Computer Networking

Applications of Network
Some of the applications of network are discussed below:

1. Sharing of Information In a network, the users can share information,

data and text easily to other users. Different users can share the same
database, having different levels of access control.
2. Sharing of Peripherals The computers, in a network, can share common
peripherals, e.g. one highly speed common printer can be used for all
computers in a network.
3. Communication In a network environment, communication between
different users or computers is possible. By which we can send
messages, documents (text), data files, graphics, videos, images or an
e-mail to different users over the network.
4. Accessing Remote Database We can access the remote database and
retrieve information according to our requirement in a network. We can
booked tickets for airlines and trains or even we can book a room in a
hotel at any destination by a network.

Communication Media
Communication media of a network refer to the connecting media, through
which different computers in a network are interconnected together. The
communication media can also be referred as communication channels. The
communication media can be grouped into two categories:

Wired Technologies (Guided Media)

When the computers in a network are interconnected through a wire or
cable, then such a medium is categorised under wired technologies. Among
wired technologies, ethernet cable, co-axial cable, optical fiber, etc., are
included.

1. Ethernet Cable It is also known as twisted pair cable. There are two
identical wires wrapped together and twisted around each other.
Advantages of Ethernet Cable

 It is simple and physically flexible.

 It is inexpensive and easy to install and maintain.

Disadvantages of Ethernet Cable

 Using ethernet cable, signals cannot be transported over long distances

without using repeaters.
 It is not suitable for broadband applications as it has low bandwidth
capabilities.
2. Co-axial Cable It consists of a solid core wire surrounded by foil shield,
each separated by some insulator. The inner solid core wire carries the signal
through the network and the shield is used to provide earthing or ground.
Co-axial cable is commonly used in transporting multi-channel television
signals in cities.

Advantages of Co-axial Cable

 The data transmission quality in co-axial cable is better than twisted

pair cable, yet it is affordable.
 Co-axial cables can be used successfully in shared cable network.
 It can be used effectively for broadband transmission.

Disadvantages of Co-axial Cable

 Co-axial cable is more costly than twisted pair cable.

 The co-axial cable is not compatible with twisted pair cable. So, both of
these cables cannot be used together in a network.

3. Optical Fiber It consists of thin strands of extruded glass silica or plastic,

slightly thicker than human hair, which are capable of carrying light signals
from a source at one end to another end. At the source, there is a Light
Emitting Diode (LED) or a Laser Diode, which modulates the data into light
beam using frequency modulation techniques. At the receiving end, the data
are demodulated into computer readable form.
An optical fiber cable contains following three parts:

 Core It is the innermost part, which is made up of glass or plastic

through which the light signals travels.
 Cladding The cladding covers the core and reflects the light beam back
into the core.
 Protective Coating The protective coating is outside the cladding for the
protection of the optical fiber.

Advantages of Optical Fiber

 It is immune to electrical and magnetic interference i.e. noise in any

form cannot harm the data because, the information is travelling on a
modulated light beam.
 It is highly suitable for rigid industrial environments.
 Optical fiber cables can be used for broadband transmission, where
several channels (i.e. frequency bands of) are handled in parallel and
there is possibility of mixing up of data transmission channels with other
channels.

Disadvantages of Optical Fiber

  Connecting either two fibers together or a light source to a fiber is a
difficult process.
 Because of noise immunity, optical fibers are virtually impossible to tap.
In order to intercept the signal, the fiber must be cut and a detector
must be inserted which is not possible.
 Optical fiber cables are more difficult to solding (joint of one or more
cable).

Wireless Technologies (Unguided Media)

When the computers in a network are interconnected and transmitted
through waves, which are travelled through air, water or vacuum, then such
a medium is categorised under wireless technologies. Among wireless
technologies are bluetooth, infrared, microwave, radio link, satellite, etc., are
included.
1. Bluetooth It is a wireless technology, which is used for exchanging data
over short distances from fixed and mobile devices. Such types of networks
are categorised under personal area network. Bluetooth was developed by
telecom vendor Ericsson in 1994. Today, bluetooth is managed by the
Bluetooth Special Interest Group, which has more than 14000 member
companies in areas of computing, telecommunication, electronics and
networking. This occurs mostly on your cell phone but also occurs in other
technology such as music players.

