Lecture #11 Overview

p Vector representation of signal waveforms

p Two-dimensional signal waveforms
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Geometric Representation of Signals
We shall develop a geometric representation of signal waveforms
as points in a signal space.
Such representation provides a compact characterization of
signal sets for transmitting information over a channel and
simplies the analysis of their performance.
We use vector representation which allows us to represent
waveform communication channels by vector channels.
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Geometric Representation of Signals
Suppose we have a set of M signal waveforms s
m
(t), 1 m M
where we wish to use these waveforms to transmit over a
communications channel (recall QAM, QPSK).
We nd a set of N M orthonormal basis waveforms for our
signal space from which we can construct all of our M signal
waveforms.
Orthonormal in this case implies that the set of basis signals are
orthogonal (inner product
_
s
i
(t)s
j
(t)dt = 0) and each has unit
energy.
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Orthonormal Basis
Recall that

i,

j,

k formed a set of orthonormal basis vectors for

3-dimensional vector space, R
3
, as any possible vector in 3-D
can be formed from a linear combination of them:
v = v
i

i +v
j

j +v
k

k
Having found a set of waveforms, we can express the M signals
{s
m
(t)} as exact linear combinations of the {
j
(t)}
s
m
(t) =
N

j=1
s
mj

j
(t) m = 1, 2, . . . , M
where
s
mj
=
_

s
m
(t)
j
(t)dt
and
E
m
=
_

s
2
m
(t)dt =
N

j=1
s
2
mj
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Vector Representation
We can therefore represent each signal waveform by its vector
of coecients s
mj
, knowing what the basis functions are to
which they correspond.
s
m
= [s
m1
, s
m2
, . . . , s
mN
]
We can similarly think of this as a point in N-dimensional space
In this context the energy of the signal waveform is equivalent
to the square of the length of the representative vector
E
m
= |s
m
|
2
= s
2
m1
+s
2
m2
+. . . +s
2
mN
That is, the energy is the square of the Euclidean distance of
the point s
m
from the origin.
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Vector Representation (cont.)
The inner product of any two signals is equal to the dot
product of their vector representations
s
m
s
n
=
_

s
m
(t)s
n
(t)dt
Thus any N-dimensional signal can be represented geometrically
as a point in the signal space spanned by the N orthonormal
functions {
j
(t)}
From the example we can represent the waveforms
s
1
(t), . . . , s
4
(t) as
s
1
= [

2, 0, 0], s
2
= [0,

2, 0], s
3
= [0,

2, 1], s
4
= [

2, 0, 1]
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Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
In PAM the information is conveyed by the amplitude of the
transmitted (signal) pulse
Pulse
Amplitude
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Baseband PAM
Binary PAM is the simplest digital modulation method
A 1 bit may be represented by a pulse of amplitude A
A 0 bit may be represented by a pulse of amplitude A
This is called binary antipodal signalling
-A
Tb
s2(t) => "0"
A
Tb
s1(t) => "1"
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Baseband PAM (cont.)
The pulses are transmitted at a bit-rate of R
b
= 1/T
b
bits/s
where T
b
is the bit interval (width of each pulse).
We tend to show the pulse as rectangular ( innite
bandwidth) but in practical systems they are more rounded (
nite bandwidth)
We can generalize PAM to M-ary pulse transmission (M 2)
In this case the binary information is subdivided into k-bit blocks
where M = 2
k
. Each k-bit block is referred to as a symbol .
Each of the M k-bit symbols is represented by one of M pulse
amplitude values.
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Baseband PAM (cont.)
A
-A
-3A
3A
s4(t)
s1(t) s2(t)
s3(t)
e.g., for M = 4, k = 2 bits per block, as we need 4 dierent
amplitudes. The gure shows a rectangular pulse shape with
amplitudes {3A, A, A, 3A} representing the bit blocks
{01, 00, 10, 11} respectively.
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Two Dimensional Signals
Recall that PAM signal waveforms are one-dimensional.
That is, we could represent them as points on the real line, R.
1 3 5 7 -1 -3 -5 -7
PAM points on the real line
We can represent signals of more than one dimension
We begin by looking at two-dimensional signal waveforms
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Orthogonal Two Dimensional Signals
t
t
t
t
A
2A
2A A
-A
0
0 T/2 T
T
0
T/2
0
T/2 T
S1(t)
S2(t)
S1(t)
S2(t)
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Two Dimensional Signals (cont.)
Recall that two signals are orthogonal over the interval (0, T) if
their inner product
_
T
0
s
1
(t)s
2
(t)dt = 0
Can verify orthogonality for the previous (vertical) pairs of
signals by observation
Note that all of these signals have identical energy, e.g. energy
for signal s

