Module 1

Introduction to Physical Geography

The Scope of Geography

When most individuals are asked to define the nature of geography, they typically say that the field is
primarily concerned with the locations of nations, capital cities, rivers, and seas. They also presume that
maps play an important role in the majority of geographers' work. Although this notion of the profession
is correct to some extent, the field involves considerably more than the ordinary individual understands.
Geography, a word derived from the Greek words for “Earth description,” is an ancient discipline that
examines the spatial attributes of the Earth’s surface and how they differ from one place to another.

Geography is believed to have played a significant role in human history for tens of thousands of years.
It's easy to believe that prehistoric hunters and gatherers were well-versed in their environment,
including the location and characteristics of woods, streams, lakes, berry patches, migrating animal
herds, and rival human groups.

Physical geography is the geographical investigation of the Earth's physical components and natural
processes. Earth's physical components include air, water, rocks, plants, and soil. The term process refers
to a set of acts that can be monitored and have a predictable outcome. In physical geography, these
processes are frequently the result of energy that travels from the Sun to Earth in the form of solar
radiation. Once this energy reaches Earth, it moves from one location to another in diverse forms.
www.google.com Figure 1.1 Geography and its relationship to
other disciplines.
Geographers use a method known as spatial analysis, which attempts to explain patterns or distributions
of specific variables across physical space

Defining Physical Geography

Physical geography is the geographical investigation of the Earth's physical components and natural
processes. Earth's physical components include air, water, rocks, plants, and soil. The term process refers
to a set of acts that can be monitored and have a predictable outcome. In physical geography, these
processes are frequently the result of energy that travels from the Sun to Earth in the form of solar
radiation.
 Once this energy reaches Earth, it moves from one location to another in diverse forms. Natural
processes that are directly connected to the flow of solar radiation include atmospheric circulation, plant
dispersion, soil formation, and the movement of water in the air and streams, as well as its collecting in
lakes. Many processes occur in a linked manner within natural systems, with one environmental variable
having a direct influence on another. Given these linkages, physical geographers frequently employ
systems theory in their research because it provides a comprehensive framework for analyzing and/or
describing a set of factors that interact to generate a definite result.

Physical geography is a branch of geography that focuses on the natural environment and the processes
that shape the Earth's surface. It explores the physical phenomena, such as landforms, climate,
ecosystems, soils, and water systems, and seeks to understand the interactions between these elements.
Physical geography encompasses a wide range of sub-disciplines, including geomorphology (the study of
landforms), climatology (the study of climate), hydrology (the study of water), biogeography (the study
of ecosystems and biodiversity), and soil science. Through their research and analysis, physical
geographers contribute to our understanding of natural systems and the impacts of human activities on
the physical environment.

Scientific Method
Scientific method is a series of steps that help to investigate. To answer those questions, scientists use
data and evidence gathered from observations, experience, or experiments to answer their questions.
Scientific inquiry rarely proceeds in the same sequence of steps outlined by the scientific method. For
example, the order of the steps might change because more questions arise from the data that is
collected. Still, to come to verifiable conclusions, logical, repeatable steps of the scientific method must
be followed.

The scientific method in geography, as in other sciences, involves a systematic approach to

understanding the natural and human-made world. Here's how it typically applies to geographical
research:

1. Observation: Geographers often begin by making careful observations of a particular location,

landscape, or phenomena. This can involve using various tools such as maps, satellite imagery, or
fieldwork.

2. Hypothesis: Based on these observations, geographers develop hypotheses, which are educated
guesses about the underlying causes or processes at work. For example, a geographer might hypothesize
that a certain type of landform is the result of specific geological processes.
3. Experimentation and data collection: Geographers collect data through various methods, such as
surveys, interviews, remote sensing, and geographic information systems (GIS). They may also conduct
experiments or simulations to test their hypotheses.

4. Analysis: Geographers analyze the data they've collected to see whether it supports or refutes their
hypotheses. This often involves statistical analysis and the use of geospatial technologies to visualize and
interpret the data.

5. Conclusion: Based on their analysis, geographers draw conclusions about the patterns and processes
they've observed. They determine whether their hypotheses are supported and consider the broader
implications of their findings.

6. Peer review and publication: Finally, geographers often subject their work to peer review for feedback
and validation before publishing their findings in academic journals or other outlets.

Throughout this process, geographers also consider ethical considerations, such as the potential impact
of their research on local communities and environments. By following the scientific method,
geographers aim to contribute to our understanding of the Earth's landscapes and human-environment
interactions in a systematic and rigorous way.

