Contents 1 2 3 4. 5. 6 7. 8 9 10. 11 2 3B. 14. 15. 16 v7 18 19 20. 21. 22. 23, 24. 25, 26 27. 28 29, Prehistoric age in india. Indus Valley Civilization... Indus Valley Settlement Razed.. Indus Valley Civilization ~ Art & Culture Facts about Rig Veda. Vedic Civilization Persian And Greek Invasions Of India. Rise & Growth Of Magadha Empire. Gautam Buddha ~ Life & Teachings. Buddhist Councils And Important Texts. Jainism —Vardhaman Mahavira The Mauryan Empire. Mauryan Administration... Ashoka ~ Life & Dhamma... ‘The Edicts Of Ashoka... Mauryan Empire: Reasons For Decline .. Sunga Dynasty Satavahana Dynasty ~ Post Mauryan Period. ‘The Indo-Greek Rule. The $akaS... Kushana Empire ~ Origin, Kings, Significance & Decline. Gupta Empire... Legacy And Decline Of The Gupta Empire... Harshavardhana.. The Pallavas..... Pallava Culture And Architecture... Chalukya Dynasty ~ Rulers, Administration, Art & Architecture ‘The Pala Empire. The Vakataka Dynasty. © Yuvraj IAS 2019 Scanned with CamScannerPrehistoric age in India Ancient history can be divided into different periods according to the tools used by people then. Palaeolithic Period: 2 million BC — 10,000 BC Mesolithic Period: 10,000 BC — 8000 BC Neolithic Period: 8000 BC - 4000 BC Chalcolithic Period: 4000 BC ~ 1500 BC Tron Age: 1500 BC — 200 BC Palaeolithic Period (Old Stone Age) is is further divided into three: 1. Lower Palaeolithic Age: up to 100,000 BC 2. Middle Palaeolithic Age: 100,000 BC — 40,000 BC 3. Upper Palaeolithic Age: 40,000 BC — 10,000 BC Lower Palaeolithic age Hunters and food gatherers; tools used were axes, choppers and cleavers. Earliest lower Palaeolithic site is Bori in Maharashtra. Limestone was also used to make tools Major sites of lower Palaeolithic age Soan valley (in present Pakistan) sites in the Thar Desert Kashmir Mewar plains Saurashtra Gujarat Central India Deccan Plateau + Chotanagpur plateau « North of the Cauvery River + Belan valley in UP + There are habitation sites including caves and rock shelters + It was declared a World Heritage Site in 2003 + An important place is Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh Middle Palaeolithic age + Tools used were blades, pointers, scrapers and borers. « The tools were smaller, lighter and thinner 2 © Yuvraj IAS 2019 Scanned with CamScannerImportant middle Palaeolithic age sites + Belan valley in UP + Luni valley (Rajasthan) + Son and Narmada rivers + Bhimbetka Upper Palaeolithic age Emergence of Homo sapiens Lot of bone tools, including needles, harpoons, blades, fishing tools and burin tools. Major sites of Upper Palaeolithic age + Belan « Son + Chota Nagpur plateau (Bihar) * Maharashtra + Orissa and + Eastern Ghats in Andhra Pradesh + Paintings at Bhimbetka site belong to this age. Mesolithic Period (Middle Stone Age) Major climate change happened. Climate became warmer and more humid. Rainfall increased and so more availability of flora and fauna. Domestication of animals and plants were seen for the first time. Started 12000 years First animal to be domesticated was the wild ancestor of the dog. Sheep and goats were the most common domesticated animals. Hunting and food gathering continued. First human colonization of the Ganga plains. Microliths have been excavated They are small stone tools that were probably stuck to stones to be used as saws and sickles. Major sites: + Brahmagiri (Mysore) + Narmada + Vindhya Gujarat uP Sojat (Rajasthan) 3 © Yuvraj IAS 2019 Scanned with CamScanner+ Bhimbetka + Godavari Basin + Sarai Nahar Rai + Tools used were blades, crescents, triangles, trapezes, spearheads, knives, arrowheads, sickles, harpoons and daggers. Neolithic Period (New Stone Age) Starting of agriculture Moving from nomadic to settled life Wheel discovered. Ragi, wheat and horse gram were cultivated They knew to mal Knew pottery Art was seen in cave paintings of dance Also show first intentional disposal of the dead Important sites: + Inamgaon + Burzahom (Kashmir) + Mebhrgarh (Pakistan) Daojali Hading (Tripura/Assam) Hallur (AP) Paiyampalli (AP) Chirand (Bihar) Evidence of houses Chalcolithic Period (Copper Age/Bronze Age) Indus Valley Civilization (2700 BC — 1900 BC) Other settlements at Brahmagiri Navada Toli (Narmada region) Chirand (Ganga region) and Mahishadal (West Bengal) Arrival of the Aryans: Vedic Period Jainism, Buddhism Mahajanapadas: the first major civilisation on the banks of the river Ganga after the Indus Valley. 4 © Yuvraj IAS 2019 Scanned with CamScannerIndus Valley Civilization The Indus Valley Civilization was established around 3300 BC. It flourished between 2700 BC and 1900 BC (Mature Indus Valley Civilization). It started declining around 1900 BC and disappeared around 1400 BC. is is also called Harappan Civilization after the first city to be excavated, Harappa (Punjab, Pakistan). Pre-Harappan civilization has been found at Mehrgarh, Pakistan which shows the first evidence of cotton cultivation. Geographically, this civilization covered Punjab, Sindh, Baluchistan, Rajasthan, Gujarat and Western Uttar Pradesh, It extended from Sutkagengor (in Baluchistan) in the West to Alamgirpur (Western UP) in the East; and from Mandu (Jammu) in the North to Daimabad (Ahmednagar, Maharashtra) in the South. Some Indus Valley sites have also been found in as far away as Afghanistan and Turkmenistan, Indus Valley Civilisation important sites + In India: Kalibangan (Rajasthan), Lothal, Dholavira, Rangpur, Surkotda (Gujarat), Banawali (Haryana), Ropar (Punjab). In Pakistan: Harappa (on river Ravi), Mohenjodaro (on Indus River in Sindh), Chanhudaro (in Sindh). The civilization was first discovered during an excavation campaign under Sir John Hubert Marshall in 1921-22 at Harappa following the discovery of seals by J Fleet. Harappan ruins were discovered by Marshall, Rai Bahadur Daya Ram Sahni and Madho Sarup Vats. Mohenjodaro ruins were excavated for the first time by R.D. Banerjee, E, J. H. MacKay and Marshall. The Indus Valley cities show a level of sophistication and advancement not seen in other contemporary civilizations. Most cities had similar patterns. There were two parts: a citadel and the lower town. Most cities had a Great Bath. There were also granaries, 2-storied houses made of burnt bricks, closed drainage lines, excellent stormwater and waste water management system, weights for measurements, toys, pots, etc A large number of seals have been discovered. Agriculture was the most important occupation. The first civilization to cultivate cotton Animals were domesticated like sheep, goats and pigs. Crops were wheat, barley, cotton, ragi, dates and peas 5 © Yuvraj IAS 2019 Scanned with CamScannerTrade was conducted with the Sumerians. Metal products were produced including those with copper, bronze, tin and lead. Gold and silver were also known. Iron was not known to them. No structures like temples or palaces have been found. The people worshipped male and female deities. A seal which was named Pashupati Seal” has been excavated and it shows an image of a three-eyed figure. Marshall believed this to be an early form of Lord Shiva. Excellent pieces of red pottery designed in black have been excavated. Faience was used to make beads, bangles, earrings and vessel The civilization also was advanced in making art works. A statuette named “Dancing Girl’ has been found from Mohenjodaro and is believed to be 4000 years old. A figure of a bearded Priest-King has also been found from Mohenjodaro. Lothal was a dockyard. Disposal of the dead was by burial in wooden coffins. Later on, in the H Symmetry culture, bodies were cremated in urns. The Indus Valley script has not yet been deciphered Causes of the decline of this civilization have not been firmly established, Archaeologists now believe that the civilization did not come to an abrupt end but gradually declined. People moved eastwards and cities were abandoned. Writing and trade declined. Mortimer Wheeler suggested that Aryan invasion led to the decline of the Indus Valley. This theory has now been debunked. Robert Raikes suggests that tectonic movements and floods caused the decline. Lambrick suggests a change in the course of the river Indus caused its decline. Other causes cited include a drying up of the rivers, deforestation and a destruction of the green cover. It is possible that some cities were destroyed by floods but not all. It is now accepted that several factors could have led to the decline of the Indus Valley civilization. New cities emerged only about 1400 years later. Facts About Indus Valley Civilization ‘The Mesopotamia, Egypt, China and the Indus Valley Civilization, the four great civilizations of the ancient world, the first three (Mesopotamia, Egypt, and China) have been broadly studied and well-known to everyone. But the fourth and of equal importance, the much more sophisticated Indus Valley Civilization that flourished along the flood plains of Indus and Gaggar-Hakra is lost to human memory and till date remains puzzling. It was in the 20th century, the lost and forgotten Indus Valley Civilization was rediscovered and acknowledged and given equal importance with the other three civilizations (Mesopotamia, Egypt, and China). 6 © Yuvraj IAS 2019 Scanned with CamScannerHere we bring some interesting facts about Indus Valley Civilization which would important for UPSC Civil Services IAS Prelims Exam, Fact# I: Indus Valley Civilization was the largest among the other four civilizations of the world (Mesopotamia, Egypt, and China) + The Indus Valley Civilization was spread over an area of 1,260,000 sq. km over modern-India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan + The civilization extended from Ghaggar-Hakra Valley in the east to Markran coast of Baluchistan in the west, from Afghanistan in the northeastern to Daimabad in Maharashtra in the south Fact# 2: The Population of Indus Valley Civilization was over 5 million + The civilization had over 5 million inhabitants. + Most of the inhabitants of the civilization were artisans and traders. Fact# 3: Nearly 1056 cities have been discovered 1056 Harappan cities and settlements have been found of which 96 have been excavated Most of the settlements are mostly located in the broad region of the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra Rivers and their tributaries. The major urban centers are: Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Dholaviral, Ganeriawala and Rakhigarhi. Fact# 4: Majority of the population lived in villages and it is not evident Majority of the population of Indus Valley Civilization lived in villages it is not evident as the villages may have been constructed of destructible materials like mud or timber Hence, it is difficult to find out the lifestyle and culture in these villages which have been lost over a period of time without any trace. Fact# 5: Scholars and archaeologists are uncertain about the naming + Since the first settlement was discovered along the banks of river Indus, the archaeologists named the civilization as Indus Valley Civilization. But on contrary only around 100 sites have been found in the Indus Valley, while over 500 sites are found along the Gaggar-Hakra River (The present day Saraswati River), Most of the archaeologists prefer to call them as ‘Indus-Saraswati Civilization’ based on the two river systems, while other prefer to name them as Harappan Civilisation as the first settlement was discovered in this city (Harappa). And, according to some archaeologists, the sites along the Gaggar-Hakra River are preserved as they lie in the uninhabited desert. 