabola y 2 = 4ax then c = m . Now solving y = mx + c and
2
y = 4ax simultaneously we get

2a a
y= and x = 2 .
m m
Therefore the point of intersection of y = mx + c and
y 2 = 4ax or the point of contact is
 
a 2a
,
m2 m

Kwame Piesie 97 / 151

Parametric Equation of the Parabola

The equation of a tangent to the parabola y 2 = 4ax, which is

a
y = mx + c may be written y = mx + m , m= ̸ 0.
Now if we let m = 1t then y = 1t x + at touches the parabola at
(at2 , 2at). Since the tangent was general, it has been shown
that any point on the parabola y 2 = 4ax can be written as

(at2 , 2at).

The equation x = at2 and y = 2at are called the parametric

equations of the parabola y 2 = 4ax.

Kwame Piesie 98 / 151

Example
Find the equation of the tangent and normal at (at2 , 2at).
At (at2 , 2at), x = at2 and y = 2at
dy dy dt
Now dx
= dt
· dx
.
dy dx dt 1
dx
= 2a and dx
= 2at =⇒ dx
= 2at
dy 1 1
∴ dx
= 2a · 2at
= t

∴ y − 2at = 1t (x − at2 )
x
=⇒ y − 2at = t
− at
x
∴y= t
+ at =⇒ x − yt + at2 = 0.

Kwame Piesie 99 / 151

Gradient of normal is −t
∴ y − 2at = −t(x − at2 )
=⇒ y − 2at = −xt − at3
=⇒ y = −xt + 2at + at3

∴ xt + y − 2at − at3 = 0.

Kwame Piesie 100 / 151

The Latus Rectum of a Parabola

Any chord of a parabola passing through the focus is called a

focal chord.
The focal chord perpendicular to the axis of the parabola is
called the latus Rectum.

Kwame Piesie 101 / 151

Kwame Piesie 102 / 151
 p
From figure 16, |P P1 | = (a − a)2 + (2a + 2a)2
p
= 02 + (4a)2
√
= 16a2
= 4a
Thus the length of the latus rectum of the parabola y 2 = 4ax
is 4a.

Kwame Piesie 103 / 151

Example
Find the length of the latus rectum for each of the following
parabola.

1. y 2 = 15x
2. y 2 = −8x
3. y 2 − 6x = 0
4. y 2 + 12x = 0

Kwame Piesie 104 / 151

The Ellipse

Kwame Piesie 105 / 151

An ellipse is the set of all points P (x, y) in a plane such that
the sum of the distances from two fixed points in the plane is
constant. Each of the fixed points, F ′ and F , is called a focus,
and together they are called foci. An ellipse has two axes of
symmetry. From figure 15, the line segment A′ A through the
foci is the major axis. The perpendicular bisector BB ′ of the
major axis is the minor axis. Each end of the major axis A′
and A, is called a vertex of the ellipse. The intersection of the
two axes is the center of the ellipse.

Kwame Piesie 106 / 151

The distance from the center to the focus is c. a and b
represent the length of the semi major axis and semi minor
axis respectively.
From figure 15, |AF | = |A′ f ′ |
=⇒ |AF | + |AF ′ | = |AA′ |
But |AA′ | = 2a
∴ |AF | + |AF ′ | = 2a .........(1)
Equation (1) tells us that the sum of the distances from the
foci to any point on the ellipse is 2a.
Again, since |BF | = |BF ′ | and |BF | + |BF ′ | = 2a, BF = a
Therefore by Pythagoras theorem, a2 = b2 + c2 ............(2)

