Introduction to Internet of Things (IoT) and Evolution of IoT

It refers to the interconnectedness of physical devices, such as appliances

and vehicles, that are embedded with software, sensors, and connectivity which
enables these objects to connect and exchange data. This technology allows for the
collection and sharing of data from a vast network of devices, creating
opportunities for more efficient and automated systems.
IOT is a system of interrelated things, computing devices, mechanical and
digital machines, objects, animals, or people that are provided with unique
identifiers. And the ability to transfer the data over a network requiring human-to-
human or human-to-computer interaction.
Four Key Components of IOT

o Device or sensor
p Connectivity
q Data processing
r Interface

Main Components Used in IoT

o Low-power embedded systems: Less battery consumption, high performance

are the inverse factors that play a significant role during the design of electronic
systems.
p Sensors: Sensors are the major part of any IoT application. It is a physical
device that measures and detects certain physical quantities and converts it
into signal which can be provided as an input to processing or control unit for
analysis purpose.

Working with IoT Devices

o Collect and Transmit Data : For this purpose sensors are widely used they
are used as per requirements in different application areas.
p Actuate device based on triggers produced by sensors or processing
devices: If certain conditions are satisfied or according to user’s requirements
if certain trigger is activated then which action to perform that is shown by
Actuator devices.
o Receive Information: From network devices, users or devices can take
certain information also for their analysis and processing purposes.
p Communication Assistance: Communication assistance is the phenomenon
of communication between 2 networks or communication between 2 or more
IoT devices of same or different networks. This can be achieved by different
communication protocols like: MQTT, Constrained Application Protocol,
ZigBee, FTP, HTTP etc.

Working of IoTac
Characteristics of IoT

o Massively scalable and efficient

p IP-based addressing will no longer be suitable in the upcoming future.
q An abundance of physical objects is present that do not use IP, so IoT is made
possible.
r Devices typically consume less power. When not in use, they should be
automatically programmed to sleep.
s A device that is connected to another device right now may not be connected
in another instant of time.
t Intermittent connectivity – IoT devices aren’t always connected. In order to
save bandwidth and battery consumption, devices will be powered off
periodically when not in use. Otherwise, connections might turn unreliable
and thus prove to be inefficient.

Desired Quality of any IoT Application

Interconnectivity
It is the basic first requirement in any IoT infrastructure. Connectivity should be
guaranteed from any devices on any network then only devices in a network can
communicate with each other.

Heterogeneity
There can be diversity in IoT enabled devices like different hardware and software
configuration or different network topologies or connections, but they should
connect and interact with each other despite so much heterogeneity.

Dynamic in Nature
IoT devices should dynamically adapt themselves to the changing surroundings
like different situations and different prefaces.

Self-adapting and self configuring technology

For example, surveillance camera. It should be flexible to work in different
weather conditions and different light situations (morning, afternoon, or night).
Intelligence
Just data collection is not enough in IoT, extraction of knowledge from the
generated data is very important. For example, sensors generate data, but that data
will only be useful if it is interpreted properly. So intelligence is one of the key
characteristics in IoT. Because data interpretation is the major part in any IoT
application because without data processing we can’t make any insights from data.
Hence, big data is also one of the most enabling technologies in IoT field.

Scalability
The number of elements (devices) connected to IoT zones is increasing day by day.
Therefore, an IoT setup should be capable of handling the expansion. It can be
either expand capability in terms of processing power, storage, etc. as vertical
scaling or horizontal scaling by multiplying with easy cloning.

Identity
Each IoT device has a unique identity (e.g., an IP address). This identity is helpful
in communication, tracking and to know status of the things. If there is no
identification then it will directly affect security and safety of any system because
without discrimination we can’t identify with whom one network is connected or
with whom we have to communicate. So there should be clear and appropriate
discrimination technology available between IoT networks and devices.

Safety
Sensitive personal details of a user might be compromised when the devices are
connected to the Internet. So data security is a major challenge. This could cause a
loss to the user. Equipment in the huge IoT network may also be at risk. Therefore,
equipment safety is also critical.

Architecture
It should be hybrid, supporting different manufacturer’s products to function in the
IoT network.
As a quick note, IoT incorporates trillions of sensors, billions of smart systems,
and millions of applications.

Advantages of IoT
o Improved efficiency and automation of tasks.
p Increased convenience and accessibility of information.
q Better monitoring and control of devices and systems.
o Greater ability to gather and analyze data.
p Improved decision-making.
q Cost savings.

Disadvantages of IoT
o Security concerns and potential for hacking or data breaches.
p Privacy issues related to the collection and use of personal data.
q Dependence on technology and potential for system failures.
r Limited standardization and interoperability among devices.
s Complexity and increased maintenance requirements.
t High initial investment costs.
u Limited battery life on some devices.
v Concerns about job displacement due to automation.
w Limited regulation and legal framework for IoT, which can lead to confusion
and uncertainty.