The nature of physical / environmental geography and paradigm shifts

PARADIGM SHIFT - THOMAS KUHN

A shift in the ideological concept of a period. Any model, idea, concept, technique and method that is
capable of generating scholarly concern in a particular time period may be called a paradigm. Paradigm
from Latin word – ‘paradigma’ means – pattern, example. In Greek ‘Paradeigma’ means – pattern,
model, example, sample.

“The Structure of Scientific Revolutions” – Thomas Kuhn – 1962.

He adopted the word paradigm to refer – to the set of concepts and practices that define a scientific
discipline at any particular period of time. Kuhn postulated a theory about the growth and development
of science & defines, paradigm “as the constellation of beliefs, values, techniques and methods shared
by the members of a given community” Or: “universally recognized scientific achievements that, for a
given time, provide model problems and solutions for a community of practitioners”. E.g.: geocentric to
heliocentric, Geography transformed from descriptive to model making stage. According to Kuhn, 5
stages in the development of discipline: Pre-paradigm phase- Professionalization- Paradigm phase 1-
Crises phase with Revolution Paradigm phase 2. Development of paradigm in Geography (Henriksen
1973) Pre paradigm phase Professionalization Paradigm phase 1 Crises phase with revolution Paradigm
phase 2 Crises phase with revolution Paradigm phase 3 Paradigm A – Normal Science – Anomalies –
Crises – Revolution - Paradigm B 2

First phase – Pre paradigm phase: the phase before a set of theories and ideas are accepted by the
scholars & theorists. There is a sudden upheaval & abrupt rise followed by smooth & slow progress.
Marked by the conflicts among several distinct schools which grow individual scientists. Indiscriminate
collection of data over a very wide field and by a low level of specialization. Abrupt growth on knowledge
is not visible.

Professionalization: professional understanding of theories & methodologies in particular study. There is

a slight variation when it comes to professionalism, it takes places when one of the conflicting schools of
thought begins to dominate the others and thus a clear answer to the questions raised is given. A
particular school of thought may become dominant.

Paradigm phase 1: most of the scholars believe in same set of ideas or themes. this phase characterized
by a dominating school of thought which has often quite a short space of time, supplanted others.
Scholars think in a same way, a rigidity form. Growth is not visible; a stagnancy can be seen. E.g.,
Geocentric thought, Earth as a flat disc, etc.

Crises phase with Revolution: There is a decline in thought process due to stagnation. Formation new set
of theories and ideas. Slow growth of another paradigm.

Paradigm phase 2: scholars believe in the advent of new theories. E.g., Heliocentric thought, Earth in
spherical shape, etc. The process continues.

Other Scholars who contributed to the term & concept of paradigm were:
Peter Hagget 1983 Paradigm as a kind of “super model”.

Masterman 1970 Put three main paradigm types: Metaphysical paradigm- represents the total global
view of science. Sociological paradigm- based on universally recognised scientific achievements. The
artifact or construct paradigm- creation of human being.

R J Johnston 6 geographical paradigms – “Disciplinary notices” Exploration- environmental determinism-

Regionalism- spatial science- behaviouralism- radical/structural.

Harvey & Holly “Exemplars” 5 geographical literatures as paradigmatic.

1. Ratzel’s – Anthropogeographie

2. Vidal Blache’s – Tableau

3. Sauer’s – Morphology

4. Hartshrone – Nature of Geography

5. Scharfer’s – Exceptionalism – scientific law-making approach

Handa, M.L.1986 - Introduced the idea of “social paradigm” in the context of social sciences.

David Harvey 1970- The word paradigm familiar in the field geography with 3 ‘Revolution &
Counterrevolution’.
AREAL DIFFERENTIATION

Areal differentiation is one of the perspectives of human geography; in which importance is given to the
uniqueness of geographical area, rather than the standard model creation.

The term was coined and first used by Hartshrone in his work ‘The Nature of Geography’ 1939.

The study of the areal variation of human and physical phenomenon as they relate to the spatially
proximate and causally linked phenomenon is known as areal differentiation.

(Spatially proximate- places or areas should be proximity or close enough to easily undergo their
comparison. E.g.: agricultural zones such as wheat zone, rice zone, cotton zone, sugar zone can’t be
compared with the industrial zones.)