7 © Yuvraj IAS 2019 Scanned with CamScannerFact# 6: The Indus Valley Civilization could be the Meluhha mentioned by Mesopotamian scribes + The Mesopotamian (Sumerian) scribes in the Middle Bronze Age refer frequently to a place they call Meluhha. Meluhha was a prominent trading partner of the Sumerians and they imported timber and ebony in high volumes. Sesame oil and luxury items like lapis lazuli were also imported from Meluhha, which was in all probability, the Indus Valley Civilization. Fact# 7: Archaeologists first thought that they had stumbled upon cities of children When the cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro were first discovered, a large number of toys including dice, whistles and marbles were found. This led the archaeologists to think that the majority of the inhabitants of those cities were children! Fact# 8: The British used 4000-year old bricks from the Indus Valley Civilization to lay down 93 miles of railway track + In 1856, when the British were building the East Indian Railway Company line from Karachi to Lahore, they faced a shortage of bricks. + They took bricks from the nearby village of Harappa where they found bricks from a “ruined city” + These 4000-year old bricks were used for the railway track stretching to 93 miles (150 km). Fact# 9: World’s first planned cities were found in the Indus Valley Civilization + The cities of the civilization were planned in grid patterns with streets crossing at right angles These marvels of urban planning were thousands of years older than the period of Hippodamus of Miletus, considered the “father of European urban planning” Fact# 10: The cities were not chaotic despite being densely populated + The Indus Valley Civilization was a highly sophisticated civilization with a much organised way of living + Despite being densely populated, the cities were not chaotic, unlike contemporary cities of Mesopotamia or Egypt. Fact# 11: They had advanced sanitation systems 8 © Yuvraj IAS 2019 Scanned with CamScannerPeople of the Indus Valley Civilization knew about and implemented channelling of water and the disposal of waste water way before any other ancient civilization did. Even the Romans built aqueducts thousands of years later. Fact# 12: The largest city was Mohenjo-Daro Mohenjo-Daro measuring an area of about 300 hectares was the largest city. Mohenjo-Daro might have had a 40000-strong population. Allahdino was the smallest site in the Indus Valley Civilization. Fact# 13: The oldest Indus Valley settlement was established around 7000 B.C. + Mehrgarh is the oldest known settlement dating back to around 7000 B.C. + It began during the Pre-Harappan period + Mehrgarh was a farming village Fact# 14: The cities and towns of the Indus Valley Civilization were standardised Apart from being well-planned and having excellent drainage systems, the Harappan cities and towns were also standardised, Almost all the places excavated are seen as having a similar structure and pattern, Even the bricks of the houses had similar dimensions! Fact# 15: Harappan towns had an interesting rectangular grid pattern The Indus Valley cities and towns had a rectangular grid pattern. The main streets were along the North-South direction and the secondary streets were along the East-West direction. The streets intersected at right angles. This precise pattern is believed to be owing to religious or astronomical beliefs. Fact# 16: No congestion on the streets The streets found in Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa were as wide as 10.5 m. The smaller roads were at least 1.5 m wide, Archaeologists believe that the wide streets point out to market activities along them 9 © Yuvraj IAS 2019 Scanned with CamScannerFact# 17: The streets in Harappa were paved + Harappan streets were paved with bumt bricks to facilitate the easy movement of ox carts. The cities of the Indus Valley Civilization had channels running along the streets for the disposal of drainage water. Fact# 18: There were distinct neighbourhoods in the cities + The cities of the Indus Valley Civilization could be divided into distinct neighbourhoods. Each neighbourhood had inhabitants who were engaged in a particular profession Fact# 19: The city of Mohenjo-Daro was built at least 9 times Many of the cities of this civilization were destroyed several times by flood, deposition of silts, etc. Each time they were rebuilt. What is amazing is that every time they rebuilt the cities, they employed the same grid pattern. Mohenjo-Daro was constructed nine times and each time on top of the earlier grid. This shows the sophistication in their urban planning. Fact# 20: Harappa had very advanced granaries + The granaries in Harappa used advanced technology that was seen in Rome 2800 years later. + The sites also had citadels, bathing platforms and burial grounds. Fact# 21: The Indus Valley Civilization used standard burnt bricks everywhere There were two types of bricks used in the Mature Harappa Period. One measured 7 X 14 X 28 cm and the other measured 10 X 20 X 40 cm in size The bigger bricks were used to construct public buildings. The smaller bricks were used to build houses. Both types of bricks followed the 1:2:4 ratio. Fact# 22: Ratio 1:2:4 all the way + The ratio was not limited to bricks, but to all aspects. 10 © Yuvraj IAS 2019 Scanned with CamScannerThis ratio was followed in the houses, public structures, neighbourhood regions and even the city. Historians do not know whether this standardization was owing to religious beliefs or just a convention followed by the builders. Fact# 23: Harappan houses were multi-storied buildings So advanced was their architecture and masonry that Harappa had two and three-storied houses. These spacious houses had central courtyards and accessible flat terraces too. Fact# 24: The Indus Valley houses could keep off dust and noise None of the houses in the Indus Valley had windows facing the main streets, The houses had only one door. All the windows and the door of the houses would open into the central courtyard. Thus, they were strategically designed to avoid noise and dust. Fact# 25: Houses with attached bathrooms Indus Valley civilization was perhaps the first in the world to have houses with attached bathrooms. They also had access to running water. In addition, they had toilets with advanced drainage facilities. Fact# 26: The world’s first rainwater harvesting was here + The Harappan civilization had systems to store rainwater. They had complex and efficient water management The world’s public water tank, named The Great Bath was found here The city of Mohenjo-Daro also had a large water management system with 80 public toilets and about 700 wells. The wells were strategically placed to supply water to every locality. Fact# 27: Every city had its own Great Bath + Every city in the civilization had at least one Great Bath. + It is believed that they might have had a religious purpose, Fact# 28: Hygiene was top priority "1 © Yuvraj IAS 2019 Scanned with CamScannerThe people of the Indus Valley Civilization led a very hygienic, clean and healthy life. The excavations reveal this fact. The large number of public baths, the excellent water management system, running water in every house, neat drainage systems and the underground wastewater systems all point out to the importance of hygiene in Harappan life. Fact# 29: Dustbins along the streets Even in those ancient times, the Indus Valley Civilization was way ahead of its time in terms of civic sense. There were dustbins placed along the streets in Mohenjo-Daro! These were brick containers especially for garbage disposal Fact# 30: Separate channels for stormwater and wastewater So advanced was their water management system that they had separate channels lining the Harappan streets for wastewater and storm water (rainwater) The wastewater drains were underground, and had opening terrae: for cleaning purposes! Fact# 31: Indus Valley had large-scale maritime trade relations with other civilizations Many port-cities have been unearthed which proves the existence of large-scale maritime trade relations with other civilizations. Lothal could be the world’s first dockyard. Other ports include Allahdin, Suktagendor and Balakot, Fact# 32: The Harappan cities had water-reservoirs + At the Harappan city of Dholavira, 16 water reservoirs have been found. + These reservoirs serve the twin purposes of protecting the city from floods, and ensuring water supply throughout the year, even during dry season They built dams that could control the flow of water and be stored in huge reservoirs. Fact# 33: The Indus Valley Civilization was good in metallurgy 12 © Yuvraj IAS 2019 Scanned with CamScannerThey produced metal products including those in lead, copper, bronze and tin They exported these products. They knew the technique of smelting copper with other metals. Gold necklaces smaller than 0.25 mm in diameter have been excavated at Lothal. Other metal artefacts have been found in Mohenjo-Daro, Harappa and Rangpur. Harappan copper implements were made by the method of casting. Bronze vessels were made from a single sheet which was hammered. Metal alloying technology was well-developed in the Indus Valley Civilization. Fact# 34: The Indus Valley Civilization had precise measurement systems Stone cubes have been excavated from the sites of this civilization. Archaeologists believe them to be weights for measurement. These weights increase in a ratio of 5:2:1. They had weights of 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, and 500 units