Evolution of IoT Over the Years

With the rising adoption of the Internet of Things (IoT), the modern world is
becoming broader and faster in terms of connectivity. As we know, IoT refers to
the millions of physical devices that are connected to the internet and provides a
platform for every industry to foster innovation and productivity. Although the
technology is in its infant stage, the potential it holds for businesses is massive and
it represents the next evolution of the connected world where it won’t be remiss to
say that – “Interconnectedness is the new normal.”

A Timeline of IoT’s Evolution

The evolution of IoT as it stands today began just a few decades ago with the
development of ARPANET, the first connected network and the granddad of
today’s ‘Internet’. The history of IoT starts from here and follows a timeline
of milestone moments which we will chronicle below:

o 1982 – A graduate student in Carnegie Mellon University’s computer science

department wants to know if his department’s soda vending machine has cold
soda bottles but doesn’t want to go all the way there to check as the
 machine is quite a distance from his classroom. So, with the help of two
fellow students and a research engineer, he develops a code that can let
anyone on the university ARPANET monitor the status of the vending
machine; whether it has soda bottles and whether they are cold or not. The
evolution of IoT began here.
o 1989 – English computer scientist Tim Berners Lee proposes the
framework of the World Wide Web and lays the foundation of the Internet.
p 1990 – MIT’s John Romkey invents a toaster that can be turned on or off via
the Internet. It was connected to a computer as there was no Wi-Fi then, but
this toaster is considered to be the world’s first IoT device – the first ‘thing’
in the Internet of Things.
q 1993 – Quentin Stafford-Fraser and Paul Jardetzky from the University of
Cambridge build the Trojan Room Coffee Pot in their computer laboratory
where an image of its interior is uploaded to the building’s server thrice
every minute for people to check the level of coffee when they want a cup.
r 1999 – Current Executive Director of Auto-ID Labs at MIT, Kevin Ashton,
coins the term Internet of Things (IoT) in a presentation he makes at
Proctor & Gamble about linking RFIDs in their supply chain to the internet.
s 2003-2004 – The term IoT starts to be used widely in mainstream
publications like The Guardian and Scientific American.
t 2005 – The United Nations International Telecommunications Union
acknowledges the impact of IoT in its report.
u 2008 – The first IoT conference is held in Zurich, bringing together
researchers and practitioners from academia and industry to take part in the
sharing of knowledge. In the same year, the US National Intelligence
Council recognized IoT as one of the six disruptive civil technologies. The
Evolution of IoT gained popularity from this point onwards.
v 2011 – The Cisco Internet Business Solutions Group (CIBSG) announces
in their white paper that the true birth of IoT was between 2008 and 2009
where the number of things connected to the internet exceeded the number
of people connected to it.
w 2012 and beyond – Companies like Apple and Samsung make waves with
their smartphones, there is a proliferation of AI-powered personal assistants
like Google Home and Amazon Alexa, we all start to have devices that
control individual things in our home, all working in concert with our
computers and phones to share data and interact. Today, all our devices
work in tandem over the internet
Conclusion

The future seems ripe with a host of endless possibilities which only go to
show that the evolution of IoT and the growth of IoT technologies has gone past
the point of no return. Technology today not only pushes past barricades we
once thought insurmountable but also moves us towards a world where equal
access to the internet and its resulting technological marvels will be available to
everyone. IoT will continue to evolve in many ways which will amaze and
astound us, ultimately creating a truly limitless potential for everyone.

IoT Architectures: oneM2M, IoT World Forum (IoTWF)

The difference between IT and IoT networks is much like the difference between
residential architecture and stadium architecture. While traditional network architectures for
IT have served us well for many years, they are not well suited to the complex requirements
of IoT. Chapter 1, “What Is IoT?” introduces some of the differences between IT and OT, as
well as some of the inherent challenges posed by IoT. These differences and challenges are
driving fundamentally new architectures for IoT systems.

The key difference between IT and IoT is the data. While IT systems are mostly
concerned with reliable and continuous support of business applications such as email, web,
databases, CRM systems, and so on, IoT is all about the data generated by sensors and how
that data is used. The essence of IoT architectures thus involves how the data is transported,
collected, analyzed, and ultimately acted upon.

oneM2M IoT Standardized Architecture

In an effort to standardize the rapidly growing field of machine-to-machine (M2M)

communications, the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) created the
M2M Technical Committee in 2008. The goal of this committee was to create a common
architecture that would help accelerate the adoption of M2M applications and devices. Over
time, the scope has expanded to include the Internet of Things.

Other related bodies also began to create similar M2M architectures, and a common standard
for M2M became necessary. Recognizing this need, in 2012 ETSI and 13 other founding
members launched oneM2M as a global initiative designed to promote efficient M2M
communication systems and IoT. The goal of oneM2M is to create a common ser- vices
layer, which can be readily embedded in field devices to allow communication with
application servers.1 oneM2M’s framework focuses on IoT services, applications, and
platforms. These include smart metering applications, smart grid, smart city automation, e-
health, and connected vehicles.