Kwame Piesie 107 / 151

The Equation of the Ellipse

From figure, |P F | + |P F ′ | = 2a
p p
=⇒ (x − c)2 + (y − 0)2 + (x + c)2 + (y − 0)2 = 2a
p p
=⇒ (x − c)2 + y 2 + (x + c)2 + y 2 = 2a
p p
=⇒ (x + c)2 + y 2 = 2a − (x − c)2 + y 2
p
=⇒ (x + c)2 + y 2 = 4a2 − 4a (x − c)2 + y 2 + (x − c)2 + y 2
p
=⇒ (x + c)2 + y 2 = 4a2 + (x − c)2 + y 2 − 4a (x − c)2 + y 2
=⇒ x2 + 2cx + c2 + y 2 =
p
4a2 + x2 − 2xc + c2 + y 2 − 4a (x − c)2 + y 2
p
=⇒ 4cx − 4a2 = −4a (x − c)2 + y 2
p
=⇒ a2 − cx = a (x − c)2 + y 2
Kwame Piesie 108 / 151
=⇒ (a2 − cx)2 = a2 {(x − c)2 + y 2 }
=⇒ a4 − 2a2 cx + c2 x2 = a2 (x2 − 2cx + c2 + y 2 )
=⇒ a4 − 2a2 cx + c2 x2 = a2 x2 − 2a2 cx + a2 c2 + a2 y 2
=⇒ a4 − a2 c2 = (a2 − c2 )x2 + a2 y 2
=⇒ a4 − a2 c2 = (a2 − c2 )x2 + a2 y 2
=⇒ (a2 − c2 )x2 + a2 y 2 = a2 (a2 − c2 )
x2 y2
=⇒ a2
+ a2 −c2
=1
But from (2), a2 − c2 = b2

x2 y 2
=⇒ + 2 = 1 ............(3)
a2 b

Kwame Piesie 109 / 151

Equation (3) is the standard form of the equation of an ellipse
with centre (0, 0), with foci (c, 0) and (−c, 0), major axis
parallel to the x-axis.

Kwame Piesie 110 / 151

Remark
If (h, k) is the center of the ellipse then;
(x−h)2 2
1. a2
+ (y−h)
b2
= 1, b2 = a2 − c2 is the equation of an
ellipse whose major axis is parallel to the x-axis.
(y−h)2 2
2. a2
+ (x−h)
b2
= 1, b2 = a2 − c2 is the equation of an
ellipse whose major axis is parallel to the y-axis.

Kwame Piesie 111 / 151

Eccentricity of the Ellipse, e

|F A| a−c
From figure 15, |AN |
= e =⇒ n−a
=e
∴ a − c = e(n − a) ..............(1)
|F A′ | a+c
Also |A′ N |
= e =⇒ n+a
=e
∴ a + c = e(n + a) ..............(2)
a
(1) + (2) =⇒ 2a = 2en =⇒ a = en and e = n
c
(1) − (2) =⇒ −2c = −2ae =⇒ c = ae and e = a

Kwame Piesie 112 / 151

The shape of an ellipse is determined by its eccentricity. The
eccentricity, e, of an ellipse is defined as
c
e= .
a
Since 0 < c < a, 0 < e < 1, if e is close to zero, the two foci
are near the center of the ellipse.
In this case, the ellipse looks nearly like a circle. If e is close to
one, then the foci are near the ends of the major axis. In this,
the ellipse is very elongated since a2 = b2 + c2 and c = ae,
a2 = b2 + a2 e2 .
=⇒ b2 = a2 − a2 e2 = a2 (1 − e2 ).

Kwame Piesie 113 / 151

Latus Rectus of an Ellipse

Kwame Piesie 114 / 151

The latus rectum of an ellipse is a chord perpendicular to the
major axis through the focus. In figure 16, M N is the latus
rectum. q
2 2

From figure 18, |M N | = (c − c)2 + ba + ba
q
2
2
= 02 + 2ba
q
4
= 4b a2

2b2
= a

Therefore the length of the latus rectum of the ellipse

2
x2 2
a2
+ yb2 = 1 is 2ba

Kwame Piesie 115 / 151

Examples

1. Write the equation of the ellipse with center (−2, 3), semi
major axis of length 7, and eccentricity, e = 12 . The major
axis is parallel to the x-axis.
2. An ellipse has center (0, 3), major axis of length 12
parallel to the y-axis, and e = 12 . Find the length of the
latus rectum and determine a, b and c.
3. Find the foci of the following ellipse with horizontal major
axis.
(a) Center (0, 0), a = 16, b = 4.
(b) Center (3, 5), a = 4, b = 1.
(c) Center (0, 0), a = 5, b = 3.
(d) Center (−3, 2), a = 7, b = 2.

