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/ 34
Definition
oP © A graph ¢ is defined as an ordered set (v, £), where v(c) represents the set of
vertices and €(6) represents the edges that connect these vertices.
O-® Figure 13.1 shows a graph with v(6) = (4, B, C, DandE) and E(6) = ((A, 8), (8, C)»
Figure 19.1. Undirected (As 9), (8, 0), (0, £), (C, €)}. Note that there are five vertices or nodes and six
graph edges in the graph. 13.6 GRAPH TRAVERSAL ALGORITHMS
Inthis section, we will discuss how to traverse graphs. By traversing a graph, we mean the method
of examining the nodes and edges of the graph. There are two standard methods of graph traversal
which we will discuss in this section. These two methods are:
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Table 13.1 Value of status and its significance
Status| State of the Description
node
a_| Ready The initial state of the node N
2 [waiting Node Nis placed on the queue on stack and waiting to be processed
3__| Processed Node N has been conpletely processed
13.6.1 Breadth-First Search Algorithm
Breadth-first search (BFS) is a graph search algorithm that begins at the root node and explores all
the neighbouring nodes. Then for each of those nearest nades, the algorithm (Fig, 13,20) explores
their imexplored neighbour nodes, and so on, until it finds the goal,
‘That is, we start examining the node a and then all the
SET STATUS = 1 (ready state)
for each node in G
s Engueue the starting node A
and set its STATUS = 2
(waiting state)
: Repeat Steps 4 and 5 until
QUELE is ompty
Dequeue 2 node N. Process it
and set its STATUS = 3
(processed state).
Enqueue all the neighbours of
N that are in the ready state
(hose STATUS = 1) and set
their STATUS = 2
(waiting state)
[EKO OF LooP]
EXIT
Figure 13.20 Algorithm for breadth-lirst search
neighbours of'aare examined, In thenextstep, we examine
the neighbours of neighbours of 4, so on and so forth. This
means that we need to track the neighbours of the node and
guarantee that every node in the graph is processed and no
node is processed more than once, This is accomplished
by using a queue that will hold the nodes that are waiting,
for further processing and a variable status to represent
the current state of the nade. Features of Breadth-First Search Algorithm
Space complexity nthe breadth-first search algorithm, all the nodes at a particular level must
be saved until their child nodes in the next level have been generated. The space complexity is
therefore proportional to the number of nodes at the deepest level of the graph. Given graph with
branching factor b (number of children at each node) and depth ¢, the asymptotic space complexity
is the number of nodes at the deepest level o(b*).
Ifthe number of vertices and edges in the graph are known ahead of time, the space complexity
can also be expressed as 0. (| €| + | V1), Where | € | is the total number of edges in ¢ and
Iv | is the number of nodes or vertices.
Time complexity In the worst case, breadth-first search has to traverse through all paths to
all possible nodes, thus the time complexity of this algorithm asymptotically approaches o(b*)..
However, the time complexity can also be expressed as 0 | € | + | V| ), since every vertex and
every edge will be explored in the worst case. 13.6.2 Depth-first Search Algorithm
The depth-first search algorithm (Fig. 13.22) progresses by expanding the starting node of 6 and
then going deeper and decper until the goal node is found, or until a node that has no children is
encountered. When a dead-end is reached, the algorithm backtracks, returning to the most recent,
node that has not been completely explored
In other words, depth-first search begins at a starting node a which becomes the current node.
Then, it examines cach node v along a path P which begins at a. That is, we process a neighbour
of a, then a neighbour of neighbour of a, and so on. During the execution of the algorithm, if we
reach a path that has a node w that has already been processed, then we backtrack to the current
node, Otherwise, the unvisited (unprocessed) node becomes the current node,
SET STATUS = 1 (ready state) for each node in G
Step 2: Push the starting node A on the stack and set
its STATUS = 2 (waiting state)
Step 3: Repeat Steps 4 and 5 until STACK is enpty
Step 4: Pop the top node N. Process it and set its
STATUS = 3 (processed state)
Step 5: Push on the stack all the neighbours of i that
are in the ready state (whose STATUS = 1) and
set their STATUS = 2 (waiting state)
[END OF Loop)
step 6: EXIT
Figure 13,22 Algorithm for depth-first search
The algorithm proceeds like this
until we reach a dead-end (end
of path p), On reaching the dead-
end, we backtrack to find another
path p’, The algorithm terminates
when backtracking leads back to the
starting node a. In this algorithm,
edges that lead to a new vertex are
called discovery edges and edges that
lead to an already visited vertex are
called back edges.