One of the greatest challenges in designing an IoT architecture is dealing with the hetero-
geneity of devices, software, and access methods. By developing a horizontal platform
architecture, oneM2M is developing standards that allow interoperability at all levels of the
IoT stack.
OCS352 IOT CONCEPTS AND APPLICATIONS
Figure 1.3.1: The Main Elements of the oneM2M IoT Architecture

The oneM2M architecture divides IoT functions into three major domains: the application
layer, the services layer, and the network layer. While this architecture may seem simple and
somewhat generic at first glance, it is very rich and promotes interoperability through IT-
friendly APIs and supports a wide range of IoT technologies.

Applications layer: The oneM2M architecture gives major attention to connectivity between
devices and their applications. This domain includes the application-layer protocols and
attempts to standardize northbound API definitions for interaction with business intelligence
(BI) systems. Applications tend to be industry-specific and have their own sets of data
models, and thus they are shown as vertical entities.

Services layer: This layer is shown as a horizontal framework across the vertical industry
applications. At this layer, horizontal modules include the physical network that the IoT
applications run on, the underlying management protocols, and the hardware. Examples
include backhaul communications via cellular, MPLS networks, VPNs, and so on. Riding on
top is the common services layer. This conceptual layer adds APIs and middleware
supporting third-party services and applications. One of the stated goals of oneM2M is to
“develop technical specifications which address the need for a common M2M Service Layer
that can be readily embedded within various hardware and software nodes, and rely upon
connecting the myriad of devices in the field area network to M2M application servers, which
typically reside in a cloud or data center.”

Network layer: This is the communication domain for the IoT devices and end- points. It
includes the devices themselves and the communications network that links them.
Embodiments of this communications infrastructure include wireless mesh technologies, such
as IEEE 802.15.4, and wireless point-to-multipoint systems, such as IEEE 801.11ah.

OCS352 IOT CONCEPTS AND APPLICATIONS

The IoT World Forum (IoTWF) Standardized Architecture

In 2014 the IoTWF architectural committee (led by Cisco, IBM, Rockwell Automation, and
others) published a seven-layer IoT architectural reference model. While various IoT
reference models exist, the one put forth by the IoT World Forum offers a clean, simplified
perspective on IoT and includes edge computing, data storage, and access. It provides a
succinct way of visualizing IoT from a technical perspective. Each of the seven layers is
broken down into specific functions, and security encompasses the entire model.

Figure 1.3.2 IoT Reference Model Published by the IoT World Forum

In general, data travels up the stack, originating from the edge, and goes northbound to the
center. Using this reference model, we are able to achieve the following:

s Decompose the IoT problem into smaller parts

t Identify different technologies at each layer and how they relate to one another
u Define a system in which different parts can be provided by different vendors
v Have a process of defining interfaces that leads to interoperability
w Define a tiered security model that is enforced at the transition points between levels
Layer 1: Physical Devices and Controllers Layer

The first layer of the IoT Reference Model is the physical devices and controller’s layer. This
layer is home to the “things” in the Internet of Things, including the various endpoint devices
and sensors that send and receive information. The size of these “things” can range from
almost microscopic sensors to giant machines in a factory. Their primary function is
generating data and being capable of being queried and/or controlled over a network.

OCS352 IOT CONCEPTS AND APPLICATIONS

Layer 2: Connectivity Layer

In the second layer of the IoT Reference Model, the focus is on connectivity. The most
important function of this IoT layer is the reliable and timely transmission of data.
More specifically, this includes transmissions between Layer 1 devices and the network and
between the network and information processing that occurs at Layer 3 (the edge computing
layer).
As you may notice, the connectivity layer encompasses all networking elements of IoT and
doesn’t really distinguish between the last-mile network (the network between the
sensor/endpoint and the IoT gateway, discussed later in this chapter), gateway, and backhaul
networks.

Layer 3: Edge Computing Layer

Edge computing is the role of Layer 3. Edge computing is often referred to as the “fog” layer
and is discussed in the section “Fog Computing,” later in this chapter. At this layer, the
emphasis is on data reduction and converting network data flows into information that is
ready for storage and processing by higher layers. One of the basic principles of this
reference model is that information processing is initiated as early and as close to the edge of
the network as possible.

OCS352 IOT CONCEPTS AND APPLICATIONS

Layer 4: Data accumulation layer

Captures data and stores it so it is usable by applications when necessary. Converts event-
based data to query-based processing.

Layer 5: Data abstraction layer

Reconciles multiple data formats and ensures consistent semantics from various sources.
Confirms that the data set is complete and consolidates data into one place or multiple data
stores using virtualization.

Layer 6: Applications layer

Interprets data using software applications. Applications may monitor, control, and provide
reports based on the analysis of the data.