Kwame Piesie 116 / 151

4. Find, the center, the foci, the eccentricity and the length
of the latus rectum for each ellipse whose equation is
given
(a) 4x2 + 9y 2 = 36
(b) 5x2 + 8y 2 = 40
(c) 4y 2 − 8y + 9x2 − 54x + 49 = 0
(d) x2 + 16y 2 − 6x − 64y + 57 = 0
(e) 25x2 + y 2 − 100x + 6y + 57 = 0
(f) 18x2 + 12y 2 − 144x − 48y + 120 = 0
5. Find the coordinates of the foci, the length of the minor
and major axes for each of the following.
x2 y2 2 2
(a) 25 + 4 =1 (d) x4 + y9 = 1
x2 y2
(b) 9 + 4 =1 (e) x2 + 9y 2 = 9
x2 y2
(c) 4 + 25 =1 (f) 4x2 + y 2 = 4

Kwame Piesie 117 / 151

Parametric Equation of an Ellipse

2 2
The equation xa2 + yb2 = 1 suggest the identity
2 2
cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1. Thus if xa2 = cos2 θ and yb2 = sin2 θ then
we obtain x = a cos θ and y = b sin θ as the parametric
2 2
equations of the ellipse xa2 + yb2 = 1. Therefore the point
P (a cos θ, b sin θ) is taken as a general point on the ellipse
2
x2
a2
+ yb2 = 1. This angle θ is called the eccentric angle of the
point P .

Kwame Piesie 118 / 151

 2
x2
The Equation of a Tangent to the Ellipse a2 + yb2 = 1
at P (a cos θ, b sin θ)

Let m be the gradient of the tangent at P .

dy dy dy dθ
Then m = dx
. But dx
= dθ
· dx
.
dx dy
dθ
= −a sin θ, dθ
= b cos x

b cos θ
∴m= .
−a sin θ

Kwame Piesie 119 / 151

Therefore equation of tangent is
b cos θ
y − b sin θ = −a sin θ
(x − a cos θ).
=⇒ (y − b sin θ)(−a sin θ) = b cos θ(x − a cos θ)
=⇒ −ay sin θ + ab sin2 θ = bx cos θ − ab cos2 θ
=⇒ bx cos θ + ay sin θ = ab(sin2 θ + cos2 θ)
=⇒ bx cos θ + ay sin θ = ab

∴ bx cos θ + ay sin θ − ab = 0

Kwame Piesie 120 / 151

 x2 y2
The Equation of a Normal to the Ellipse a2 + b2 =1
at P (a cos θ, b sin θ)

Let m1 = the gradient of the normal at P .

Then
1 a sin θ
m m1 = −1 =⇒ m1 = − = .
m b cos θ
Therefore equation of normal is
y − b sin θ = ba cos
sin θ
θ
(x − a cos θ).
=⇒ (y − b sin θ)(b cos θ) = a sin θ(x − a cos θ)
=⇒ by cos θ − b2 sin2 θ cos θ = ax sin θ − a2 sin θ cos θ
=⇒ ax sin θ − by cos θ = (a2 − b2 ) sin θ cos θ
∴ ax sin θ − by cos θ − (a2 − b2 ) sin θ cos θ = 0
Kwame Piesie 121 / 151
Condition for Tangency
2 2
Let the line y = mx + c be tangent to the ellipse xa2 + yb2 = 1.
But the equation of any tangent to the ellipse is
bx cos θ + ay sin θ − ab = 0 .........(1). From y = mx + c we
have mx − y + c = 0 .........(2)
Comparing (1) and (2), m = b cos θ, −1 = m sin θ and
c = −ab.
b cos θ a sin θ −ab
=⇒ m
= 1, −1
= 1 and c
=1
b cos θ
∴ m
= − abc and b sin θ
−1
= − abc
=⇒ cos θ = − am
c
and sin θ = b
c
a2 m2 b2
=⇒ cos2 θ = c2
and sin2 θ = c2

Kwame Piesie 122 / 151

 a2 m2 b2
=⇒ cos2 θ + sin2 θ = c2
+ c2

But cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1

a2 m2 b2
c2
+ c2
=1

a2 m2 + b2 = c2

x2 y2
Therefore y = mx + c is tangent to a2
+ b2
= 1 if
c 2 = a2 m 2 + b 2 .