Advantages of Bluetooth

1. It allows you to stay cord or cable free. So, you do not have to worry
about finding the correct place to connect that extra long cord.
2. Even though you are able to exchange data across your cell phones, you
still have the ability to keep your information private.
3. As it is already, but most likely it will be more dominant. You can use
bluetooth on laptops, cell phones, music players, headsets, printers and
many more other products.

Disadvantages of Bluetooth

1. You are using up more battery power, when you leave your bluetooth
enabled on your phone all day.
2. Throughout all devices, when using bluetooth Internet, the connection
can sometimes run very slow, so bluetooth Internet is not highly
suggested for that cases

2. Infrared In this type of transmission, infrared light signals are used.

Infrared signal are used in TV remotes, infrared wireless speakers, etc., as a
mode of transmission.
In infrared transmission, signals are transmitted through the air but these
signals cannot penetrate the walls.
Advantages of Infrared

 Low power requirements therefore ideal for laptops, telephones,

personal digital assistants.
 Low circuitry costs $2-$5 for the entire coding/decoding circuitry.
 Simple circuitry no special or proprietary hardware is required, can be
incorporated into the integrated circuit of a product.

Disadvantages of Infrared

 Blocked by common materials: people, walls, plants, etc., can block

transmission.
 Line of sight: transmitters and receivers must be almost directly aligned
(i.e. able to see each other) to communicate.
 Short range: performance drops off with longer distances.

3. Microwave In this type of transmission, signals are transmitted in the

same way as the radio and television transmission. The requirement for
microwave transmission is transmitter, receiver and the atmosphere. Under
this mode of transmission parabolic antennas are mounted on the towers.
These antennas send the signals in the atmospheric air. These signals are
received by the receiver.

Advantages of Microwave

 Using microwave, signals can be transmitted in the air without using

cables.
 Using microwave, communication is possible even in difficult terrain or
over oceans.

Disadvantages of Microwave

 It is not a secured mode of communication.

 Microwave communication is affected by weather conditions such as
rain, thunderstorms, etc.

4. Radio Link When two terminals are connected by using radio

frequencies, then such type of communication is referred as radiowave
transmission or radio link. Any radio transmission set-up has two parts viz.,
the transmitter and the receiver. Both the transmitter and the receiver use
antennas to send and receive the radio signals.

Advantages of Radio Link

 It is a cheaper means of transmission than wired communication.

  It provides mobility and makes communication easy over difficult
terrain.

Disadvantages of Radio Link

 It is not a secured mode of transmission.

 These signals are affected by the weather conditions like rain,
thunderstorms, etc.

5. Satellite In this type of communication, data are transmitted through

satellite. Under this arrangement, there is an earth station and a satellite
placed in the stationary orbit, which is about 22300 miles above the earth’s
surface. In satellite communication, the earth station transmits data towards
the satellite and the satellite accepts these signals, amplifies them and then
retransmits them towards the earth. These signals are captured by the
receiver.

Advantages of Satellite

 In satellite communication, large area could be covered.

 This mode of transmission is very useful in multimedia transmission.

Disadvantages of Satellite

 Satellite communication is very costly. So, it is not suitable for personal

or low budget communication.
 There is atmospheric loss of transmitted signals.

Types of Network
On the basis of coverage or geographical spread, a network can be divided
into following types:
1. Local Area Network (LAN) When the network of computer is confined to
a small or localised area such as school, office or building, it is known as
Local Area Network (LAN). Computers or users in a local area network can
share data, information, software and common hardware devices such as
printer, modem, hard disk, etc.