Layer 7: Collaboration and processes layer

Consumes and shares the application information. Collaborating on and communicating IoT
information often requires multiple steps, and it is what makes IoT useful. This layer can
change business processes and delivers the benefits of IoT.

Alternative IoT Models

In addition to the two IoT reference models already presented in this chapter, several other
reference models exist. These models are endorsed by various organizations and standards
bodies and are often specific to certain industries or IoT applications.

Purdue Model for Control Hierarchy

The Purdue Model for Control Hierarchy is a common and well-understood model that
segments devices and equipment into hierarchical levels and functions. It is used as the basis
for ISA-95 for control hierarchy, and in turn for the IEC- 62443 (formerly ISA-99) cyber
security standard. It has been used as a base for many IoT-related models and standards
across industry.

Industrial Internet Reference Architecture (IIRA) by Industrial Internet Consortium (IIC)

The IIRA is a standards-based open architecture for Industrial Internet Systems (IISs). To
maximize its value, the IIRA has broad industry applicability to drive interoperability, to map
applicable technologies, and to guide technology and standard development. The description
and representation of the architecture are generic and at a high level of abstraction to support
the requisite broad industry applicability. The IIRA distils and abstracts common
characteristics, features and patterns from use cases well understood at this time,
predominantly those that have been defined in the IIC.

OCS352 IOT CONCEPTS AND APPLICATIONS

Internet of Things– Architecture (IoT-A)

IoT-A created an IoT architectural reference model and defined an initial set of key building
blocks that are foundational in fostering the emerging Internet of Things. Using an
experimental para- digm, IoT-A combined top-down reasoning about architectural principles
and design guidelines with simulation and prototyping in exploring the technical
consequences of architectural design choices.

OCS352 IOT CONCEPTS AND APPLICATIONS

Simplified IoT Architecture and Core IoT Functional Stack

 we present an IoT framework that highlights the fundamental building blocks that are
common to most IoT systems and which is intended to help you in designing an IoT network.
This framework is presented as two parallel stacks: The IoT Data Management and Compute
Stack and the Core IoT Functional Stack. Reducing the framework down to a pair of three-
layer stacks in no way suggests that the model lacks the detail necessary to develop a
sophisticated IoT strategy. Rather, the intention is to simplify the IoT architecture into its
most basic building blocks and then to use it as a foundation to understand key design and
deployment principles that are applied to industry-specific use cases.

Figure 1.4.1 Simplified IoT Architecture

Nearly every published IoT model includes core layers similar to those shown on the
left side of Figure 1.4.1, including “things,” a communications network, and applications.
However, unlike other models, the framework presented here separates the core IoT and data
management into parallel and aligned stacks, allowing you to carefully examine the functions
of both the network and the applications at each stage of a complex IoT system. This
separation gives you better visibility into the functions of each layer. The presentation of the
Core IoT Functional Stack in three layers is meant to simplify your understanding of the IoT
architecture into its most foundational building blocks. Of course, such a simple architecture
needs to be expanded on. The network communications layer of the IoT stack itself involves
a significant amount of detail and incorporates a vast array of technologies. Consider for a
moment the heterogeneity of IoT sensors and the many different ways that exist to connect
them to a network. The network communications layer needs to consolidate these together,
offer gateway and backhaul technologies, and ultimately bring the data back to a central
location for analysis and processing.

The applications and analytics layer of IoT doesn't necessarily exist only in the data center or in
the cloud. Due to the unique challenges and requirements of IoT, it is often necessary to deploy
applications and data management throughout the architecture in a tiered approach, allowing data
collection, analytics, and intelligent controls at multiple points in the IoT system. In the model
presented in this book, data management is aligned with each of the three layers of the Core IoT
Functional Stack. The three data management layers are the edge layer (data management within
the sensors themselves), the fog layer (data management in the gateways and transit network),
and the cloud layer (data management in the cloud or central data center).

OCS352 IOT CONCEPTS AND APPLICATIONS

The Core IoT Functional Stack can be expanded into sublayers containing greater detail and
specific network functions. For example, the communications layer is broken down into four
separate sublayers: the access network, gateways and backhaul, IP transport, and operations
and management sublayers.
The applications layer of IoT networks is quite different from the application layer of a
typical enterprise network. Instead of simply using business applications, IoT often involves
a strong big data analytics component.