Kwame Piesie 123 / 151

The Hyperbola

A hyperbola is the set of all points P (x, y) in the plane such

that the absolute value of the difference of the distances of P
from the foci is a positive constant. Thus if F and F ′ are the
foci of the hyperbola and P and Q are any two points on the
hyperbola then

|P F − P F ′ | = |QF − QF ′ | = 2a

Kwame Piesie 124 / 151

Kwame Piesie 125 / 151
The center of a hyperbola is the midpoint of the line segment
connecting the foci. The point on each branch of the
hyperbola nearest to the center is called a vertex. The
distance from the center to the vertex is a and the distance
from the center to a focus is c. A hyperbola has two axes of
symmetry. The line segment of length 2a that has its
endpoints at the vertices is called the transverse axis. The line
segment of length 2b perpendicular to the transverse axis at
the center is called the conjugate axis.
For a hyperbola, the length of a, b and c are related by the
formula a2 + b2 = c2 . The asymptotes of a hyperbola are lines
through the center that the branches of the curve approaches
as the curve recedes from the center.

Kwame Piesie 126 / 151

From figure 17, |P F − P F ′ | = 2a
p p
=⇒ (x − c)2 + y 2 − (x + c)2 + y 2 = 2a
p p
=⇒ (x − c)2 + y 2 = 2a + (x + c)2 + y 2
=⇒ x2 − 2cx + c2 + y 2 =
p
4a2 + 4a (x + c)2 + y 2 + (x + c)2 + y 2
p
=⇒ −4cx − 4a2 = 4a (x + c)2 + y 2
p
=⇒ xc + a2 = −a (x + c)2 + y 2
cx2 + 2a2 cx + 4a = a2 {(x + c)2 + y 2 }

Kwame Piesie 127 / 151

=⇒ (c2 − a2 )x2 − a2 y 2 = a2 c2 − a4
=⇒ b2 x2 − a2 y 2 = a2 (c2 − a2 )
=⇒ b2 x2 − a2 y 2 = a2 b2

x2 y 2
=⇒ − 2 = 1 ............(1)
a2 b
(1) is the standard form of the equation of a hyperbola
centered at the origin (0, 0) and transverse axis of length 2a
parallel to the x-axis.

Kwame Piesie 128 / 151

Remark
If the center of the hyperbola is at (h, k) and transverse axis
of length 2a parallel to the x-axis then we have
(x−h)2 2

a2
− (y−k)
b2
= 1(1), where b2 = c2 − a2 .

Example
Find the equation of a hyperbola if the foci are F (2, 5) and
F ′ (−4, 5) and the transverse axis is 4cm long.

Kwame Piesie 129 / 151

Equations of the Asymptotes of a Hyperbola
x2 y2
a2 − b2 = 1

Kwame Piesie 130 / 151

 x2 y2
Consider the equation a2
− b2
= 1 =⇒ b2 x2 − a2 y 2 = a2 b2
2
a2 y 2 = b2 (x2 − a2 ) =⇒ y 2 = ab 2 (x2 − a2 )
√
 q q 
b 2 a2
∴ y = ± a x 2 − a2 ± ab x2 (1 − xa2 ) = bx
a
1− x2

As x becomes very large, x2 − a2 becomes close to x2 .

√
Therefore y = ± ab x2 = ± ab x.
Then, the equation of the asymptotes of the asymptotes of
the hyperbola are y = ab x and y = − ab x.

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Remark
If the center of the hyperbola is (h, k) then the equation of
the asymptotes are

b
y − k = (x − h)
a
and
b
y − k = − (x − h).
a

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Examples
(x−4)2 (y+2)2
1. Consider the hyperbola 16
− 9
=1
(i) Find the equation of the asymptotes.
(ii) Find the foci and vertices of the hyperbola.
2. Write down the equation of each hyperbola described
below.
(i) center (0, 0), a = 8, b = 5, horizontal transverse axis.
(ii) center (0, 0), a = 7, b = 4, vertical transverse axis.
(iii) center (6, −2), a = 4, b = 5, vertical transverse axis.
(iv) center (−1, 4), a = 2, b = 3, horizontal transverse axis.
(v) foci (0, 0) and (−10, 0), 2a = 16.
(vi) vertices (1, 2) and (1, −2), b = 2.
(vii) foci (0, 5) and (0, −5), 2a = 8.
(viii) vertices (3, 4) and (3, 0), b = 3.