They are different from the system of measurement of Egypt and Mesopotamia of that time, so it can be concluded that this system was developed indigenously. The smallest division on a marking on an ivory scale was around 1.704 mm found in Lothal, Gujarat. This is the smallest recorded division found from the Bronze Age. Fact# 35: They even tested the purity of gold by the touchstone technique + A touchstone has been recovered from Banawali, Haryana. + This touchstone has streaks of gold in it indicating that it was probably used to assay the purity of gold. + This technique is used in some parts of the country to this day. Fact# 36: The Indus Valley Civilization even had dentists among them + In 2006, Nature journal declared that the first evidence of drilling of the human teeth in a live person was found in Mehrgarh, present Pakistan, This discovery was done in 2001 when eleven drilled molar crowns were unearthed from a Neolithic grave in Mehrgarh dating between 5500 B.C. and 7000 B.C. This remarkable discovery shows that people of the Indus Valley ilization had knowledge of proto-dentistry, Fact# 37: They were the world’s earliest cotton cultivators 13 © Yuvraj IAS 2019 Scanned with CamScannerThe earliest traces of cotton in the world were found here. The earliest evidence for the use of cotton was found in Mehrgarh dating back to the sixth millennium B.C. The Indus Valley farmers were the first ones to spin and weave cotton. Cotton was also one of the export items. Fact# 38: They had the world’s first buttons The world’s first buttons were found here dating back to 2800 — 2600 B.C. Buttons were made out of seashells and some of them had holes pierced in them for them to be attached to clothes with threads. Buttons in the Indus Valley were used more for their ornamental value rather than for utility. Fact# 39: The world’s oldest signboard can be found here A board with stone symbols/letters over 30 cm in height in a wooden frame was discovered at Dholavira in 1999. Archaeologists believe this was the world’s first signboard! It is thought to have been placed at the facade of the northern gate of the city’s citadel Fact# 40: The Indus Valley people were playful Among the artefacts that have been found in sites like Mohenjo-Daro are toys and games, They have unearthed cubical dice having one to six holes (quite like the ones we have today)! Other toys include clay figures of bullock carts, spinning tops, marbles, miniature pots and utensils, ete. Fact# 41: They had exquisite art and craft + Artand craft during the Indus Valley period were highly sophisticated. Their artefacts display a high level of achievement in terms of aesthetic value and the technique used Their ware includes terracotta, bronze, copper and other metals. They were also experts in bead-making, This is a very important discovery because it shows the expertise of the Indus Valley civilization in metal blending and casting. It also signifies the importance of dance as a form of entertainment in those times. Archaeologist Sir John Marshall (who discovered the Indus Valley Civilization in a way) has remarked, “When I first saw them I found it difficult to believe that they were prehistoric 14 © Yuvraj IAS 2019 Scanned with CamScanner+ These wonderful pieces of art, made using the lost-wax casting process, dated thousands of years before the Greeks Fact# 42: Cause of decline: Unknown Historians are not sure what led to the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization. Experts are now sure that it wasn’t invasion, disease or any other calamity that caused their decline. The cities and settlements started declining gradually and they seemed to have been abandoned by the inhabitants who might have migrated to greener pastures. Itis believed that the gradual drying up of the Saraswati River might have led to this. The civilization did not come to an abrupt end but declined gradually and got assimilated into other cultures. Fact# 43: Over 4000 seals have been found from the sites + These seals are small, rectangular stone slabs with inscriptions on them. + They also have images of animals and other figures on them. + The use of these seals is uncertain. Fact# 44: The Indus Valley Script has still not been deciphered One of the reasons we don’t know much about this civilization is that their script has not yet been deciphered Around 400 different symbols have been identified inscribed in objects, They appear in strings of between 3 and 20, Historians believe they are probably names and don’t have any other meaning. Fact# 45: No depiction of any king or ruler Despite having an organised way of life, there is no depiction or evidence of any ruler or any governing system for the Harappan civilization. The closest depiction to any kind of a central figure is a terracotta sculpture believed to be that of a priest-king. Fact# 46: No temples in the Indus Valley Civilization Archaeologists haven’t found any structure resembling a temple or a palace or any monument. In fact, most other contemporary civilizations have some central monuments. 15 © Yuvraj IAS 2019 Scanned with CamScanner+ The absence of any palace or temple despite structures like granaries and public baths led historians to believe that the Indus Valley society was an egalitarian one. Fact# 47: No evidence of warfare Although some weapons like spears, knives and arrow-heads have been excavated from the sites, there is no evidence of warfare from the Indus Valley Civilization. It is concluded that they were in general a peace-loving people. It is also possible that this was because they had no natural enemies and the other settlements had good trade relations with them. Fact# 48: There is no information about their political structure or religious beliefs + Not much is known about their political or religious life. + It is believed that they might have worshipped a Mother Goddess in addition to other male and female deities. Indus Valley Settlement Razed A 5,000-year-old Indus Valley settlement located in Baghpat district of Uttar Pradesh, stands abandoned and unprotected. The archaeological site, discovered in 1957 in Alamgirpur village of the district, is regarded as one of the most historically significant finds in the country as it showed for the first time evidence of habitation pertaining to the Harappan period in the Upper Doab region between the Ganga and the Yamuna, However, at present the settlement, which lies just 70 km from the national capital, faces destruction by the villagers who have flattened the centuries- old structures to expand their cultivable land. Worse, some of the villagers have built houses, memorials and temple-like structures on top of the settlement, where excavations till last year had given crucial insights about life and society during the Harappan period, also known as the Indus Valley Civilisation. During excavations of the site which dates back to the Harappan period of 300-1300 BC, the ASI archaeologists found ceramic items like roof tiles, dishes, terracotta cakes and figurines of a humped bull and a snake. After its discovery, the site was declared “protected.” But it is anything but that now Indus Valley settlement razed to expand cultivable land 16 © Yuvraj IAS 2019 Scanned with CamScanner“The settlement marks the eastern most limits of the Harappan culture and belongs to the late Harappan phase, a period starting around 1900-1800 BC when the Indus Valley Civilization, popularly known as the Harappan Culture, began to decline.” he said The civilization, which is known for its superior urban planning, is believed to have flourished in the period between 3300 BC and 1300 BC in what is today Pakistan, northwest India and parts of Afghanistan and Balochistan. With the continued encroachment by the villagers, the overall area of the protected settlement has been reduced from 28 bighas to just 6 bighas now. It is true that the area is protected but the land rights of the place are still with the farmers and the villagers cannot be stopped from farming on the land.” The ASI, he said, was making efforts to ensure that there was no further encroachment. “The farmers and villagers have in the last few years cut the mound and reduced the protected area at a disturbing pace to increase their farming land, Lam afraid that important articles of the ancient heritage might have already been destroyed.” he said. The ASI notice warns the inhabitants against any kind of construction within a radius of 100 meters of the protected site. But the warning has never been heeded. Indus Valley Civilization — Art & Culture Introduction Indus Valley art emerged during the second half of the third millennium BCE (ie. from 2500 BC onwards). Forms of art: seals, pottery, sculpture, gold jewellery, terracotta figures, ete. The two major sites of this civilisation, Harappa and Mohenjodaro showcase excellent town planning as well, like houses, planned sireets, public baths, drainage systems, storage facilities, etc. Harappa and Mohenjodaro are in Pakistan. Major sites in India are: Rakhigarhi (Haryana), Ropar (Punjab), Kalibangan and Balathal (Rajasthan), Lothal and Dholavira (Gujarat). Stone statues Two male statues in stone ~ the Bearded Man (priest king) and a torso in red sandstone. Bearded man (Priest) . Appears to be of a priest A shawl is draped over the left shoulder . Slightly elongated eyes as if in half-meditation 7 © Yuvraj IAS 2019 Scanned with CamScanner4, Well-formed nose, with a moustache, short beard and whiskers 5. Wearing an armlet and probable other jewellery Bronze casting The bronze statues found in Harappa were made by the technique called Lost Wax technique. This technique is used in some parts of the country even today showing continuity of traditions. This technique was popular in almost all the sites. First, wax figures were made and then covered with cl jay as allowed to dry and then the figure was heated to melt the wax. This wax was drained out through a hole in the clay. After that, the hollow clay was filled with the metal of choice. After cooling the metal, the clay was removed revealing the desired metal figurine. Both animal and human figures were made this way. Examples of bronze figures: Dancing Girl, Buffalo with uplifted head Dancing Girl . 