2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) A metropolitan area network is the

network which is spread over a city. The functions of a MAN is similar to LAN.
Like a LAN, computers in a MAN are also capable of sharing data,
information, software and hardware. The difference is only on the basis of
geographical area coverage.
3. Wide Area Network (WAN) The network of computers which is spread
across the countries probably over the entire world is known as a Wide Area
Network (WAN).

 A WAN can be a group of several LANs interconnected together.

 The largest WAN is the Internet.
 The functions of WAN are also similar to a LAN or MAN.

4. Personal Area Network (PAN) The PAN refers to a computer network,

which is used for communication among computer devices spread over a few
meters. PAN may be wired (i.e. with the use of computer buses such as USB)
or wireless using wireless network technologies such as bluetooth, wireless
USB, Z-wave and ZigBee. Bluetooth personal area network(PAN) is also
called a piconet. It can be composed of upto eight devices in a master slave
relationship. The first bluetooth device is master and other devices are
acting as slaves. Normally, its range is upto 10 m.

Network Topologies
The network topology refers to the arrangement or pattern of computers (i.e.
nodes or workstations), which are interconnected in a network.
Commonly used network topologies are as follows:

1. Bus Topology Bus topology is also referred as linear topology. Under this
arrangement, all nodes in the network are connected by a single length of
transmission medium, which is normally a co-axial cable. Both ends of the
cable are terminated by terminators. Data transmission from any workstation
can travel in both directions.
Advantages of Bus Topology

1. In bus topology, all nodes are connected through a single length of

cable, so very short cable length is used.
2. Extension of network is very easy in bus topology. We can connect new
nodes along its length.

Disadvantages of Bus Topology

1. When there is any problem in data communication with any node, whole
network stops functioning.
2. In case of any fault in data transmission, fault isolation is very difficult.
We have to check the entire network to find the fault.

2. Ring Toplogy In ring or circular topology, the nodes are connected in a

circular way. In such arrangement, each node is connected to exactly with its
two neighbouring nodes. In other words, when the last node in a bus network
is connected with first node and the entire network becomes circular network
is known as a network using ring topology.

Advantages of Ring Topology

1. Short cable length is required for connecting the nodes together.

2. The architecture of network is simple and easy to maintain.

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

1. In ring topology, each node is connected in a circular way with its two
neighbouring nodes, so when there is transmission problem anywhere in
the network, entire network stops functioning.
2. Fault diagnosis is very difficult in a network formed using ring topology.

3. Star Topology In star topology, there is a direct and dedicated

connection of every . node of the network with the central node or server. In
star topology, the server is directly connected with each and every node in
the network via a hub.

Advantages of Star Topology

1. The star topology is the most reliable as there is a direct connection of

every node in the network with the central node or server.
2. If there is any problem in connection with any node, other nodes in the
network are not affected.

Disadvantages of Star Topology

 1. Since, every node is directly connected with the central node or the
server, so a large quantity of the cable is required.
2. There is dependency on the central node. If there are some problems
with the central node, entire network stops functioning.

4. Mesh Topology A network set-up where each computer and network

device is interconnected with one another to provide an alternative route in
case of the host is down or busy.

Advantages of Mesh Topology

1. Excellent for long distance networking.

2. Communication is also possible through the alternate route, if one path
is busy.

Disadvantages of Mesh Topology

1. Long wire/cable length, hence increase in the cost of installation and

maintenance
2. There are high chances of redundancy in many of the network
connections.
3. Set-up and maintenance of this topology is very difficult. Even
administration of the network is tough.
5. Tree Topology The tree topology is an extension and variation in bus
topology. Here, the shape of a network is like an inverted tree, where the
central node is at the root which is branching out as the network extends.
Tree topology is suitable for the applications which have a hierarchical flow
of data and control. Since, it is a modified form of bus topology, hence it is a
hybrid topology.

Advantages of Tree Topology

1. The tree topology simulates hierarchical flow of data. So, it is suitable

for applications, where hierarchical flow of data and control is required.
2. We can easily extend the network whenever required.

