Lymphatic

System
Module 11: Human Anatomy and
Physiology
Learning Outcomes
differentiate the organs that comprise the lymphatic system as to
descriptions and functions
discuss the types of immunity;
discuss cells involved in immunity and their functions; and
explain the common abnormalities involving the lymphatic system,
their prevention and care
Functions of the Lymphatic System
The lymphatic system maintains fluid balance in tissues, absorbs
lipids from the small intestine, and defends against pathogens.
The lymphatic system removes fluid from tissues, absorbs lipids from
the small intestine, and produces B cells and T cells, which are
responsible for much of immunity.
Anatomy of the Lymphatic System
The lymphatic system consists of:
 lymph
 lymphocytes
 lymphatic vessels
 lymph nodes
 tonsils
 the spleen
 the thymus
Lymphatic Capillaries and Vessels
Lymphatic vessels carry lymph away from tissues. Valves in the
vessels ensure the one-way flow of lymph.
Skeletal muscle contraction, contraction of lymphatic vessel smooth
muscle, and thoracic pressure changes move the lymph through the
vessels.
The thoracic duct and right lymphatic duct empty lymph into the
blood.
Types of Lymphatic Tissue
Diffuse lymphatic tissue
 No capsule present
 Found in connective tissue of almost all organs
Lymphatic nodules
 No capsule present
 Oval-shaped masses
 Found singly or in clusters
Lymphatic organs
 Capsule present
 Lymph nodes, spleen, thymus gland
Lymphatic Organs
Lymphatic tissue produces lymphocytes when exposed to foreign
substances, and it filters lymph and blood.
The tonsils protect the openings between the nasal and oral cavities and
the pharynx.
Lymph nodes, located along lymphatic vessels, filter lymph.
The white pulp of the spleen responds to foreign substances in the blood,
whereas the red pulp phagocytizes foreign substances and worn-out red
blood cells. The spleen also functions as a reservoir for blood.
The thymus processes lymphocytes that move to other lymphatic tissue to
respond to foreign substances.
tonsils
Lymph nodes
Spleen
Thymus
Overview of Lymphatic System
1. Lymphatic capillaries remove fluid from tissues. The fluid becomes lymph
2. Lymph flows through lymphatic vessels, which have valves that prevent the backflow of
lymph
3. Lymph nodes filter lymph and are sites where lymphocytes respond to infections
4. Lymph enters the thoracic duct or the right lymphatic duct
5. Lymph enters the blood
6. Lacteals in the small intestine absorb lipids, which enter the thoracic duct
7. Chyle, which is lymph containing lipids, enters the blood
8. The spleen filters blood and is a site where lymphocytes respond to infection
9. Lymphocytes (pre-B and pre-T cells) originate from stem cells in the red bone marrow
(see figure 14.9). The pre-B cells become mature B cells in the red bone marrow and are
released into the blood. The pre-T cells enter the blood and migrate to the thymus.
10. The thymus (see figure 14.6) is where pre-T cells derived from red bone marrow increase
in number and become mature T cells that are released into the blood
11. B cells and T cells from the blood enter and populate all lymphatic tissues. These
lymphocytes can remain in tissues or pass through them and return to the blood. B cells
and T cells can also respond to infections by dividing and increasing in number. Some of
the newly formed cells enter the blood and circulate to other tissues.
Immunity
 Immunity is the ability to resist the harmful effects of pathogens.
Immunity is classified as
 innate
 adaptive.
Innate Immunity
Physical Barriers
 The skin and mucous membranes are barriers that prevent microorganisms
from entering the body.
 Tears, saliva, and urine wash away microorganisms.
Innate Immunity
Chemical Mediators
 Chemical mediators kill pathogens, promote phagocytosis, and increase
inflammation.
 Lysozyme in tears and complement in plasma are examples of chemicals
involved in innate immunity.
 Complement – a group of more than 20 proteins in plasma; act similar to
clotting proteins;
o Circulate in blood stream in inactive form
o Activated by combining with foreign substances (e.g. parts of bacteria or combine with
antibodies)
 Interferons – proteins that protect the body against viral infection by
preventing the replication of viruses.
Innate Immunity (Cont’d.)
White Blood cells
 Chemotaxis is the ability of cells to move toward pathogens or sites of tissue
damage.
 Neutrophils are the first phagocytic cells to respond to pathogens.
 Macrophages are large phagocytic cells that are active in the latter part of an
infection. Macrophages are positioned at sites where pathogens may enter
tissues.
 Basophils and mast cells promote inflammation. Eosinophils also play a role in
inflammation associated with allergic reactions.
 Natural killer cells lyse tumor cells and virus-infected cells.
 All formed elements (except
T-lymphocytes) leave the bone
Major cellular components marrow and directly enter Erythrocyte
and circulate in the blood.
of the Innate- Nonspecific Platelets