The Core IoT Functional Stack

IoT networks are built around the concept of “things,” or smart objects performing
functions and delivering new connected services. These objects are “smart” because they use
a combination of contextual information and configured goals to perform actions.
These actions can be self-contained (that is, the smart object does not rely on external
systems for its actions); however, in most cases, the “thing” interacts with an external system
to report information that the smart object collects, to exchange with other objects, or to
interact with a management platform.

x “Things” layer: At this layer, the physical devices need to fit the constraints of the
environment in which they are deployed while still being able to provide the
information needed.

y Communications network layer: When smart objects are not self-contained, they
need to communicate with an external system. In many cases, this communication
uses a wireless technology. This layer has four sublayers:
z Access network sublayer: The last mile of the IoT network is the access network.
This is typically made up of wireless technologies such as 802.11ah, 802.15.4g, and
LoRa. The sensors connected to the access network may also be wired.
aa Gateways and backhaul network sublayer: A common communication
system organizes multiple smart objects in a given area around a common gateway.
The gateway communicates directly with the smart objects. The role of the gateway is
to forward the collected information through a longer-range medium (called the
backhaul) to a headend central station where the information is processed. This
information exchange is a Layer 7 (application) function, which is the reason this
object is called a gateway. On IP networks, this gateway also forwards packets from
one IP network to another, and it therefore acts as a router.
bb Network transport sublayer: For communication to be successful, network
and transport layer protocols such as IP and UDP must be implemented to support the
variety of devices to connect and media to use.

cc IoT network management sublayer: Additional protocols must be in place

to allow the headend applications to exchange data with the sensors. Examples
include CoAP and MQTT.

dd Application and analytics layer: At the upper layer, an application needs to

process the collected data, not only to control the smart objects when necessary, but to
make intelligent decision based on the information collected and, in turn, instruct the
“things” or other systems to adapt to the analysed conditions and change their
behaviours or parameters.
Layer 1: Things: Sensors and Actuators Layer

Battery-powered or power-connected: This classification is based on whether the object

carries its own energy supply or receives continuous power from an external power source.
Battery-powered things can be moved more easily than line-powered objects. However,
batteries limit the lifetime and amount of energy that the object is allowed to consume, thus
driving transmission range and frequency.

Mobile or static: This classification is based on whether the “thing” should move or always
stay at the same location. A sensor may be mobile because it is moved from one object to
another (for example, a viscosity sensor moved from batch to batch in a chemical plant) or
because it is attached to a moving object (for example, a location sensor on moving goods in
a warehouse or factory floor). The frequency of the movement may also vary, from
occasional to permanent. The range of mobility (from a few inches to miles away) often
drives the possible power source.

Low or high reporting frequency: This classification is based on how often the object
should report monitored parameters. A rust sensor may report values once a month. A motion
sensor may report acceleration several hundred times per second.Higher frequencies drive
higher energy consumption, which may create constraints on the possible power source (and
therefore the object mobility) and the transmission range.

Simple or rich data: This classification is based on the quantity of data exchanged at each
report cycle. A humidity sensor in a field may report a simple daily index value (on a binary
scale from 0 to 255), while an engine sensor may report hundreds of parameters, from
temperature to pressure, gas velocity, compression speed, carbon index, and many others.
Richer data typically drives higher power consumption.
This classification is often combined with the previous to determine the object data
throughput (low throughput to high throughput). You may want to keep in mind that
throughput is a combined metric. A medium-throughput object may send simple data at
rather high frequency (in which case the flow structure looks continuous), or may send rich
data at rather low frequency (in which case the flow structure looks bursty).

Report range: This classification is based on the distance at which the gateway is located.
For example, for your fitness band to communicate with your phone, it needs to be located a
few meters away at most. The assumption is that your phone needs to be at visual distance for
you to consult the reported data on the phone screen. If the phone is far away, you typically
do not use it, and reporting data from the band to the phone is not necessary. By contrast, a
moisture sensor in the asphalt of a road may need to communicate with its reader several
hundred meters or even kilometers away.

Object density per cell: This classification is based on the number of smart objects (with a
similar need to communicate) over a given area, connected to the same gate- way. An oil
pipeline may utilize a single sensor at key locations every few miles. By contrast, telescopes
like the SETI Colossus telescope at the Whipple Observatory deploy hundreds, and
sometimes thousands, of mirrors over a small area, each with multiple gyroscopes, gravity,
and vibration sensors.

OCS352 IOT CONCEPTS AND APPLICATIONS

Layer 2: Communications Network Layer

Access Network Sublayer

There is a direct relationship between the IoT network technology you choose and the type of
connectivity topology this technology allows. Each technology was designed with a certain
number of use cases in mind (what to connect, where to connect, how much data to transport
at what interval and over what distance). These use cases deter- mined the frequency band
that was expected to be most suitable, the frame structure matching the expected data pattern
(packet size and communication intervals), and the possible topologies that these use cases
illustrate.

As IoT continues to grow exponentially, you will encounter a wide variety of applications
and special use cases. For each of them, an access technology will be required. IoT
sometimes reuses existing access technologies whose characteristics match more or less
closely the IoT use case requirements. Whereas some access technologies were developed
specifically for IoT use cases, others were not.

PAN (personal area network): Scale of a few meters. This is the personal space around a
person. A common wireless technology for this scale is Bluetooth.

HAN (home area network): Scale of a few tens of meters. At this scale, common wireless
technologies for IoT include ZigBee and Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE).

NAN (neighborhood area network): Scale of a few hundreds of meters. The term NAN is
often used to refer to a group of house units from which data is collected.