Disadvantages of Tree Topology

1. There is a requirement of long cable length.

2. In tree topology, there is dependency on the root node.

Network Devices
Network devices are the components used to connect computer and other
electronic devices together, so that they can share files or resources like
printers or fax machines. The most common type of network devices used by
the public to set-up a Local Area Network (LAN) are hub, switch, repeater and
if online access is desired, a high-speed modem.
1. Modem (Modulator/Demodulator) Modem is a device that converts digital
signal to analog signal (modulator) at the sender’s site and converts back
analog signal to digital signal (demodulator) at the receiver’s end, in order to
make communication possible via telephone lines.
Functions of Modem The essential function of a modem is to create an
easily transmitted and decode signal. Modem divides the information into
packets called frames. They minimise the error that occur while the
transmission of signals. Modems are of two types:

 Internal Modem It refers to the modem that is fixed within a computer,

e.g. dial-up and wireless.
 External Modem A modem that resides in a self-contained box
outside the computer system, e.g. USB modem, Cable modem.

2. Hub Hub is a device used to connect several computers together. It

provides a centralised connection to several computers with the central node
or server.
It is multi-slot device in which multi-port cards can be inserted to provide
access to computers in the network.
Functions of a Hub A hub is a device that interconnects a number of
computers or users. Whenever any data packet is received by any port in a
workstation which may be an e-mail, graphics or any document, is forwarded
to all remaining ports. Thus, the required data packet is transported to
desired user or device.
There are two types of hub:

 Active Hub It amplifies the signals and passes from one connected
device to another. These hubs are working as repeaters to boost up the
signals.
 Passive Hub It simply passes signals from one connected device to
another without making any changes.

3. Switch The switch is a hardware device used to divide or segment the

network into smaller subnets or LAN segments. The main purpose of
segmenting a large network into smaller segments is to prevent the traffic
overloading in a network.
A switch forwards the data packet in a specific way over the network. It
means the switch filters the data packet, when the same is passed to it and
for the packet to the desired LAN segment.

Functions of a Switch
The switch is responsible for forwarding a data packet to a specific route or
segment. For this purpose, the switch establishes a temporary connection
between the source and the destination, when the data packet is transported
the connection is terminated.

4. Repeater The repeater is a hardware device used in a network to amplify

the weak signals, when they are transported over long distances. When the
signal is transmitted over a line, then due to resistance and other causes it
accumulates noise. Due to this noise, the quality of signal degrades.
So, to improve the quality of signals, repeaters are needed to be installed.

Functions of a Repeater
It receives an incoming signal from one device and retransmits it, forwarding
it on to other.
There are two types of repeaters:

 Amplifier Repeaters It amplifies or boosts the incoming signals. So, it

amplifies both the signal and any concurrent noise.
 Signal Repeaters These repeaters remove or filter the noise from
incoming signals and retransmit the same, in the same way as it was
starting from the source.

5. Gateway The gateway is a network device which is used to connect

dissimilar networks. The gateway establishes an intelligent connection
between a local network and external networks, which are completely
different in structure.
Infact, the gateway is a node that routes the traffic from a workstation to
outside network. The gateway also acts as a proxy server and a firewall,
which prevents the unauthorised access.

Functions of a Gateway The gateway is a node in a network which serves

as a proxy server and a firewall system. It is associated with a router and a
switch. Its main function as proxy server is to hold the information from a
website temporarily so that the repeated access to the same website or web
page could be directed to the proxy server instead of actual web server, thus
helps in reducing the traffic load. As a firewall system, it prevents the
unauthorised access to and from a private network.