System
Neutrophil

Red bone marrow Eosinophil

= site of origin
Basophil

Monocyte Macrophage
Pre-T-lymphocyte

B-lymphocyte
T-lymphocytes
mature in the
Thymus
thymus prior to
circulating in T-lymphocyte T-lymphocyte
the blood. maturation
Innate Immunity (Cont’d.)
Inflammatory Response
 Chemical mediators cause vasodilation and increase vascular permeability,
allowing chemicals to enter damaged tissues. Chemicals also attract
phagocytes.
 The amount of chemical mediators and phagocytes increases until the cause
of the inflammation is destroyed. Then the tissues undergo repair.
 Local inflammation produces redness, heat, swelling, pain, and loss of
function. Symptoms of systemic inflammation include an increase in
neutrophil numbers, fever, and shock.
Inflammatory Response
Adaptive Immunity
 Antigens are molecules that stimulate adaptive immunity.
B cells are responsible for antibody-mediated immunity; T cells are
involved with cell-mediated immunity.
Comparison of Innate and Adaptive Immunity
Origin and Development of Lymphocytes
B cells and T cells originate in red
bone marrow. T cells are
processed in the thymus, and B
cells are processed in red bone
marrow.
B cells and T cells move to
lymphatic tissue from their
processing sites. They continually
circulate from one lymphatic
tissue to another.
Activation and Multiplication of Lymphocytes
B cells and T cells have antigen receptors on their surfaces. Clones are
lymphocytes with the same antigen receptor.
Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules present
processed antigens to B or T cells.
Co-stimulation by cytokines, such as interleukins, and surface
molecules, such as CD4, are required in addition to MHC molecules.
Macrophages present processed antigens to helper T cells, which
divide and increase in number.
Helper T cells stimulate B cells to divide and differentiate into plasma
cells that produce antibodies.
Antibody-Mediated Immunity
Antibodies are proteins. The variable region combines with antigens and is
responsible for antibody specificity. The constant region activates
complement or attaches the antibody to cells. The five classes of
antibodies are IgG, IgM, IgA, IgE, and IgD.
Antibodies directly inactivate antigens or cause them to clump together.
Antibodies indirectly destroy antigens by promoting phagocytosis and
inflammation.
The primary response results from the first exposure to an antigen. B cells
form plasma cells, which produce antibodies, and memory B cells.
The secondary (memory) response results from exposure to an antigen
after a primary response. Memory B cells quickly form plasma cells and
new memory B cells.
Cell-Mediated Immunity
Exposure to an antigen activates
cytotoxic T cells and produces
memory T cells.
Cytotoxic T cells lyse virally
infected cells, tumor cells, and
tissue transplants. Cytotoxic T cells
produce cytokines, which promote
inflammation and phagocytosis.
Acquired Immunity
Active natural immunity results from everyday exposure to an
antigen against which the person’s own immune system mounts a
response.
Active artificial immunity results from deliberate exposure to an
antigen (vaccine) to which the person’s own immune system
responds.
Passive natural immunity is the transfer of antibodies from a mother
to her fetus during gestation or to her baby during breastfeeding.
Passive artificial immunity is the transfer of antibodies from an
animal or another person to a person requiring immunity.
Ways to acquire Adaptive Immunity
Immunotherapy
Treats diseases by altering immune system function or by directly
attacking harmful cells
Immunotherapy stimulates or inhibits the immune system to treat
diseases
 Example of stimulation: administering agents (like cytokines) that an promote
inflammation and activate immune cells which help destroy tumor cells
 Example of inhibition: inhibiting immune response for autoimmune diseases
like multiple sclerosis
Effects of Aging on the Lymphatic System and
Immunity
Aging has little effect on the lymphatic system’s ability to remove
fluid from tissues, absorb lipids from the digestive tract, or remove
defective red blood cells from the blood.
Decreased helper T-cell proliferation results in decreased antibody-
mediated and cell-mediated immune responses.
The primary and secondary antibody responses decrease with age.
The ability to resist intracellular pathogens decreases with age.
Some disorders and diseases of Lymphatic System