4 inch copper figure Long hair tied in a bun . Left arm covered with bangles . Cowrie shell necklace around the neck Right hand on the hip and the left hand in a traditional Indian dancing gesture . Large eyes and a flat nose . Found from Mohenjodaro. Terracotta Terracotta images were also created but they were less refined as compared to the stone statues. Most important terracotta images are those of the mother goddess. Male figures are also found with similar features and positioning in all the figures indicating perhaps the image of a god. Terracotta toys have also been found (wheels, whistles, rattles, gamesmen, discs, birds and animals). Thousands of seals have been discovered. They were mostly made of steatite (a kind of soft stone). Some seals were also made using chert, agate, copper, terracotta, faience, gold and ivory. Standard Harappan seals were square plaques with 2X2 dimension. 18 ‘© Yuvraj IAS 2019 Scanned with CamScannerPurpose of the seals: chiefly commercial. Some seals were carried in the form of amulets, perhaps as identity cards. Every seal has a picture of an animal and some writings in a pictographic script (which is not yet deciphered) Animals represented include tigers, bulls. elephants, goats, bisons, etc. Pashupati Seal: A seal with a figure seated cross-legged in the centre with animals around; an elephant and a tiger to the right of the figure and a rhino and a buffalo to its left. Copper tablets, square or rectangular in shape have been found which were used as amulets Pottery A lot of pottery has been excavated. Plain and painted pottery are found — plain is more common. Plain pottery: generally made of red clay, with or without a fine red or grey slip. Black painted pottery: has a fine coating of red slip with painted geometric and animal designs. + Perforated pottery was also found, perhaps to use as a sieve, + Pottery of various sizes has been excavated Beads and ornaments A variety of ornaments have been found which were used by both men and women. Made from precious metals, gemstones, bone and baked clay. Ornaments worn by men and women: fillets, necklaces, finger-rings, armlets. Ornaments worn by women: earrings, girdles, anklets Well-crafied ornaments have been found including necklaces of gold and semi-precious stones, copper bracelets and beads, head ornaments and earrings made of gold, steatite and gemstone beads, faience pendants and buttons. metery found in Farmana (Haryana) ~ where dead bodies were buried with ornaments Bead factories at Lothal and Chanhudaro. Beads made from cornelian, amethyst, lapis lazuli, quartz, crystal, jasper, turquoise, steatite, etc. Metals were also used like gold, bronze and copper. Beads were also made from shells and terracotta. Beads were of various shapes disc-shaped, cylindrical, spherical, barrel- shaped, and segmented. 19 ‘© Yuvraj IAS 2019 Scanned with CamScannerFacts about Rig Veda The Rigveda is divided into ten books which are known as Mandalas It is a collection of 10,600 verses and 1,028 hymns Itis the oldest text in any Indo-European language It has originated from early as 1700 BC The Angiras (rishi family) has composed 35% of the hymns and the Kanva family who has composed 25% of Rig Veda Many verses of the Rig Veda are still used as very significant Hindu prayers and during rituals. It contains numerous secrets and clarifications about the origin of the world, the importance of the Gods and a lot of advice for living a satisfying and successfil life. As per to the Rig Veda, the Universe devised from Prajapati, the initial God and the principle basis of creation, The hymns are known as Sukta that were composed to be used in rituals. Indra is the chief deity cited in the Rig Veda. The sky God Varuna, fire God Agni, and the Sun God Surya were some of the other chief deities who were important in the Rig Veda beside older Aryan deities. The God of storms and mountains Rudra, as cited in the Rig Veda is the origin for Lord Shiva, the Hindu God. Lord Vishnu who is one of the Trimurti of Hindu Gods was also a minor deity, as mentioned in the Rig Veda. The universally famous Gayatri mantra (Savitri) is also in Rig-Veda. The varna system, Four-fold division of society, ‘Sudra’, Gamester’s Lament, Purusha Shukta Hymns are mentioned in this Vedic text Rig Veda had the original concept of the caste system which is still practiced in modern Hindu society today. Vedic Civilization Indo-Aryan Migration The Aryans were a semi-nomadic pastoral people. The original homeland of the Aryans is a matter of controversy with different experts touting different places. Some say they originated from the area around the Caspian Sea in Central Asia (Max Muller), while others think they originated from the Russian Steppes. Bal Gangadhar Tilak was of the opinion that the Aryans came from the arctic region. The Vedic Age started with the Aryan occupation of the Indo-Gangetic Plains. 20 © Yuvraj IAS 2019 Scanned with CamScannerMeaning of the word Arya: Noble. They spoke Sanskrit, an Indo-European language. They led a rural, semi-nomadic life as compared to the Indus Valley people who were urbanised, It is believed that they entered India through the Khyber Pass. ‘Two phases of the Vedic Period Early Vedic Period or Rig Vedic Period (1500 BC — 1000 BC) Initially the Aryans lived in the land known as “Sapta Sindhu” (Land of the Seven Rivers). These seven rivers were: Sindhu (Indus), Vipash (Beas), Vitasta (Jhelum), Parushni (Ravi), Asikni (Chenab), Shutudri (Satluj) and Saraswati. Political structure: Monarchical form of government with a king known as Rajan Patriarchal families. Jana was the largest social unit in Rig Vedic times. Social grouping: kula (family) — grama — visu — jana, Tribal assemblies were called Sabhas and Samitis. E kingdoms: Bharatas, Matsyas, Yadus and Purus. jal structure: Women enjoyed respectable position, They were allowed to take part in Sabhas and Samitis. There were women poets too (Apala, Lopamudra, Viswavara and Ghosa), Cattle especially cows became very important. Monogamy was practiced but polygamy was observed among royalty and noble families. There was no child marriage. Social distinctions existed but were not rigid and hereditary. Economic structure: They were a pastoral and cattle-rearing people. They indulged in agriculture. Products made out of copper, iron and bronze were in use. They had horse chariots. Rivers were used for transport. Cotton and woollen fabrics were spun and used. Initially trade was conducted through the barter system but later on coins called ‘nishka’ were in use. Religion: + They worshipped natural forces like earth, fire, wind, rain, thunder, ete. by personifying them into deities. 24 © Yuvraj IAS 2019 Scanned with CamScannerIndra (thunder) was the most important deity. Other deities were Prithvi (earth), Agni (fire), Varuna (rain) and Vayu (wind) Female deities were Ushas and Aditi There were no temples and no idol worship. Later Vedic Period or Painted Grey Ware Phase (1000 BC - 600 BC) During this time, the Aryans moved eastwards and occupied western and easter UP (Kosala) and Bihar. Political structure: Kingdoms like Mahajanapadas were formed by amalgamating smaller kingdoms King’s power increased and various sacrifices were performed by him to enhance his position Sacrifices were Rajasuya (consecration ceremony), Vajapeya (chariot race) and Ashwamedha (horse sacrifice). + The Sabhas and Samitis diminished in importance. Social structure: The Varna system of social distinction became more distinct. This became less based on occupation and more hereditary. The four divisions of society in decreasing social ranking were: Brahmanas. (priests), Kshatriyas (rulers), Vaishyas (agriculturists, traders and artisans), and Shudras (servers of the upper three classes). Women were not permitted to attend public assemblies like Sabhas and Samitis. Their position in society lowered. Child marriages became common. Sub-castes based on occupation also. emerged. Gotras__ were institutionalised. Economic structure: + Agriculture was the chief occupation. + Industrial work like metal work, pottery and carpentry work also was there. + There was foreign trade also with Babylon. Religion: Prajapati (creator) and Vishnu (preserver) became important gods. Indra and Agni lost their significance. Importance of prayers diminished and rituals and sacrifices became more elaborate, The priestly class became very powerful and they dictated the rules of the rites and rituals. Because of this orthodoxy, Buddhism and Jainism emerged towards the end of this period. 22 ‘© Yuvraj IAS 2019 Scanned with CamScannerVedic Literature The word ‘Veda’ originated from the root ‘vid’ which means spiritual knowledge/subject of knowledge/means of acquiring knowledge. The four Vedas are: Rig, Yajur, Sama and Atharva Rig Veda was composed during the Early Vedic Age. The other three were written in the Later Vedic Age. Rig Veda ~ this is the oldest religious text in the world. It contains 1028 nns and is classified into 10 mandalas. Yajur Veda ~ this deals with the ways to perform rituals, Sama Veda — deals with music. Indian music is said to be originated from Sama Veda. Atharva Veda ~ contains spells and magical formula. Other Vedic texts were the Brahmanas (explains the meaning of sacrifices): Upanishads (also called Vedantas, 108 in number, source of Indian philosophy); and Aranyakas (books of instructions). The great Indian epics of Mahabharata and Ramayana were also composed during this period Persian And Greek Invasions Of India Persian Invasion of India Cyrus, the founder of the Achaemenid Empire in ancient Iran invaded the North-Western front of India in 550 BC. Atthat time, there were many small provinces like Gandhara, Kamboja and Madra who were constantly fighting one another. At that time, Bimbisara of Haryanka dynasty was ruling over Magadha Cyrus succeeded in bringing under Persian control all the Indian tribes west of the Indus like Gandhara. Punjab and Sindh were annexed by Darius I, Cyrus andson, Son of Darius, Xerxes, could not move ahead with the further conquest of India because of war with the Greeks. He had employed Indian cavalry and infantry, Effects of Persian invasion Trade between India and Iran grew The Kharoshti script was brought to northwest India by the Persians. Some inscriptions of Ashoka were written in the Kharoshti script in these parts. Kharoshti script is derived from the Aramaic script and is written from right to left Greek Invasion of India and its Impact 23 © Yuvraj IAS 2019 Scanned with CamScannerAlexander's Invasion (327 BC) Alexander (356 BC ~ 323 BC) was the son of Philip of Macedonia. He became king in 336 BC. Alexander had conquered Asia Minor along with Iran and Iraq. He then marched into northwest India from Iran. He had annexed the whole of Persia (Babylon) by defeating Persian King