Network Protocols
Protocol refers to the set of rules and regulations applicable for a network.
The protocol defines standardised format for the data packet to be
transmitted through the network, techniques for detecting the errors
whenever they arise and methods to correct these errors and so on.
Some of the commonly used protocols are as follows:
1. HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol) HTTP is an application level protocol
and it is widely used for viewing information of a web page over Internet. It is
a generic, stateless and object oriented protocol.
HTTP consists of a set of requests from the browser of a local computer to
the web server and a set of responses going back to the other way.
Though HTTP is designed for the use in the web application but it has scope
to be used in future object oriented applications.

2. FTP (File Transfer Protocol) FTP is designed to transfer files from one
system to another. Using FTP, different people locating in different
geographical locations can cooperate and work on a common project. FTP is
designed to promote sharing of files and to encourage the indirect use of
remote computers. Using FTP, any type of file can be transferred from one
computer to another. Though for transferring files, we have to specify
whether the file is in ASCII format or in binary format.

3. TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) TCP/IP is a set of

two protocols, i.e. TCP and IP. The Internet Protocol (IP) tells how packets of
information are sent out over networks. IP has a packet addressing method
that lets any computer on the Internet forward a packet to another computer
that is a step closer to the packet’s recipient. The Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP) ensures the reliability of data transmission across Internet
connected networks. TCP checks packets for errors and submits requests for
retransmission if errors are found.
4. PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol) The PPP is used with dial-up Internet
connections including ISDN. It is a layered protocol, which is used for
transmitting the data over usual telephone lines. It can provide connection
authentication, transmission, encryption and compression.

Remote Access Software

In remote access software firstly we have to know about the term “remote
access”. Remote access refers to the ability to access a computer or a
network from a remote distance. Remote access can be established via a line
that runs between a computer and Local Area Network. This type of line
provide faster speeds but has the drawback of being more expensive.
Another suitable method for performing remote access by establishing a
Virtual Private Network, which is usually uses the Internet to connect remote
site and users together.

To establish a remote connection, both the local machine and remote

computer/server must have remote access software. Remote access
software dial indirectly to the network server.
Team Viewer is one of the example of Remote Access Software. It simplifies
remote access over the Internet and supports a wide range of devices. It is
free for private uses.

Internet
The Internet has gained popularity and emerged as an important and
efficient means of communication. The Internet is world wide network of
networks.
Through Internet, computers become able to exchange information with
each other and find diverse prespective on issue from a global audience.

Basic Components for the Working of Internet

Here, we are discussing some basic yet essential components of a network
which are very much required for the proper functioning of the Internet.

IP Address
An IP address is an identifier for a computer or device on a TCP/IP network. It
is a way to measure a user’s unique identity. The traditional IP Addresses
(IPv4) uses a 32-bit numeric format and it defines both network and host
address. But now-a-days a new version of the IP protocol (IPv6) has been
invented to offer virtually limitless number of unique addresses. An IP
address can be static or dynamic. A static IP address will never change and it
is a permanent Internet address. A dynamic IP address is a temporary
address that is assigned to any computing device to access the Internet. An
example of IPv4 address is 216.3.128.12. Each number can be from zero to
255.
MAC Address (Media Access Control Address)
The MAC address refers to unique physical address assigned to a Network
Interface Card (NIC). Every workstation or device which is connected with the
network has unique node address. The MAC address is a 6 byte (48 bit)
address. Each byte in this address is separated by a colon. There are
hexadecimal numbers from 00 to FF (i.e. 0 – 255) in each byte, e.g. 05 : C2:
04 : 59 : 2F: BC is a MAC address.

Domain Name
Domain name is a unique name or identification that helps to create the path
to open a particular website. All the domain names have IP addresses. IP
address can be remembered by the computer, but it is difficult to remember
for a human being. If you know that URL (Uniform Resource Locator) of a
website, you can access it. The URL is actually the domain name of website,
so the domain name is unique name of a website. Every time we enter a
domain name it will be converted into an IP address and the website will be
opened, e.g. www.Mybook.com A domain name contains three parts:

1. Host name as, www

2. Name describing the website purpose as, Mybook
3. Top level domain as .com, .net, .edu, etc.

Domain Name Resolution

Domain name resolution refers to the process of getting the corresponding IP
address from a domain name. Infact the content of a website is stored on
some server anywhere in the world and to access the information or content
the IP address is required. When we enter the domain name in a browser by
typing on the address bar, the browser issues a command to the operating
system to provide the corresponding IP address.