Observe that this algorithm is
similar to the in-order traversal of a
binary tree, Its implementation is similar to that of the breadth-first search algorithm but here we
use a stack instead of a queue. Again, we use a variable status to represent the current state of
the node. Rant - S
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Space complexity The space complexity of a depth-first search is lower than that of a breadth-
first search.
Time complexity The time complexity of a depth-first search is proportional to the number of
vertices plus the number of edges in the graphs that are traversed. The time complexity can be
given as (o( |v] + JE|)). BFS DFS
BFS stands for “’Breadth DFS stsnds for Depth First
First Search” Search.
BFS traverses the tree level | DFS traverses the tree Depth
wise. wise.
BFS is implemented using DFS is implemented using Stack
queue which is FIFP list. which is LIFO list.
It’s single step algorithm, It’s two step algorithm. In first
wherein the visited vertices | stage, the visited vertices are
are removed from the queue | pushed onto the stack and later
and then displayed at once. | on when there is no vertex
further to visit those are popped
out.
BFS requires more memory | DFS requires less memory
compare to DFS. compare to BFS.
Applications of BFS: Applications of DFS
1) To find shortest path. DUseful in Cycle detection.
11) In Spanning tree. iin Connectivity testing.
iii) In Connectivity. iii)In finding Spanning trees
& forest.
Always provides shallowest
path solution.
No backtracking is required
in BFS.
Does'nt guarantee shallowest
path solution.
Backtracking is implemented in
DFS.
Generally gets trapped into
infinite loops.
Can never get trapped into
finite loops. 13.7 TOPOLOGICAL SORTING
Topological sort of a directed acyclic graph (DAG) c is defined as a linear ordering of its nodes
in which each node comes before all nodes to which it has outbound edges. Every DAG has one
or more number of topological sorts,
A topological sort of a DAG is an ordering of the vertices of 6 such that if. contains an
edge (v, v), then u appears before v in the ordering. Note that topological sort is possible only on
Example 13.3 Consider three DAGs shown in Fig.
13.24 and their possible topological sorts.
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Figure 13.24 Topological sort
One main property of a DAG is that more the
number of edges in a DAG, fewer the number of
topological orders it has. This is because each edge
(u, v) forces node u to occur before v, which restricts
the number of valid permutations of the nodes.
directed acyclic graphs that do not have any
cycles. For a DAG that contains cycles, no
linear ordering of its vertices is possible.
Algorithm
The algorithm for the topological sort of a
graph (Fig, 13.25) that has no cycles focuses
on selecting a node w with zero in-degree,
that is, a node that has no predecessor. The
two main steps involved in the topological
sortalgorithm include:
* Selecting a node with zero in-degree
© Deleting from the graph along with its
edges
in the graph
FRONT = FRONT + 1
[ED OF LOOP]
Step 6: Exit
Figure 13.25 Algorithm for topological sort
Step 1; Find the in-degree INDEG(N) of every node
Step 2: Enqueue all the nodes with a zero in-degree
Step 3: Repeat Steps 4 and 5 until the QUEUE is enpty
Step 4: Renave the front node N of the QUEUE by sotting
Step 5: Repeat for each neighbour M of node N:
2) Delete the edge fron N to H by setting
TINDEG(H) = TADEG(H) ~ 2
) TF IRDEG(H) = 0, then Enqueue M, that is,
add M to the rear of the queve
[END OF INNER LOOP) Topological Sort or Topological Ordering
¢It is linear ordering of graph vertices such that for
every directed edge uv from vertex u to vertex v, u
comes before v in the ordering.
* Applicable on DAG(Direct Acyclic Graph)
* Linear running time complexity.
* Topological sort is not unique. Minimum Spanning Tree
Before knowing about the minimum
spanning tree, we should know about the
spanning tree.
To understand the concept of spanning
tree, consider the below graph: The above graph can be represented as G(V,
E), where 'V' is the number of vertices, and
'E' is the number of edges. The spanning
tree of the above graph would be
represented as G’(V’, E). In this case, V = V
means that the number of vertices in the
spanning tree would be the same as the
number of vertices in the graph, but the
number of edges would be different. The
number of edges in the spanning tree is the
subset of the number of edges in the
original graph. Therefore, the number of
edges can be written as: B€eE
It can also be written as:
E=|vi-1
Two conditions exist in the spanning tree,
which is as follows:
o The number of vertices in the
spanning tree would be the same as
the number of vertices in the original
graph.
V=V
° The number of edges in the spanning
tree would be equal to the number of
edges minus 1.