Darius III in the Battle of Arbela (330 BC). Alexander was attracted to India’s wealth In northwest India, just before Alexander’s invasion, there were many small rulers like Ambhi of Taxila, and Porus of the region of Jhelum (Hydaspes). Ambhi accepted Alexander's sovereignty but Porus put up a valiant but unsuccessful fight Alexander was so impressed with Porus’s fight that he granted him his territory back. Porus might have accepted lordship. The battle between him and Porus is called the Battle of Hydaspes After that, Alexander's army crossed the river Chenab and annexed the tribes between Ravi and Chenab But his army refused to cross the river Beas and revolted. They were exhausted after years of battles. Alexander was forced to retreat in 326 BC. On his way back, he died at Babylon in 323 BC aged 32. After his death, the Greek Empire split in 321 BC. In northwest India, Alexander left four of his generals in charge of four regions, one of them being Seleucus I Nicator, who would later trade his territories in the Indus Valley with Chandragupta Maurya. + Eudamas was the last General of Alexander in India Effects of Alexander's invasion Alexander's invasion augmented political unification in northern India under the Mauryas. After the invasion, there was direct contact between India and Greece. Post the invasion there were Indo- India. Grecian impact on Indian art can be seen in the Gandhara school of art. reek rulers in the northwest part of Rise & Growth Of Magadha Empire Haryanka Dynasty The first important and powerful dynasty in Magadha. Bimbisara (558 BC - 491 BC) 24 © Yuvraj IAS 2019 Scanned with CamScannerSon of Bhattiya. He ruled over Magadha from 544 BC to 493 BC. Contemporary and follower of the Buddha. Was also said to be an admirer of Mahavira. Had his capital at Girivraja (Rajgin). Also known as Sreniya Was the first king to have a standing army. He started the practice of using matrimonial alliances to strengthen his political position. He had three wives: Kosaladevi (King of Kosala’s daughter and the sister of Prasenjit), Chellana (daughter of the Lichchavi chief of Vaisali) and Khema (daughter of the king of Modra, Punjab). He followed a policy of conquest and expansion. Most notable conquest by Bimbisara was that of Anga. He had an effective and excellent administrative system. The officers occupying high posts were divided into three ~ executive, military and judicial Ajatasatru (492 BC - 460 BC) Son of Bimbisara and Chellana. He killed his father and became ruler, Embraced Buddhism. He convened the First Buddhist Council at Raj just after the death of Buddha in 483 BC. Won wars against Kosala and Vaishali Udayin Son of Ajatasatru, Shifted the capital to Pataliputra Patna). Last of the major Haryanka rulers. jucceeded by three kings — Aniruddha, Manda and Nagadasaka. Sisunaga Dynasty According to Sri Lankan chronicles, the people of Magadha revolted during the reign of Nagadasaka and placed an amatya (minister) named Sisunaga as king, Sisunaga + Was the viceroy of Kasi before becoming king of Magadha. + Capital was at Girivaraja. 25 © Yuvraj IAS 2019 Scanned with CamScanner+ He annexed Avanti and brought an end to the long rivalry between Magadha and Avanti + Later shifted the capital to Vaishali. Kalasoka Son of Sisunaga. Kalasoka shifted the capital to Pataliputra. He conducted the Second Buddhist Council at Vaishali. He was killed in a palace revolution that brought the Nanda dynasty to the throne. Nanda Dynasty This was the first non-Kshatriya dynasty. The first ruler was Mahapadma Nanda who usurped the throne of Kalasoka. Mahapadma Nanda He is called the “first historical emperor of India He murdered Kalasoka to become the king. His origins are not clear. As per the Puranas, he was the son of the last Sisunaga king from a Sudra woman. As per some Jain texts and Greek writer Curtius, he was the son of a barber and a courtesan His reign lasted for twenty eight years from 367 BC to 338 BC. He is also called “Sarva Kashtriyantaka” (destroyer of all the kshatriyas) and “Ekrat The empire grew under his reign. It ran from the Kuru country in the north to the Godavari Valley in the south and from Magadha in the east to Narmada on the west. + He conquered many kingdoms including Kalinga. Dhana Nanda He was the last Nanda ruler. He is referred to as Agrammes or Xandrames in Greek texts. Alexander invaded North-Western India during his reign; but he could not proceed towards the Gangetic plains because of his army’s refusal He inherited a huge empire from his father. He possessed a standing army of 200,000 infantry. 20,000 cavalry, 3000 elephants and 2000 chariots. He became a powerful ruler because of this. He is said to be one of the 8 or 9 sons of Mahapadma Nanda. 26 © Yuvraj IAS 2019 Scanned with CamScanner+ He became unpopular with his subjects owing to an oppressive way of extorting taxes, Also, his Sudra origins and an anti-kshatriya policy led to a large number of enemies Finally he was overthrown by Chandragupta Maurya along with Chanakya, which led to the foundations of the Maurya Empire in Magadha. Geographical factors Magadha was located on the upper and lower parts of the Gangetic valley. Tt was located on the main land route between west and east India. The area had fertile soil. It also received enough rainfall. Magadha was encircled by rivers on three sides, the Ganga, Son and Champa making the region impregnable to enemies. Both Rajgir and Pataliputra were located in strategic positions. Economic factors Magadha had huge copper and iron deposits. Because of its location, it could easily control trade. Had a large population which could be used for agriculture, mining, building cities and in the army General prosperity of the people and the rulers. The mastery over Ganga meant economic hegemony. Ganga was important for trade in North India. With the annexation of Anga by Bimbisara, river Champa was added to the Magadha Empire. Champa was important in the trade with South-East Asia, Sri Lanka and South India. Cultural factors Magadhan society had an unorthodox character. It had a good mix of Aryan and non-Aryan peoples. Emergence of Jainism and Buddhism led to a revolution in terms of philosophy and thought. They enhanced liberal traditions. Society was not so much dominated by the Brahmanas and many kings of Magadha were ‘low’ in origins Political factors + Magadha was lucky to have many powerful and ambitious rulers. + They had strong standing armies. 27 © Yuvraj IAS 2019 Scanned with CamScanner+ Availability of iron enabled them to develop advanced weaponry. + They were also the first kings to use elephants in the army. + The major kings also developed a good administrative system, Gautam Buddha — Life & Teachings Facts about the Buddha Buddhism was founded by Gautama Buddha Buddha was born as Prince Siddhartha at Lumbini near Kapilavastu (in present Nepal) in 566 BC. He was the son of Suddhodhana and Mahamaya. Suddhodhana was the chief of the Sakya clan. Due to this, Buddha was also known as “Sakyamuni’ His mother died either giving birth to him or after seven days. Siddhartha was brought up by his maternal aunt, Prajapati Gautami. This gave him the name “Gautama” He was married to Yashodhara and had a son, Rahula He left his home at the age of 29 to become an ascetic. This event is called Mahabhishkramana. The idea of renunciation occurred to the Buddha after he saw four different states of man ~ sick man, old man, corpse and ascetic. Buddha wandered for seven years and at the age of 35 attained enlightenment at Uruvela while meditating under a banyan tree on the banks of the river Niranjana. This tree came to be known as “Bodhi tree and the place became Bodh Gaya (in Bihar). He gave his first sermon at Sarnath near Varanasi. This event is called Dharmachakra Pravartana/ Dhammachakkappavattana, He died in 483 BC under a Sal tree in Kushinagar (in UP). This event is called Mahaparinirvana. The term ‘Buddha’ means ‘enlightened one Important contemporaries of Buddha were Mahavira Jaina, Kings Prasenjit, Bimbisara and Ajatasatru. Buddhist Philosophy/Teachings of the Buddha It teaches the Middle Path renouncing extreme step like indulgence and strict abstinence The four noble truths (Arya satya) in Buddhism are: . The world is full of sorrow. Desire is the root cause of all sorrow. . Sorrow can be conquered by conquering desire. . Desire can be conquered by following the eight-fold paths (Ashtangirka Marga). 28 ‘© Yuvraj IAS 2019 Scanned with CamScannerEight-fold path are: « Right understanding . Right resolve Right speech Right action . Right living Right efforts Right thought Right self-concentration The Tri Ratnas of Buddhism are: Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha. + Buddha: highest spiritual potential in every one. + Dhamma: the teachings of Buddha (Pali for Sanskrit Dharma or righteousness) + Sangha: order of monks who follow Buddhism Buddha did not believe in god or soul. Stressed on karma and ahimsa. He was against the varna system. Buddha taught in Pali Buddhism spread to several countries outside India. China adopted Buddhism in the Ist century AD Buddhist Councils And Important Texts Four Buddhist Councils were held under different kings. First Buddhist Council Conducted under the patronage of King Ajatasatru of Haryanka dynasty. It was held in 483 BC just after Buddha’s demise It was held at Sattapani caves (Sattaparnaguha) in Rajagriha. The monk who presided over the first council was Mahakassapa. Main objective was to preserve the Buddha’s teachings. At this council, Ananda composed the Suttapitaka (Buddha's Teachings) and Mahakassapa composed the Vinaypitaka (monastic code). Second Buddhist Council Conducted under the patronage of King Kalasoka of Sisunaga dynasty It was held in 383 BC, i.e., hundred years after the Buddha’s death Tt was held at Vaishali Sabakami presided over the council Main objective was to discuss ten disputed points under the Vinaypitaka 29 © Yuvraj IAS 2019 Scanned with CamScanner+ The first major split happened here ~ two groups that would later evolve into Theravada and Mahayana. The first group was called Thera (meaning Elder in Pali). They wanted to preserve the teachings of Buddha in the original spirit. The other group called Mahasanghika (Great Community) interpreted the Buddha’s teachings more liberally Third Buddhist Council Conducted under the patronage of Emperor Ashoka of Maurya dynas It was held in 250 BC at Pataliputra. The council was presided over by Mogaliputta Tissa Main objective was to purify Buddhism