Thereafter, the operating system searches the host file in which IP address of
some domains are stored. If the corresponding domain name was not found
there, then request is forwarded to Domain Name Servers (DNS). The DNS
maintains a directory of all domain names and corresponding IP addresses
registered on the Internet. When the IP address is required, it is provided to
the browser. The browser can access the information from the respective
website using the IP address.

Internet Applications
Applications which runs by the use of Internet are given below:
1. E-Mail
E-mail stands for Electronic Mail. It is a text message that may contain files,
images or other attachment sent through a network to a specified individual
or group of individuals. Some early e-mail systems required that the sender
and the recipient both be online at the same time, in common with instant
messaging. Today’s e-mail systems are based on a store and forward model.
E-mail servers accept, forward, deliver and store messages. Neither the user
nor their computers are required to be online simultaneously; they need to
connect an e-mail server, for as long as it takes to send or receive messages.
Interaction between e-mail server and clients are governed by e-mail
protocol. The two most common e-mail protocols are POP3 and SMTP.

2. SMS
SMS stands for Short Message Service. Short text messages are transmitted
to and from a mobile phone, fax machine, etc. Message must not be longer
than 160 alpha-numeric characters and may also contain images or graphics.
Once a message is sent, it is received by a Short Message Service Centre
(SMSC), which must get to the appropriate mobile device. To do this, the
SMSC sends a SMS request to Home Location Register (HLR) to find the
roaming customer. Once the HLR receives the request, it will respond to the
SMSC with the subscriber’s status

 Inactive or active.
 Where subscriber is in roaming.

If the response is ‘inactive’, then the SMSC will hold on to the message for a
period of time. When the subscriber access his device, the HLR sends a SMS
notification to the SMSC and the SMSC will attempt delivery. The system
pages the device and if it responds, the message gets delivered. The SMSC
receives a verification, that the message was received by the end user, then
it is categorised as, send message and will not attempt to send again.

3. Video Conferencing
By the name itself it is clear that it is the process of conferencing through
video talk. Basically, video conferencing is a type of conference, which takes
place between two or more participants by using computer networks to
transmit audio and video data. For such type of video conferencing each
participants should have a video camera, microphone and speakers in his
computer set-up.
There are two types of video conferencing:

 Point to Point
 Multipoint.

1. Point to Point Video Conferencing is a conferencing between two

person through video. It is like video telephonic call. The difference in a
simple telephonic call and point to point video conferencing is the virtual
appearance of user. They are able to view each other on their computer
window screen.
2. Multipoint Video Conferencing allow more than two participants to sit
in a virtual conference room can communicate with others as if they are
sitting just next to each other.

4. Voice Mail
Voice mail is basically a voice message that stores messages electronically
which can be retrieved by the intended recipients according to their
convenience. Voice mail was developed by telephony to prevent missed calls
and to facilitate call screening. Now-a-days, voice mails are getting
integrated with Internet, which allows users to receive incoming voice
message on their computers.

5. Chat
It can be defined as an informal conversation between two or more people.
In terms of computers, chat refers to the communication between two users
through computer, textually. The text is entered by one participant through
keyboard and that text is received by other on the other side and vice versa.

Wireless/Mobile Communication
By the name itself, it can be defined that it is a communication which do not
use any wires for the transmission of data. In this type of communication,
waves are used as the transmission medium, instead of wires. Mobile
communication uses electromagnetic waves for sharing and transferring of
data. Some of the mobile communication such as GSM, CDMA, WLL, 3G and
4G are discussed below:
1. CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)
CDMA stands for Code Division Multiple Access. It is a digital cellular
technology that uses spread spectrum techniques. CDMA consistently
provides better capacity for voice and data communications than other
commercial mobile technologies, allowing more subscribers to connect at
any given time and it is the common platform on which 3G technologies are
built. CDMA is a military technology first used during world war II by english
allies to foil german attempts at jamming transmission.