FAN (field area network): Scale of several tens of meters to several hundred meters.
FAN typically refers to an outdoor area larger than a single group of house units.

OCS352 IOT CONCEPTS AND APPLICATIONS

The FAN is often seen as “open space” (and therefore not secured and not controlled). A
FAN is sometimes viewed as a group of NANs, but some verticals see the FAN as a group of
HANs or a group of smaller outdoor cells. As you can see, FAN and NAN may sometimes be
used interchangeably.

LAN (local area network): Scale of up to 100 m. This term is very common in net- working,
and it is therefore also commonly used in the IoT space when standard net- working
technologies (such as Ethernet or IEEE 802.11) are used. Other networking classifications,
such as MAN (metropolitan area network, with a range of up to a few kilometre’s) and WAN
(wide area network, with a range of more than a few kilometre’s), are also commonly used.

Point-to-point topologies: These topologies allow one point to communicate with another
point. This topology in its strictest sense is uncommon for IoT access, as it would imply that
a single object can communicate only with a single gateway.
However, several technologies are referred to as “point-to-point” when each object
establishes an individual session with the gateway. The “point-to-point” concept, in that case,
often refers to the communication structure more than the physical topology.

Point-to-multipoint topologies: These topologies allow one point to communicate with

more than one other point. Most IoT technologies where one or more than one gateways
communicate with multiple smart objects are in this category. However, depending on the
features available on each communicating mode, several subtypes need to be considered. A
particularity of IoT networks is that some nodes (for example, sensors) support both data
collection and forwarding functions, while some other nodes (for example, some gateways)
collect the smart object data, sometimes instruct the sensor to perform specific operations,
and also interface with other net- works or possibly other gateways.

Gateways and Backhaul Sublayer

Data collected from a smart object may need to be forwarded to a central station where data
is processed. As this station is often in a different location from the smart object, data directly
received from the sensor through an access technology needs to be forwarded to another
medium (the backhaul) and transported to the central station. The gateway is in charge of this
inter-medium communication.

Network Transport Sublayer

The previous section describes a hierarchical communication architecture in which a series of
smart objects report to a gateway that conveys the reported data over another medium and up
to a central station. However, practical implementations are often flexible, with multiple
transversal communication paths. For example, consider the case of IoT for the energy grid.
Your house may have a meter that reports the energy consumption to a gateway over a
wireless technology. Other houses in your neighbourhood (NAN) make the same report,
likely to one or several gateways. The data to be transported is small and the interval is large
(for example, four times per hour), resulting in a low- mobility, low-throughput type of data
structure, with transmission distances up to a mile.
Several technologies (such as 802.11ah, 802.15.4, or LPWA) can be used for this collection
segment. Other neighbourhoods may also connect the same way, thus forming a FAN.

OCS352 IOT CONCEPTS AND APPLICATIONS

Layer 3: Applications and Analytics Layer

Analytics Versus Control Applications

Analytics application: This type of application collects data from multiple smart objects,
processes the collected data, and displays information resulting from the data that was
processed. The display can be about any aspect of the IoT network, from historical reports,
statistics, or trends to individual system states. The important aspect is that the application
processes the data to convey a view of the network that cannot be obtained from solely
looking at the information displayed by a single smart object.

Control application: This type of application controls the behaviour of the smart object or
the behaviour of an object related to the smart object. For example, a pressure sensor may be
connected to a pump. A control application increases the pump speed when the connected
sensor detects a drop in pressure. Control applications are very useful for controlling complex
aspects of an IoT network with a logic that cannot be programmed inside a single IoT object,
either because the configured changes are too complex to fit into the local system or because
the configured changes rely on parameters that include elements outside the IoT object.

Data Versus Network Analytics

Analytics is a general term that describes processing information to make sense of collected
data. In the world of IoT, a possible classification of the analytics function is as follows:

Data analytics: This type of analytics processes the data collected by smart objects and
combines it to provide an intelligent view related to the IoT system. At a very basic level, a
dashboard can display an alarm when a weight sensor detects that a shelf is empty in a store.
In a more complex case, temperature, pressure, wind, humidity, and light levels collected
from thousands of sensors may be combined and then processed to determine the likelihood
of a storm and its possible path. In this case, data processing can be very complex and may
combine multiple changing values over complex algorithms. Data analytics can also monitor
the IoT system itself.
For example, a machine or robot in a factory can report data about its own movements. This
data can be used by an analytics application to report degradation in the movement speeds,
which may be indicative of a need to service the robot before a part breaks.