E=|v|/-1
°
The spanning tree should not contain
any cycle.
o The spanning tree should not be
disconnected. Consider the below graph:
The above graph contains 5 vertices. As we
know, the vertices in the spanning tree
would be the same as the graph; therefore,
V’ is equal 5. The number of edges in the
spanning tree would be equal to (5 - 1), i.e.,
4. The following are the possible spanning
trees: The minimum spanning tree is a spanning
tree whose sum of the edges is minimum.
Consider the below graph that contains the
edge weight:
The following are the spanning trees that
we can make from the above graph.
o The first spanning tree is a tree in
which we have removed the edge
between the vertices 1 and 5 shown
as below:
The sum of the edges of the above
tree is (1+44+5+42):12
°
The second spanning tree is a tree in
which we have removed the edge
between the vertices 1 and 2 shown
as below:
The sum of the edges of the above
tree is (8+24+5+4+4):14 o The third spanning tree is a tree in
which we have removed the edge
between the vertices 2 and 3 shown
as below:
The sum of the edges of the above
treeis(1+3+2+5):11
o The fourth spanning tree is a tree in
which we have removed the edge
between the vertices 3 and 4 shown
as below:
The sum of the edges of the above
tree is (1+ 3 + 2+ 4): 10. The edge
cost 10 is minimum so it is a
minimum spanning tree. If we remove any edge from the
spanning tree, then it becomes
disconnected. Therefore, we cannot
remove any edge from the spanning
tree.
If we add an edge to the spanning tree
then it creates a loop. Therefore, we
cannot add any edge to the spanning
tree.
In a graph, each edge has a distinct
weight, then there exists only a single
and unique minimum spanning tree. If
the edge weight is not distinct, then
there can be more than one minimum
spanning tree.
A complete undirected graph can
have an n™2 number of spanning
trees.
Every connected and undirected graph
contains atleast one spanning tree.
The disconnected graph does not
have any spanning tree.
In a complete graph, we can remove
maximum (e-n+1) edges to construct
a spanning tree. The number of spanning trees that can be
made from the above complete graph
equals to n™2 = 442 = 16.
Therefore, 16 spanning trees can be created
from the above graph.
The maximum number of edges that can be
removed to construct a spanning tree
equals to e-n+1 =6-4+4+1=3. Spanning tree - A spanning tree is the
subgraph of an undirected connected
graph.
Minimum Spanning tree - Minimum
spanning tree can be defined as the
spanning tree in which the sum of the
weights of the edge is minimum. The
weight of the spanning tree is the sum of
the weights given to the edges of the
spanning tree.
Now, let's start the main topic.
Prim's Algorithm is a greedy algorithm that
is used to find the minimum spanning tree
from a graph. Prim's algorithm finds the
subset of edges that includes every vertex
of the graph such that the sum of the
weights of the edges can be minimized.
Prim's algorithm starts with the single node
and explores all the adjacent nodes with all
the connecting edges at every step. The
edges with the minimal weights causing no
cycles in the graph got selected. Potsm’s Algoatthm
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Forget What is meant by Kruskal algorithm?
Kruskal's algorithm is a minimum spanning
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finds the subset of the edges of that graph
which. form a tree that includes every vertex.
has the minimum sum of weights among all
the trees that can be formed from the graph. In Kruskal's algorithm, we start from edges
with the lowest weight and keep adding the
edges until the goal is reached. The steps
to implement Kruskal's algorithm are listed
as follows -
o First, sort all the edges from low
weight to high.
o Now, take the edge with the lowest
weight and add it to the spanning
tree. If the edge to be added creates a
cycle, then reject the edge.
° Continue to add the edges until we
reach all vertices, and a minimum
spanning tree is created. (No GyeLE)
+X L- 6
Te It starts to build the Minimum
Spanning Tree from any vertex in
the graph.
It traverses one node more than
one time to get the minimum
distance.
Prim’s algorithm has a time
complexity of O(V*2), V being the
number of vertices.
Prim’s algorithm gives connected
component as well as it works
only on connected graph.
Prim’s algorithm runs faster in
dense graphs.
It starts to build the Minimum
Spanning Tree from the vertex
carrying minimum weight in the
graph.
It traverses one node only once.
Kruskal's algorithm's time
complexity is O(logV), V being the
number of vertices.
Kruskal's algorithm can generate
forest(disconnected components)
at any instant as well as it can
work on disconnected
components
Kruskal's algorithm runs faster in
sparse graphs. Oi kstna’ (terug) A\gosatn-
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