2. GSM (Global System for Mobile Communication)

GSM is developed to describe protocols for second generation (2G) digital
cellular networks used by mobile phones. It is developed by the European
Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) for the replacement of first
generation (1G) analog cellular networks and originally described a digital
circuit switched network optimised for full duplex voice telephony. Full
duplex means receives and sends the data at a time. ‘GSM’ is a trademark
owned by the GSM Association.
3. WLL (Wireless Local Loop)
It is an ideal application which provides telephone service to a remote rural
area. This technology simply means that the subscriber is connected to the
nearest exchange through a radio link instead of through the copper wires.
Sometimes it is also known as Radio In The Loop (RITL) or Fixed-Radio Access
(FRA). WLL has an advantage over satellite broadband because of its lower
transmission delay.

The system used in WLL is based on full-duplex radio network whose

capacity is very high to access the data from network. The cost of installing a
WLL system for subscriber access lines is now virtually the same as that of
copper cable, though it can vary depending on the subscriber line length and
local conditions, e.g. A PHS-WLL system has already been commercialised
and is scheduled to be implemented for commercial service in several
countries.

4. 3G (Third Generation)
3G stands for Third Generation and it is also called Tri-Band 3G. 3G
telecommunication networks support services that provide an information
transfer rate of atleast 200Kbps. This will allow 3G mobile devices to support
services such as video footage conferencing and full Internet access. Recent
3G releases, often denoted 3.5G and 3.75G, also provide mobile broadband
access of several Mbps to smart phones, modems, laptops, computers.

5. 4G (Fourth Generation)
4G stands for Fourth Generation, the stage of broadband mobile
communications that will supersede the third generation (3G). Carriers that
use Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) instead of Time
Division Multiple Access (TDMA) or Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) are
increasingly marketing their services as being 4G, even when their data
speeds are not as fast as the International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
specifies.

According to the ITU, a 4G network requires a compatible device to exchange

data at the rate of 100 Mbps. A 3G network, on the other hand, can offer
data speeds as slow as 3.84 Mbps. From the consumer’s point of view, 4G is
more a marketing term than a technical specification but carriers feel
justified in using the 4G label because it lets the consumer know that they
can expect significantly faster data speed.

Network Security
Network security refers to the provisions and policies adopted by the
network administrator to prevent and monitor unauthorised access, misuse,
modification or denial of the computer network and network accessible
resources. For network security, there is a provision of assigning an ID and a
password or other authenticating information that allows the user to access
the information and program within their authority. Network security covers
a variety of networks; both public and private. Network security is important
because people, organisations, corporates across the world are using
Internet to store the data, for communicating and transmitting critical
information. That is why network security breaches are there.
Some of the major network security breaches are:
1. Denial of Service (DOS)
A denial of service attack refers to an attempt to make computer resources
unavailable to the intended users. Generally, it consists the effort of a person
or a group of persons to prevent an Internet site or service from functioning
efficiently or completely. It may be temporarily or infinitely. One of the
common methods of denial of service attack is to saturate the target
machine with external communication requests, in such a way that either the
machine can not respond properly or respond slowly that is would not send
services effectively.

2. Intrusion Problem
The intrusion problem refers to the malicious activities or policy violation
performed on a computer system. The main motive of intrusion is to tress
vital information and essential data. Such type of activities are performed by
the people having malicious mentality.

1. Intrusion Detection System It is a device or software application that

monitors the network for the malicious activities. The intrusion
detection and prevention system is primarily focused on identifying
possible incidents, logging information and reporting attempts.
2. Snooping It refers to unauthorised opening of files or accessing data, e-
mail, etc. Snooping may include monitoring and tracing of keystrokes
pressed, capturing the passwords and login information, etc.
3. Eavesdropping It is identical to snooping. When there is intentional
interception of other data such as e-mail, login-id, credit card
information, password, etc., then it is said to be eavesdropping. In other
words, when someone listens or intercepts others data secretly, then it
is said to be eavesdropping.