Network analytics: Most IoT systems are built around smart objects connected to the network. A
loss or degradation in connectivity is likely to affect the efficiency of the system. Such a loss can
have dramatic effects. For example, open mines use wireless networks to automatically pilot
dump trucks. A lasting loss of connectivity may result in an accident or degradation of operations
efficiency (automated dump trucks typically stop upon connectivity loss).
 Fog, Edge and Cloud in IoT

Fog Computing

The solution to the challenges in IoT is to distribute data management throughout the IoT system, as
close to the edge of the IP network as possible. The best-known embodiment of edge services in IoT is
fog computing. Any device with computing, storage, and network connectivity can be a fog node.
Examples include industrial controllers, switches, routers, embedded servers, and IoT gateways.
Analyzing IoT data close to where it is collected minimizes latency, offloads gigabytes of network
traffic from the core network, and keeps sensitive data inside the local network.

Fog services are typically accomplished very close to the edge device, sitting as close to the IoT
endpoints as possible. One significant advantage of this is that the fog node has contextual awareness of
the sensors it is managing because of its geographic proximity to those sensors. For example, there
might be a fog router on an oil derrick that is monitoring all the sensor activity at that location. Because
the fog node is able to analyze information from all the sensors on that derrick, it can provide contextual
analysis of the messages it is receiving and may decide to send back only the relevant information over
the backhaul network to the cloud. In this way, it is performing distributed analytics such that the
volume of data sent upstream is greatly reduced and is much more useful to application and analytics
servers residing in the cloud.

CEC368 IOT BASED SYSTEMS DESIGN

 Fig.1.3 Fog computing

The defining characteristic of fog computing are as follows:

Contextual location awareness and low latency: The fog node sits as close to the IoT endpoint as
possible to deliver distributed computing.

Geographic distribution: In sharp contrast to the more centralized cloud, the services and applications
targeted by the fog nodes demand widely distributed deployments.
Deployment near IoT endpoints: Fog nodes are typically deployed in the presence of a large number
of IoT endpoints. For example, typical metering deployments often see 3000 to 4000 nodes per gateway
router, which also functions as the fog computing node.
Wireless communication between the fog and the IoT endpoint: Although it is possible to connect
wired nodes, the advantages of fog are greatest when dealing with a large number of endpoints, and
wireless access is the easiest way to achieve such scale.

Use for real-time interactions: Important fog applications involve real-time interactions rather than
CEC368 IOT BASED SYSTEMS DESIGN
batch processing. Pre-processing of data in the fog nodes allows upper-layer applications to perform
batch processing on a subset of the data.

Advantages of fog computing in IoT

The fogging approach has many benefits for the Internet of Things, Big Data, and real-time
analytics. The main advantages of fog computing over cloud computing are as follows:

ee Low latency - Fog tends to be closer to users and can provide a quicker response.

q There is no problem with bandwidth - pieces of information are aggregated at separate

points rather than sent through a channel to a single hub.
q Due to the many interconnected channels - loss of connection is impossible.

q High Security - because the data is processed by multiple nodes in a complex distributed
system.
u Improved User Experience - Quick responses and no downtime make users satisfied.

r Power-efficiency - Edge nodes run power-efficient protocols such as Bluetooth, Zigbee,

or Z-Wave.

Disadvantages of fog computing in IoT

The technology has no obvious disadvantages, but some shortcomings can be named:

r Fog is an additional layer in a more complex system - a data processing and storage
system.
x Additional expenses - companies must buy edge devices: routers, hubs, gateways.
p Limited scalability - Fog is not scalable like a cloud.

CEC368 IOT BASED SYSTEMS DESIGN

Edge Computing

Fog computing solutions are being adopted by many industries, and efforts to develop distributed
applications and analytics tools are being introduced at an accelerating pace. The natural place for a
fog node is in the network device that sits closest to the IoT endpoints, and these nodes are typically
spread throughout an IoT network. However, in recent years, the concept of IoT computing has been
pushed even further to the edge, and in some cases it now resides directly in the sensors and IoT
devices.
Some new classes of IoT endpoints have enough compute capabilities to perform at least
low-level analytics and filtering to make basic decisions. For example, consider a water sensor
on a fire hydrant. While a fog node sitting on an electrical pole in the distribution network may
have an excellent view of all the fire hydrants in a local neighborhood, a node on each hydrant
would have clear view of a water pressure drop on its own line and would be able to quickly
generate an alert of a localized problem.

Another example is in the use of smart meters. Edge compute–capable meters are able to
communicate with each other to share information on small subsets of the electrical distribution
grid to monitor localized power quality and consumption, and they can inform fog node of events
that may pertain to only tiny sections of the grid. Models such as these help ensure the highest
quality of power delivery to customers.

Cloud computing

The delivery of on-demand computing services is known as cloud computing. We may use
applications to store and process power over the Internet. Without owning any computing
infrastructure or data center, anyone can rent access to anything from applications to storage
from a cloud service provider.It is a pay-as-you-go service.By using cloud computing services
and paying for what we use, we can avoid the complexity of owning and maintaining
infrastructure. Cloud computing service providers can benefit from significant economies of
scale by providing similar services to customers.