from opportunistic factions and corruption in the Sangha. The Abhidhamma Pitaka was composed here making the almost completion of the modern Pali Tipitaka. Buddhist missionaries were sent to other countries. Buddhism preached by Emperor Ashoka was Hinayana, Fourth Buddhist Council Conducted under the patronage of King Kanishka of Kushan dynasty. It was held in the Ist century AD at Kundalvana in Kashmir. Vasumitra and Ashvaghosha presided over this council Alll deliberations were conducted in Sanskrit. Here, Abhidhamma texts were translated from Prakrit to Sanskrit This council resulted in the division of Buddhism into two sects namely, Mahayana (the Greater Vehicle) and Hinayana (the Lesser Vehicle). Mahayana sect believed in idol worship, rituals and Boddhisattvas. They regarded the Buddha as God. Hinayana continued the original teachings and practices of the Buddha. They adhere to the scriptures written in Pali while the Mahayana includes Sanskrit scriptures as well. Buddhist Texts The most important sources of Buddhism are the Tripitakas / Tipitakas written in Pali language. They are: . Sutta Pitaka Vinaya Pitaka Abhidhamma Pitaka Dhammapada: a part of the Khuddaka Nikaya of the Sutta Pitaka, It contains a collection of the sayings of the Buddha in verse form. Milinda Panha: Literal meaning in Pali — Questions of Milinda. It was written around 100 BC. It contains a dialogue between the Indo-Greek ‘© Yuvraj IAS 2019 Scanned with CamScannerKing Menander I or Milinda of Bactria and sage Nagasena where Milinda asks questions on Buddhism to the sage. Buddhacharita: it is an epic poem composed in Sanskrit by Ashvaghosha in early 2nd century AD. It is about the life of the Buddha. Causes of the Spread of Buddhism Buddha’s magnetic personality He taught in Pali which the masses understood as opposed to Sanskrit He admitted people into the Sangha irrespective of caste distinctions, Initial Sanghas were democratic and disciplined organisations The monks travelled to different places preaching the teachings of Buddha. It received royal patronage including from Bimbisara, Ajatasatru, Ashoka, Kanisha and Harshavardhana. Causes of the Decline of Buddhism in India Split into Mahayana and Hinayana weakened the religion. There was corruption among the latter monks. They gave up austerity and indulged in luxuries, Moral standards deteriorated. Royal patronage for Buddhism declined after the end of the Gupta dynasty around 650 AD. Orthodox Hinduism became more popular especially due to the works of Kumarila Bhatt and Adi Shankara. The invasions by the Huns and later by the Islamic armies further declined the influence of Buddhism in the subcontinent. Jainism — Vardhaman Mahavira Origin of Jainism Jainism is a very ancient religion. As per some traditions, it is as old as the Vedic religion. The Jain tradition has a succession of great teachers or Tirthankaras. There were 24 Tirthankaras the last of which was Vardhaman Mahavira. The first Tirthankara is believed to be Rishabhanath or Rishabhadev The 23rd Tirthankara was Parshvanatha who was born in Varanasi. He may have lived in the 8th or 7th century BC. Alll the Tirthankaras were Kshatriyas by birth Vardhaman Mahavira (539- 467 B.C.) + Considered the last Tirthankara. + He was born at Kundagrama near Vaisali 3t © Yuvraj IAS 2019 Scanned with CamScannerHis parents were Kshatriyas. Father ~ Siddhartha (Head of Jnatrika Clan); Mother ~ Trishala (Sister of Lichchhavi chief Chetaka). (Chetaka’s daughter married Haryanka King Bimbisara). He was married to Yasoda and had a daughter Anojja or Priyadarsana, At the age of 30, Vardhaman renounced his home and became a wandering ascetic. He also observed self-mortification After 13 years of penance, he attained the highest spiritual knowledge called Kevala Jnan. He attained this at Jimbhikagrama village under a sal tree aged 42. This is called Kaivalya. Thereafter, he was called Mahavira, Jina, Jitendriya (one who conquered his senses), Nigrantha (free from all bonds) and Kevalin. He preached his teachings for 30 years and died at Pava (near Rajagriha) aged 72 Causes of the rise of Jainism Vedic religion had become highly ritualistic Jainism was taught in Pali and Prakrit thus was more accessible to the common man as compared to Sanskrit. It was accessible to people of all castes Varna system had rigidified and people of the lower castes led miserable lives. Jainism offered them an honourable place. About 200 years afier the death of Mahavira, a great famine in the Ganga valley prompted Chandragupta Maurya and Bhadrabahu (last Acharya of the undivided Jain sangha) to migrate to Karnataka, Jainism spread to Southern India after that. Teachings of Jainism Mahavira rejected Vedic principles. He did not believe in God’s existence. According to him, the universe is a product of the natural phenomenon of cause and effect. He believed in Karma and transmigration of the soul. The body dies but the soul does not. One will be punished or rewarded as per one’s karma. Advocated a life of austerity and non-violence. Stressed on equality but did not reject the caste system, unlike Buddhism. But he also said that man may be “good” or “bad” as per his actions and not birth. Asceticism was taken to a great length. Starvation, nudity and self- mortification were expounded. Two elements of the world: Jiva (conscious) and Atma (unconscious). Triratnas of Jainism: 32 ‘© Yuvraj IAS 2019 Scanned with CamScannerRight faith Right knowledge conduct (observance of five vows) Ahimsa (non-violence) Satya (truth) Asteya (no stealing) Parigraha (no acquiring property) Brahmacharya (abstinence) Split in Jainism When Bhadrabahu left for South India, Sthulabahu remained in the North with his followers. Sthulabahu changed the code of conduct and said that white clothes could be worn. Thus, split Jainism into two sects 1. Swetambaras: White-clad; Northerners 2. Digambaras: Sky-clad (naked); Southerners Jain Councils First council + Held at Pataliputra in the 3rd century BC + Presided by Sthulabahu. Second Council + Held at Vallabhi in Gujarat in the Sth century BC. + Presided by Devardhigani. + 12 Angas were compiled here. Royal patrons of Jainism South India Kadamba dynasty Ganga dynasty Amoghavarsha Kumarapala (Chalukya dynasty) North India Bimbisara Ajatasatru Chandragupta Maurya Bindusara Kharavela 33 © Yuvraj IAS 2019 Scanned with CamScannerThe Mauryan Empire Rise of the Mauryas The last of the Nanda rulers, Dhana Nanda was highly unpopular due to his oppressive tax regime. Also, post Alexander’s invasion of North-Western India, that region faced a lot of unrest from foreign powers. They were ruled by Indo-Greek rulers. Chandragupta, with the help of an intelligent and politically astute Brahmin, Kautilya usurped the throne by defeating Dhana Nanda in 321 BC. Chandragupta Maurya Chandragupta’s origins are shrouded in mystery. The Greek sources (which are the oldest) mention him to be of non-warrior lineage. The Hindu sources also say he was a student of Kautilya of humble birth (probably born to a Shudra woman). Most Buddhist sources say he was a Kshatriya, It is generally accepted that he was an orphaned boy born into a humble family who was trained by Kautilya. Greek accounts mention him as Sandrokottos. Alexander had abandoned his India conquest in 324 BC and within a year, Chandragupta had defeated some of the Greek-ruled cities in the north- western part of the country. Kautilya provided the strategy while Chandragupta executed it. They had raised a mercenary army of their own Then, they moved eastward into Magadha. In a series of battles, he defeated Dhana Nanda and laid the foundations of the Maurya Empire in about 321 BC. In 305 BC, he entered into a treaty with Seleucus Nicator (a general of Alexander who ruled over northwest India) in which Chandragupta acquired Baluchistan, eastern Afghanistan and the region to the west of Indus. He also married Seleucus Nicator’s daughter. In return, Seleucus Nicator got 500 elephants. Seleucus Nicator avoided a war with the mighty Chandragupta. Megasthenes was the Greek ambassador at Chandragupta’s court Chandragupta led a policy of expansion and brought under one control almost the whole of present India barring a few places like Kalinga and the extreme South, His reign lasted from 321 BC to 297 BC. He abdicated the throne in favour of his son, Bindusara and went to Karnataka with Jain monk Bhadrabahu, He had embraced Jainism and is said to have starved himself to death according to the Jain tradition at Shravanabelagola. 34 ‘© Yuvraj IAS 2019 Scanned with CamScannerBindusara Son of Chandragupta. He ruled from 297 BC to 273 BC. Also called Amitraghata (Slayer of foes) or Amitrochates in Greek sources. Deimachus was a Greek ambassador at his court. He had appointed his son, Ashoka as the governor of Ujjain. Bindusara is believed to have extended the Mauryan Empire to Mysore as well. Chanakya Teacher of Chandragupta Maurya, who was also his Chief Minister. Brahmin by birth, he was a teacher and scholar at Taxila. Other names are Vishnugupta and Chanakya. He was also a minister in the court of Bindusara. He is credited to be the master strategist behind the usurping of the Nanda throne and the rise of the Mauryan Empire through his student, Chandragupta. He wrote Arthashastra which is a treatise on statecrafi, economics, and nillitary strategy. Arthashastra was rediscovered by R Shamasastry in 1905 after it had disappeared in the 12century. The work contains 15 books and 180 chapters. The main theme is divided into: i. King, Council of Ministers and Departments of the Government ii, Civil and criminal law iii. Diplomacy of war It also contains information on trade and markets, method to screen ministers, spies, duties of a king, ethics, social welfare, agriculture, mining, metallurgy, medicine, forests, ete. + Chanakya is also called “Indian Machiavelli” Mauryan Administration Central Government Mauryan administration was highly centralized. The king was the supreme power and source of all authority. He was assisted by a Council of Ministers. It was called ‘Mantriparishad” The ministers were called ‘Mantris.” The council was headed by ‘mantriparishad-adhyakshya’ akin to the Prime Minister of today. Tirthas: the Highest category of officials in the administration. There were 18 Titthas. 