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3. Find the center, foci and the equations of asymptotes for
each of the following hyperbolas.
y2 x2 x2 y2
(i) 64 − 36 = 1. (iv) 25 − 16 = 1.
x2 x2 (x+6)2 2
(ii) 9 − 16 = 1. (v) 36 − (y+3)
9 = 1.
x2 y2 (y−3)2 2
(iii) 36 − 81 = 1. (vi) 25 − (x−2)
16 = 1.

4. Find the equation of the hyperbola described below.

(i) center (4, −2), focus (7, 2), vertex (6, −2).
(ii) center (3, 3), focus (8, 3), vertex (6, 3).
(iii) center (3, −1), vertex (6, −1), equation of one
asymptote is 2x − 3y = 9.
(iv) center (4, 2), vertex (4, 5), equation of one asymptote is
4x − 3y + 4 = 0.

Kwame Piesie 134 / 151

The shape of a hyperbola is determined by its eccentricity, e.
Now e = ac =⇒ c = ae. Then a2 + b2 = c2 becomes
a2 + b2 = a2 ee =⇒ b2 = a2 (e2 − 1). The length of the latus
rectum of the hyperbola in figure 20 is

2b2
a

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Example
Find the equation of the hyperbola with center (−3, 1), focus
(2, 1) and eccentricity 54 .

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Parametric Equation of the Hyperbola

2 2
The equation xa2 − yb2 = 1 suggests the identity
sec2 θ − tan2 θ = 1. Then if we let

x2 2 y2
2
= sec θ and 2
= tan2 θ,
a b
we get
x = a sec θ and y = b tan θ
2 2
as the parametric equation of the hyperbola xa2 − yb2 = 1.
Therefore any general point on the hyperbola can be
represented as
P (a sec θ, b tan θ)

Kwame Piesie 137 / 151

Example
Show that at the point P (a sec θ, b tan θ) on the hyperbola
2
x2
a2
− yb2 = 1,

1. the equation of the tangent is bx − ay sin θ − ab cos θ = 0

2. the equation of the normal is
ax sin θ + by − (a2 + b2 ) tan θ = 0.

Kwame Piesie 138 / 151

Circle Theorem
Theorem 1

The angle subtended at the circumference by a semi circle is a

right angle.
Diagram

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Proof
From △ADB,
β + α + (β + α) = 180
=⇒ 2β + 2α = 180
=⇒ α + β = 90

Kwame Piesie 140 / 151

Theorem 2

The angle subtended by an arc at the center of a circle is

twice the angle subtended at any point on the circumference
by the same arc.
Diagram

Kwame Piesie 141 / 151

Proof

1. From △ADC, 2. From △ADC,

θ + θ + x = 180 τ + τ + z = 180
2θ + x = 180 2τ + z = 180
∴ x = 180 − 2θ ∴ z = 180 − 2τ

Now x + z + α = 360
∴ 180 − 20 + 180 − 2τ + α = 360
=⇒ α − 2θ − 2τ = 0
α = 2(θ + τ )

Kwame Piesie 142 / 151

Theorem 3

Angles in the same segment are equal.

Diagram

Kwame Piesie 143 / 151

From Theorem 2
θ = 2α and θ = 2β
∴ 2α = 2β
=⇒ α = β

Kwame Piesie 144 / 151

Theorem 4

The sum of the opposite angles of a circle quadrilateral is 180o

diagram

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2α + 2β = 360
α + β = 180

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Theorem 5

Angle between a tangent and a chord at the point of contact

is equal to the angle in the alternate segment.
Diagram

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β + τ = 90
α + θ + τ = 180
But θ = 90
α + τ = 90
Now since β + τ = 90 and α + τ = 90,
α=β

Kwame Piesie 148 / 151

Theorem 6

The angle between a tangent and a radius in a circle is 90o .

Kwame Piesie 149 / 151

Theorem 7

The length of the two tangents from the same point to a circle
are equal.

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Theorem 8

A perpendicular from the center of a circle bisects a chord of

the circle.

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