Methodology of aerial differentiation: 3 steps:

1. The basic tool of areal differentiation is regionalization for which qualitative and quantitative methods
have been applied. Use of qualitative and quantitative aspects for regionalization. E.g.: to study climatic
regions in India- qualitative and quantitative methods are to be mentioned- such as amount of rainfall,
temperature, etc. and calculations for their generalizations.

2. Regional synthesis to understand the integrative nature of elements of phenomenon to find causal
links. Interlinked with cause. E.g.: less population in western Rajasthan due to high temperature and low
rainfall.

3. Study coherent picture of the regions by having a comparison with the near proximate. Comparison
between two regions. E.g.: rainfall in the western ghats and Meghalaya (north east) can be compared.

Criticism: Areal differentiation attempts to have demarcation of boundaries that can’t be static, rather
they are often dynamic and acts as transitional zones.

Problem – fixation of exact boundaries in Areal differentiation.

E.g., climatic zones have boundaries that can’t be fixed. Focus on regional totality and not on individual
elements. More descriptive.

Study on Areal differentiation by individual elements is impossible.

QUANTITATIVE REVOLUTION

The application of statistical and mathematical techniques, theorems and proofs in understanding
geographical system is known as Quantitative revolution.

In geography, quantitative revolution happened in 1950s and 1960s. Early studies by quantitative
techniques in Geography started with climatic studies.

Bunge – “geography as discovery of predictive patterns during quantitative revolution period.”

Burton – introduced the quantitative revolution in geography.

Mathematical techniques and statistical tools were introduced into geography.

Main objectives:
1. To change the descriptive character to the subject (geography) – first phase geography was
explanatory and now more descriptive were focused.

2. To explain & interpret the spatial patterns of geographical phenomena in a rational objective and
cogent manner

3. To use mathematical language ‘Af’ in the Wladimir Koeppen’s climatic classification stands for ‘Tropical
rain forests.

Merits:

1. These techniques help in the estimation, interpretation (hypothesis testing), simulation of data which
are necessary for forecasting.

2. Help in describing, analysing, simplifying a geographical system, locational theories of industries,

agricultural land using intensities, stages of development of land forms, tec- we can easily understood &
predict them.

3. All techniques are based on empirical observations.

4. Allow formulation of structured ideas & theories.

5. Agriculture geography & urban geography introduced many modern theories based on quantitative
techniques & tools.

6. Gravity model in transport geography.

Criticisms:

1. It can’t be applied to the study of certain phenomena for e.g.: when the purpose is to uncover the
complex gendered socio spatial construction of identities.

2. Positivism and quantitative revolution are interlinked.

3. Quantitative techniques are geometry related. It’s not an acceptable language in geography since
geography focus on Man- environment relation.

4. Quantitative techniques are based on empirical data & normative questions are excluded- beliefs,
attitude, fears, etc.

5. Focus on locational analysis so the main weakness is that, it promotes capitalism (In a capitalist world,
human resource values cannot be considered).

6. Quantitative models mostly decision makers of human are considered as passive makers. Human
doesn’t have an active role.

SYSTEM APPROACH

The system derived from - a Greek word ‘systema’ that refer - normal rules and laws governing its
structure and behaviours.
System is termed as unified whole (working body) which consist of interdependently functioning
elements. Or An approach to find out the causes & function of the geographical phenomenon, by
studying the interlinked components as a whole.

Element – is very basic part of a unified whole. Functioning elements together form a system. E.g.,
Human body, ecosystem, administrative system.

In geography, system approach came from positive ideology & also a part of quantitative revolution in
geography.

Promoted by R J Chorley, Leopold, Landbein, Wolderberg and Berry.

Term introduced by: Grove Karl Gilbert -1877. R J Chorley – first geographer who brought this approach
to geography – ‘Geomorphology & General System Theory’

Berry applied concepts of organisation and information in the study of an individual city as a system and
its functioning within a spatial system of cities.

Wolderberg and Berry- system approach to explain theories related to urban geography &
geomorphology.

Human geographers apply the system approach- to study pattern of human migration, the dissemination
of knowledge, ideas and information.

Physical geographers used this systematic approach in understanding- natural set up in which physical
system operate.

Input – system – output. - working process.

System approach is used in geography for: land – use planning, natural resource management, water
shed management, regional planning. System approach is used in advanced level.

In system approach, elements & the interlinking properties & functions between these elements are to
be learnt.

SYSTEM ANALYSIS
Methods under the system approach is mentioned as system analysis.