35 ‘© Yuvraj IAS 2019 Scanned with CamScannerAdhyakshya: Ranked next only to Tirthas. There were 20 Adhyakshyas. They had economic and military functions Mahamattas: Higher ranking officials. Amatyas: High ranking officials almost like present-day secretaries. They had administrative and judicial roles. The Adhyakshyas were formed into a secretariat, which was divided into many departments. Arthashastra mentions many Adhyakshyz gold, ships, agriculture, cows, horses, city, chariots, mint, infantry, ete. Yuktas: Subordinate officers responsible for the king’s revenue Rajjukas: Officers in charge of land measurement and boundary- Sansthadhyasksha: Superintendent of mint Samasthadhyasksha: Superintendent of markets Sulkaadhyaksha: Superintendent of tolls Sitaadhyaksha: Superintendent of agriculture Navadhyaksha: Superintendent of ships Lohadhyaksha: Superintendent of iron Pauthavadhyakhsa: Superintendent of weights and measures Akaradhyaksha: Superintendent of mines Vyavharika Mahamatta: Judiciary officers Pulisanj: Public relations officers Registration of births and deaths, foreigners, industries, trade, manufacture and sale of goods, sales tax collection were under the administration’s control Local Administration The smallest unit of administration was the village. Head of a village: Gramika Villages had a lot of autonomy. Pradeshika was the provincial governors or district magistrates, Sthanika: Tax collectors working under Pradeshikas. Durgapala: Governors of forts. Antapala: Governors of frontiers. Akshapatala: Accountant General Lipikaras: Scribes Military The commander-in-chief of the entire military was called Senapati and his position was next to the king’s. He was appointed by the king. The military was divided into five sectors namely, infantry, cavalry, chariots, elephant forces, navy and transport & provisions. 36 ‘© Yuvraj IAS 2019 Scanned with CamScanner+ The army’s salary was paid in cash Revenue The revenue department chief was called Samharta. Another important official was Sannidhata (treasurer) Revenue was collected on land, irrigation, shops, customs, forests, ferry. mines and pastures. License fees were collected from artisans and fines were charged in the law courts. + Most of the land revenue was one-sixth of the produce. Police + All the main centres had police headquarters. + Jail was called Bandhangara and lock-up was known as Charaka. Espionage The espionage system of the Mauryas was well-developed. There were spies who informed the king about the bureaucracy and markets. There were (wo types of spies: Sansthana (stationary) and Sanchari (wanderer). Gudhapurushas were the detectives or secret agents. They were controlled by the Mahamatyapasarpa. These agents were picked from different segments of society. + There were also agents called Vishakanyas (poisonous girls). Transport + The transport department fixed the width of the chariots, cattle tracks and pedestrians Ashoka ~ Life & Dhamma Early life Son of Mauryan Emperor Bindusara and Subhadrangi. Grandson of Chandragupta Maurya. His other names were Devanampiya (Sanskrit Devanampriya meaning Beloved of the Gods) and Piyadasi. Considered one of India’s greatest emperors. He was born in 304 BC. His reign lasted from 268 BC to 232 BC when he died. At its zenith, Ashoka’s empire stretched from Afghanistan in the west to Bangladesh in the east. It covered almost the whole Indian subcontinent except present Kerala and Tamil Nadu, and modern-day Sri Lanka. 37 © Yuvraj IAS 2019 Scanned with CamScanner+ Ashoka built many edicts all over India including in present-day Nepal and Pakistan + His capital was at Pataliputra (Patna) and had provincial capitals at Taxila and Ujjain. Rise to power Ashoka was not the eldest son of Bindusara and so was not the heit presumptive Bindusara wanted his elder son Susima to be crowned the next king. But Ashoka was trained in military and weapons and showed great skills as an administrator when he was made the governor of Ujjain In the war of succession that followed Bindusara’s death in 272 BC, Ashoka emerged victorious aided by his father’s ministers. When he became the king, he was said to be bad-tempered, ruthless and very cruel He even built a torture chamber to torture his prisoners to death. This earned him the moniker Chandashoka (cruel Ashoka), Once he became the king, he started expanding his empire by conquest. In the ninth year of his reign, he waged a war with Kalinga (in present-day Odisha). Conversion to Buddhism The battle with Kalinga fought in 265 BC was personally led by Ashoka and he was able to vanquish the Kalingas. Whole cities were destroyed and more than a hundred thousand people were killed in the war. The horrors of war disturbed him so much that he decided to shun violence for the rest of his life and tured to Buddhism. Ashoka’s 13th Rock Edict describes the Kalinga war vividly He now became Dharmashoka (the pious Ashoka) from Chandashc In about 263 BC Ashoka converted to Buddhism. Moggaliputta Tissa, a Buddhist monk became his mentor. Ashoka even conducted the third Buddhist Council at Pataliputra in 250 BC under Moggaliputta Tissa’s presidency Ashoka’s Dhamma (or Dharma in Sanskrit) Ashoka established the idea of paternal kingship He regarded all his subjects as his children and believed it the king’s duty to look after the welfare of the subjects, Through his edicts, he said everybody should serve parents, revere teachers, and practice ahimsa and truthfulness. He asked everyone to avoid animal slaughter and sacrifice 38 © Yuvraj IAS 2019 Scanned with CamScannerHe expounded humane treatment of animals, servants and prisoners. He advocated tolerance towards all religions. He sought conquest through Dhamma and not war. He sent missions abroad to spread the word of the Buddha. Notably, he sent his son Mahinda and daughter Sanghamitra to Sri Lanka Most of his edicts are written in Pali and Prakrit in Brahmi script. Some are written in the Kharoshti and Aramaic scripts also. There are some edicts written in Greek as well. The language depends on the location of the pillar. Sources of information about Ashoka + There are two main sources: Buddhist sources and Ashoka’s edicts. + James Prinsep, a British antiquary and colonial administrator was the first person to decipher Ashoka’s edicts. Ashokavadana (Sanskrit) written in the second century AD, Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa (Sri Lankan Pali chronicles) give most of the information about Ashoka. The Edicts Of Ashoka These inscriptions can be classified into three:- Pillar edicts, Major rock edicts and Minor rock edicts. Pillar Edicts There are seven pillar edicts. Two types of stones are used: spotted white sandstone (from Mathura) and buff coloured sandstone and quartzite (from Amaravati). All the pillars are monoliths (carved out of from stone). They have been found from different places like Kandahar (Afghanistan), Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (Pakistan), Delhi, Vaishali and Champaran (Bihar), Sarnath and Allahabad (Uttar Pradesh), Amaravati (Andhra Pradesh), and Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh) Fragments of the same edict are found in different places. Many pillars are as high as 50 feet high and weigh as much as 50 tons The pillars depict animals such as elephants and lions, and wheels and lotuses which are all significant symbols in Buddhism. The following table gives the Edict number and what it talks about. Edict Talks about Pillar Ashoka’s principle of protecting his people. Edict I 39 © Yuvraj IAS 2019 Scanned with CamScannerPillar Dhamma Edict 1 Pillar Avoiding practices of cruelty, sin, harshness, pride and anger Edict I among his subjects. Pillar Responsibilities of the Rajukas. Edict IV Pillar List of animals and birds that should not be killed on certain Edict V days. Another list which mentions animals that should never be killed. Pillar Dhamma policy of the State. Edict VI Pillar Ashoka’s work for fulfilling Dhamma. Tolerance for all sects. Edict VII Major Rock Edicts There are 14 major rock edicts Ashoka’s major rock edicts Edict Talks about Major Prohibits animal slaughter and bans festive gathering. Rock Edict I Major Care for man and animals. Mentions the Pandyas, Satyapuras and Rock __Keralaputras of South India. Edict Il Major Generosity to Brahmins. About Yuktas, Pradeshikas and Rajukas Rock who would go every five years to different parts of his empire to Edict I spread Dhamma. Major Dhammaghosha (sound of Dhammavtighteousness) over Rock _ Bherighosha (sound of war). Edict IV Major About Dhammamahamatras. Talks about treating slaves right. Rock Edict V 40 © Yuvraj IAS 2019 Scanned with CamScannerMajor King’s desire to know about his people’s conditions. About Rock welfare measures, Edict VI Major Tolerance for all religions. Rock Edict Vil Major Ashoka’s first visit to Bodh Gaya and the Bodhi tree (his first Rock Dhamma Yatra). Edict VIL Major Condemns popular ceremonies. Rock Edict IX Major Disapproves of the individual’s desire for fame and glory and Rock stresses on Dhamma. Edict X Major _Elaborates on Dhamma. Rock Edict XI Major Tolerance for all religions and sects. Rock Edict XI Major Mentions victory over Kalinga. Mentions Ashoka’s Dhamma Rock _victory over Greek Kings Antiochus of Syria (Amtiyoko), Edict Ptolemy of Egypt (Turamaye), Magas of Cyrene (Maka), XIII Antigonus of Macedon (Amtikini), Alexander of Epirus (Alikasudaro). Also mentions Pandyas, Cholas, ete: Major —_ Engraving of inscriptions installed in various parts of country. Rock Edict XIV Minor Rock Edicts Minor rock edicts are found on 15 rocks across the country and in Afghanistan also, 41 © Yuvraj IAS 2019 Scanned with CamScanner+ Ashoka uses his name only in four of these places namely, Maski, Brahmagiri (Karnataka), Gujjara (MP) and Nettur (AP), Languages used + Ineastern part of the empire, Magadhi language in Brahmi script is used (Magadhi is the dialect of Prakrit found in Magadha), + In western parts of the Mauryan Empire, Prakrit in kharoshti script is used. + Major Rock Edict XII contains an extract in Greek and Aramaic as well ‘An example Major Rock Edict VI Beloved of the Gods speaks thus: Twelve years after my coronation I started to have Dhamma edicts written for the welfare and happiness of the people, and so that not transgressing them they might grow in the Dhamma. Thinking: “How can the welfare and happiness of the people be secured?” I give my attention to my relatives, to those dwelling far, so I can lead them to happiness and then I act accordingly. I do the same for all groups. I have honoured all religions with various honours. But I consider it best to meet with people personally. Mauryan Empire: Reasons For Decline The partition of the Empire After the death of Ashoka, the Mauryan Empire