Cloud computing technology provides a variety of services that are classified into three groups:

CEC368 IOT BASED SYSTEMS DESIGN

 x IaaS (Infrastructure as a Service) - A remote data center with data storage capacity,
processing power, and networking resources.

o PaaS (Platform as a Service) - A development platform with tools and components to

build, test, and launch applications.
o SaaS (Software as a Service) - Software tailored to suit various business needs.

By connecting your company to the Cloud, you can access the services mentioned above from
any location and through various devices.

Therefore, availability is the biggest advantage. Plus, there's no need to maintain local servers
and worry about downtimes - the vendor supports everything for you, saving you money.

Integrating the Internet of Things with the Cloud is an affordable way to do business. Off-
premises services provide the scalability and flexibility needed to manage and analyze data
collected by connected devices. At the same time, specialized platforms (e.g., Azure IoT Suite,
IBM Watson, AWS, and Google Cloud IoT) give developers the power to build IoT apps
without major investments in hardware and software.

Advantages of Cloud for IoT

Since connected devices have limited storage capacity and processing power, integration with
cloud computing comes to the aid of:

o Improved performance - faster communication between IoT sensors and data

processing systems.
o Storage Capacity - Highly scalable and unlimited storage space can integrate, aggregate,
and share huge data.
o Processing Capabilities - Remote data centers provide unlimited virtual processing
capabilities on demand.
o Low Cost - The license fee is less than the cost of on-premises equipment and its ongoing
maintenance.

CEC368 IOT BASED SYSTEMS DESIGN

Disadvantages of Cloud for IoT

Unfortunately, nothing is spotless, and cloud technology has some drawbacks, especially for
Internet of Things services.

o High latency - More and more IoT apps require very low latency, but the Cloud cannot
guarantee this due to the distance between client devices and data processing centers.

o Downtimes - Technical issues and network interruptions can occur in any Internet-based
system and cause customers to suffer from outages; Many companies use multiple
connection channels with automatic failover to avoid problems.

o Security and Privacy - your data is transferred via globally connected channels along
with thousands of gigabytes of other users' information; No wonder the system is
vulnerable to cyber-attacks or data loss; the problem can be partially solved with the help
of hybrid or private clouds.

Difference between Fog Computing and Cloud Computing:

o In fog computing, data is received from IoT devices using any protocol.
o Cloud computing receives and summarizes data from different fog nodes.

Structure:
o Fog has a decentralized architecture where information is located on different nodes at
the source closest to the user.
o There are many centralized data centers in the Cloud, making it difficult for users to
access information on the networking area at their nearest source.

Protection:
o Fog is a more secure system with different protocols and standards, which minimizes the
chances of it collapsing during networking.
o As the Cloud operates on the Internet, it is more likely to collapse in case of unknown
network connections.

CEC368 IOT BASED SYSTEMS DESIGN

Component:
o Fog has some additional features in addition to the features provided by the components
of the Cloud that enhance its storage and performance at the end gateway.
o Cloud has different parts such as frontend platform (e.g., mobile device), backend
platform (storage and servers), cloud delivery, and network (Internet, intranet,
intercloud).

Accountability:

o Here, the system's response time is relatively higher compared to the Cloud as fogging
separates the data and then sends it to the Cloud.
o Cloud service does not provide any isolation in the data while transmitting the data at the
gate, increasing the load and thus making the system less responsive.

Application:
o Edge computing can be used for smart city traffic management, automating smart
buildings, visual Security, self-maintenance trains, wireless sensor networks, etc.
o Cloud computing can be applied to e-commerce software, word processing, online file
storage, web applications, creating image albums, various applications, etc.

Reduces latency:

o Fog computing cascades system failure by reducing latency in operation. It analyzes the
data close to the device and helps in averting any disaster.

Flexibility in Network Bandwidth:

o Large amounts of data are transferred from hundreds or thousands of edge devices to the
Cloud, requiring fog-scale processing and storage.
o For example, commercial jets generate 10 TB for every 30 minutes of flight. Fog
computing sends selected data to the cloud for historical analysis and long-term storage.

Wide geographic reach:

o Fog computing provides better quality of services by processing data from devices that
are also deployed in areas with high network density.

CEC368 IOT BASED SYSTEMS DESIGN

 o On the other hand, Cloud servers communicate only with IP and not with the endless
other protocols used by IoT devices.

Real-time analysis:

o Fog computing analyzes the most time-sensitive data and operates on the data in less than
a second, whereas cloud computing does not provide round-the-clock technical support.

Operating Expenses:

o The license fee and on-premises maintenance for cloud computing are lower than fog
computing. Companies have to buy edge device routers.

Fog Computing vs. Cloud Computing for IoT

According to Statista, by 2020, there will be 30 billion IoT devices worldwide, and by 2025 this
number will exceed 75 billion connected things.

These tools will produce huge amounts of data that will have to be processed quickly and
permanently. Fog computing works similarly to cloud computing to meet the growing demand
for IoT solutions.

CEC368 IOT BASED SYSTEMS DESIGN