3. Authentication
It provides a way of identify a user. It also known as the term of password
protection. The user is provided with an legal login-id and password by which
he/she is considered to be an authentic user and is allowed to see the
password protected data.

Network Security Concepts

Network security refers to the security of the network resources which are
used and guided by Internet as they are very much unwanted viruses and
many other problems which can damage the active files over the network.
Some of the network security concepts are described below:
1. Cookies
It is also known as browser cookies or tracking cookies. Cookies are small,
often encrypted text files, located in browser directories. They are used by
web developers to help users navigate their websites efficiently and perform
certain functions. Due to their core role of enhancing enabling usability or
site processes, disabling cookies may prevent users from using certain
websites. Cookies are created when a user’s browser loads a particular
website. The website sends information to the browser which then creates a
text file. Computer cookies are created not just by the website the user is
browsing, but also by other websites that run ads, widgets and other
elements on the page being loaded. These cookies regulate how the ads
appear or how the widgets and other elements function on the page.

2. Firewall
A system based on software or hardware designed to prevent unauthorised
access to or from a private network. Firewalls may be combination of
hardware and software. A firewall establishes a barrier between a trusted,
secure internal network (private network) and another network that is not
assumed to be secure and’ trusted. All messages entering or leaving the
Intranet (internal network) pass through the firewall, which examines each
message and blocks those that do not meet the specified security criteria.
There are several types of firewall techniques:

1. Packet filter Looks at each packet entering or leaving the network and
accepts or rejects it based on user defined rules. Packets filtering is
fairly effective and transparent to users, but it is difficult to configure. In
addition, it is susceptible to IP spoofing.
2. Application gateway Applies security mechanism to specific
applications, such as FTP and Telnet servers. This is very effective, but
can impose a performance degradation.
3. Circuit-level gateway Applies security mechanism when a TCP or UDP
connection is established. Once the connection has been made, packets
can flow between the hosts without further checking.
4. Proxy server Intercepts all messages entering and leaving the network.
The proxy server effectively hides the true network addresses.

3. Cyber Law
Cyber law is a term that encapsulates legal issues related to the use of
Internet. It is less a distinct field of law than intellectual property or contract
law, as it is a domain covering many areas of rules and regulations. Some
leading topics include Internet access and usage, privacy, freedom of
expression and jurisdiction.
4. Hacker
A hacker is someone who seeks and exploits weaknesses in a computer
system or computer network. Hacking is the practices of modifying the
features of a system, in order to accomplish a goal outside of the creator’s
original purpose. Hackers obtain advanced knowledge of operating systems
and programming languages. Hackers are most commonly associated with
malicious programming attacks on the Internet and other networks.

5. Cracker
A cracker is also called black hat hacker. A cracker is an individual with
extensive computer knowledge whose purpose is to breach or bypass
Internet security or gain access to the software without paying royalties. The
general view is that, while hackers build things, crackers break things.
Cracker is the name given to hackers who break into computers for criminal
gain. Crackers’ motivations can range from profit, a cause they believe in,
general maliciousness or just because they like the challenge. They may
steal credit card numbers, leave viruses, destroy files, etc.

6. Trojan
A Trojan, or Trojan Horse, is a non-self-replicating type of malware which
appears to performs a desirable function but instead facilitates unauthorised
access to the user’s computer system. Trojans do not attempt to inject
themselves into other files like a computer virus. It may steal information, or
harm their host computer systems. Trojans may use drive-by downloads or
install via online games or Internet-driven applications in order to reach
target computers. Unlike viruses, Trojan horses, do not replicate themselves.
e.g. Beast, Sub7.Zeus, Zero Access Rootkit, etc.