split into two halves — western and eastern parts. This weakened the empire. Kalhana, author of the work Rajatarangini which is an account of Kashmir’s history says that after Ashoka’s death, his son Jalauka ruled over Kashmir as an independent ruler. This partition resulted in invasions from the northwest. Highly centralised administration Historian Romila Thapar is of the view that the highly centralised ation under the Mauryas became a problem with the later an kings who were not as efficient administrators as their predecessors. Powerfull kings like Chandragupta Maurya and Ashoka could control the administration well, But weak rulers led to a weakening of the administration and ultimately led to the empire's disintegration Also, the sheer vastness of the Mauryan Empire meant that there had to be a very effective ruler at the centre who could keep coherent all the regions. A weakening of the central administration coupled with a large distance to communicate also led to the rise of independent kingdoms. Weak monarchs after Ashoka 42 © Yuvraj IAS 2019 Scanned with CamScannerThe successors of Ashoka were weak kings who could not carry the burden of the huge empire that was bequeathed to them. After Ashoka, only six kings could rule over the kingdom for a mere 52 years, The last Maurya king, Brihadratha was overthrown by his own army commander, Pushyamitra. Only the first three kings of the Mauryan Empire were men of exceptional abilities and character. The later kings were no match in quality to their illustrious ancestors. Independence of the provinces Afier Ashoka, under the later kings, the centre’s hold over the vast empire began to disintegrate. This led to the emergence of various kingdoms. It is already mentioned that Jalauka ruled over Kashmir independently. Kalinga became independent According to Tibetan sources, Virasena ruled over Gandhara independently. Vidarbha broke away from Magadha. As per Greek sources, a king named Subhagasena (Sophagasanus) began to rule over the north-western provinces independently. Internal revolt During the rule of Brihadratha, there was an internal revolt led by his army chief Pushyamitra Shunga in about 185 or 186 BC. Bana describes in Harshacharita how Shunga killed Brihadratha during an army parade. This ended the rule of the Mauryas over Magadha and thence started the Shunga dynasty’s rule Foreign invasions + During the reign of the first three Mauryan kings, no foreign power tried to attack India from the north-west as there was a fear of the mighty Mauryan army But after Ashoka’s death, the kingdom split up into two. This led to the Greek king Antiochus to attack India unsuccessfully But in time, foreign tribes attacked and established their kingdoms on Indian soil. The notable ones were the Indo-Greeks, the Sakas and the Kushanas. Ashoka’s policies + Some scholars suggest that Ashoka’s policies of non-violence and pacifism led to the weakening of the empire 43 © Yuvraj IAS 2019 Scanned with CamScannerSince he stopped waging wars, foreign powers were once again tempted to attack the kingdom, Also, he gave a lot of importance and efforts to the propagation of Buddhism. Brahminical reaction According to some historians, the Brahmins were unhappy with Ashoka’s unabashed patronage of Buddhism He had banned animal slaughter which was a sacrifice conducted by the Brahmins. But this theory is refurted because many of Ashoka’s inscriptions talk of respecting Brahmins. Also, Pushyamitra Shunga, a general in the Mauryan army was a Brahmin which proves that they had powerful posts under the Mauryas Sunga Dynasty Pushyamitra Sunga Pushyamitra Sunga was Brahmin army chief of Brihadratha, the last king of the Mauryas. During a military parade, he killed Brihadratha and established himself on the throne in 185 or 186 BC According to some historians, this was an internal revolt against the last Mauryan king. Some say it was a Brahminical reaction to the Mauryan overwhelming patronage of Buddhism. Pushyamitra Sunga’s capital was at Pataliputra. He successfully countered attacks from two Greek kings namely, Menander and Demetrius. He also thwarted an attack from the Kalinga king Kharavela. He conquered Vidarbha, He followed Brahminism. Some accounts portray him as a persecutor of Buddhists and a destroyer of stupas but there has been no authoritative evidence to this claim. During his reign, the Stupas at Sanchi and Barhut were renovated. He built the sculptured stone gateway at Sanchi. He performed Vedic sacrifices such as Ashvamedha, Rajasuya and Vajapeya. Pushyamitra Sunga patronised the Sanskrit grammarian Patanjali According to the Puranas, his reign lasted for 36 years. He died in 151 BC. ra Was Pushyamitra’s son who succeeded him to the throne His reign lasted from about 149 BC to 141 BC. 44 ‘© Yuvraj IAS 2019 Scanned with CamScannerBy this time, Vidarbha broke away from the empire Agnimitra is the hero of Kalidasa’s poem, Malavikagnimitram His son Vasumitra succeeded him as king. Last of the Sunga kings Vasumitra’s successors are not clearly known. Different names crop up in several accounts such as Andhraka, Pulindaka, Vajramitra and Ghosha. The last Sunga king was Devabhuti. He was preceded by Bhagabhadra Devabhuti was killed by his own minister, Vasudeva Kanva in around 73 BC. This established the Kanva dynasty at Magadha from 73 to 28 BC. Effects of Sunga rule Hinduism was revived under the Sungas. The caste system was also revived with the rise of the Brahmanas. Another important development during the Sunga reign was the emergence of various mixed castes and the integration of foreigners into Indian ociety. The language of Sanskrit gained more prominence during this time. Even some Buddhist works of this time were composed in Sanskrit The Sungas patronised art and architecture. There was an increase in the usage of human figures and symbols in art during this period. Satavahana Dynasty ~ Post Mauryan Period Kanvas (73 BC - 28 BC) As per the puranas, there were four kings of the Kanva dynasty namely, Vasudeva, Bhumimitra, Narayana and Susarman. The Kanvas were Brahmins. The Magadha Empire had diminished by this time considerably. Northwest region was under the Greeks and parts of the Gangetic plains were under different rulers. The last Kanva king Susarman was killed by the Satavahana (Andhra) king. Cheti Dynasty (Kalinga) The Cheti or Chedi dynasty emerged in Kalinga in the Ist century BC, The Hathigumpha inscription situated near Bhubaneswar gives information about it. This inscription was engraved by king Kharavela who was the third Cheti ing. Kharavela was a follower of Jainism. 45 © Yuvraj IAS 2019 Scanned with CamScanner+ Other names of this dynasty are Cheta or Chetavamsa, and Mahameghavahana. Satavahanas The Satavahana rule is believed to have started around the third century BC, in 235 BC and lasted until the second century AD. Some experts believe their rule started in the first century BC only. They are referred to as Andhras in the Puranas. The Satavahana kingdom chiefly comprised of modern-day Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and Maharashtra. At times, their rule also included parts of Karnataka, Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh. Their capital cities varied at different times. Pratishthana (Paithan) and Amaravati were its capitals. Simuka founded the dynasty. They were the first native Indian rulers to issue their own coins with the portraits of the rulers. This practice was started by Gautamiputra Satakarni who derived the practice from the Western Satraps afier defeating them. The coin legends were in Prakrit language. Some reverse coin legends are in Telugu, Tamil and Kannada. They patronised Prakrit more than Sanskrit. They supported both Buddhism and Brahminism although they were Hindus and claimed Brahminical status They successfully defended their territories against foreign invaders and had many on-going battles with the Sakas (Western Satraps) Satakarni | (180 - 124 BC) Sarakarni I was the third Satavahana king, Satakarni I was the first Satavahana king to expand his empire by military conquests. He conquered Kalinga after the death of Kharavela. He also pushed back the Sungas in Pataliputra, He also ruled over Madhya Pradesh. After annexing the Godaveri Valley, he assumed the title of ‘Lord of Dakshinapatha His queen was Nayanika who wrote the Naneghat inscription which describes the king as Dakshinapathapati. He performed Ashvamedha and revived Vedic Brahminism in the Decean. 46 ‘© Yuvraj IAS 2019 Scanned with CamScanner+ King Hala compiled the Gatha Saptashati, Called Gaha Sattasai in Prakrit, it is a collection of poems with mostly love as the theme. Around forty of the poems are attributed to Hala himself. + Hala’s minister Gunadhya composed Brihatkatha Gautamiputra Satakarni (106 — 130 AD or 86 — 110 AD) He is considered the greatest king of the Satavahana dynasty. He defeated the Greeks, Pahlavas (Indo-Parthians) and the Sakas. His kingdom ran from Krishna in the south to Malwa and Saurashtra in the north and from Berar in the east to the Konkan in the west. He defeated Nahapana, an important king of the Western Satraps. He is also called Ekabrahmana, His mother was Gautami Balasri and hence his name Gautamiputra (son of Gautami). He was succeeded by his son Vasisthiputra Sri Pulamavi or Pulamavi IL Decline of the Satavahanas + Pulamavi IV is considered the last king of the main Satavahana line. + He ruled until 225 AD. After his death, the empire fragmented into five smaller kingdoms. The Indo-Greek Rule Initial presence of Greeks in India Afier Alexander invaded northwest part of the subcontinent, one of his generals, Seleucus Nicator, founded the Seleucid Empire. In Seleucus’s conflict with the mighty Chandragupta Maurya, he ceded large parts to the west of the Indus, including the Hindu Kush, present-day Afghanistan and Balochistan to the Mauryan king. Afier this, Megasthenes was sent to reside at Chandragupta Maurya’s court. Other Greek residents at Mauryan courts were Deimachus and Dionysius. Greek populations lived in the north-western part of the Mauryan Empire as evident from Ashoka’s edicts Mauryas also had departments to take care of foreigners like Yavanas (Greeks) and Persians. In ancient Indian sources, Greeks were called Yavanas (Sanskrit) and Yonas (Pali). Indo-Greek Kingdom The Indo-Greek kingdom was ruled by over 30 Hellenistic (Greek) kings in the northwest and north India from the 2nd century BC to the beginning of the first century AD 47 © Yuvraj IAS 2019 Scanned with CamScanner