2
(t)
E =
_
T
0
[s

2
(t)]
2
dt =
_
T
T/2
[

2A]
2
dt = 2A
2
[t]
T
T/2
= A
2
T
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Two Dimensional Signals (cont.)
We could use either signal pair to transmit binary information
One signal (in each pair) would represent a binary 1 and the
other a binary 0
We can represent these signal waveforms as signal vectors in
two-dimensional space, R
2
For example, choose the unit energy square wave functions as
the basis functions
1
(t) and
2
(t)

1
(t) =
_ _
2/T, 0 t T/2
0, otherwise

2
(t) =
_ _
2/T, T/2 t T
0, otherwise
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Two Dimensional Signal Waveforms
(cont.)
The waveforms s
1
(t) and s
2
(t) can be written as linear
combinations of the basis functions
s
1
(t) = s
11

1
(t) +s
12

2
(t)
s
1
= (s
11
, s
12
) = (A
_
T/2, A
_
T/2)
Similarly, s
2
(t) s
2
= (A
_
T/2, A
_
T/2)
45
45
o
o
s1
s2
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Two Dimensional Signal Waveforms
(cont.)
We can see that the previous two vectors are orthogonal in 2-D
space
Recall that their lengths give the energy
E
1
= s
1

2
= s
2
11
+s
2
12
= A
2
T
The euclidean distance between the two signals is
d
12
=
_
s
1
s
2

2
=
_
(s
11
s
21
, s
12
s
22
)
2
=
_
(0, A

2T)
2
= A

2T =
_
A
2
2T =

2E
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Two Dimensional Signal Waveforms
(cont.)
Can similarly show that the other two waveforms are orthogonal
and can be represented using the same basis functions
1
(t) and

2
(t)
Their representative vectors turn out to be a 45

rotation of the
previous two vectors.
s1
s2
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Representation of > 2 bits in 2-D
Simply add more vector points
The total number of points that we have, M, tells us how many
bits k we can represent with each symbol, M = 2
k
, e.g.,
M = 8, k = 3

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Representation of > 2 bits in 2-D (cont.)
Note that the previous set of signals (vector representation) had
identical energies
Can also choose signal waveforms/points with unequal energies
The constellation on the right gives an advantage in noisy
environments (Can you tell why?)
1 2
2
1
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2-D Bandpass Signals
Simply multiply by a carrier
u
m
(t) = s
m
(t) cos 2f
c
t m = 1, 2, . . . , M 0 t T
For M = 4, k = 2 and signal points with equal energies, we can
have four biorthogonal waveforms

These signal points/vectors are

equivalent to phasors, where
each is shifted by /2 from each
adjacent point/waveform
For a rectangular pulse
u
m
(t) =

2E
s
T
cos
_
2f
c
t +
2m
M
_

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Carrier with Square Pulse
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2-D Bandpass Signals
This type of signalling is also referred to as phase-shift keying
(PSK)
Can also be written as
u
m
(t) = g
T
(t)A
mc
cos 2f
c
t g
T
(t)A
ms
sin2f
c
t
where g
T
(t) is a square wave with amplitude
_
2E
s
/T and width
T, so that we are using a pair of quadrature carriers
Note that binary phase modulation is identical to binary PAM
A value of interest is the minimum Euclidean distance which
plays an important role in determining bit error rate
performance in the presence of AWGN.
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Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
For MPSK, signals were constrained to have equal energies.
The representative signal points therefore lay on a circle in 2-D
space
In quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) we allow dierent
energies.
QAM can be considered as a combination of digital amplitude
modulation and digital phase modulation
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QAM
Each bandpass waveform is represented according to a distinct
amplitude/phase combination
u
mn
(t) = A
m
g
T
(t) cos(2f
c
t +
n
)
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